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REV. GEORGE A. SHAW. 



Madagascar # France 



WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF 

THE ISLAND, ITS PEOPLE, ITS RESOURCES 
AND DEVELOPMENT. 



GEORGE A. SHAW, F. Z. S., 

LONDON MISSION, TAMATAVE. 



WITH A MAP, AND MANY ILLUSTRATIONS FROM ORIGINAL 
SKETCHES AND PHOTOGRAPHS. 



AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY, 

150 NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK. 




CHAP. PAGE. 

/. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLAND . 13 

II MALAGASY CIVILIZATION 29 

HZ ORIGIN OF THE MALAGASY. . 63 

IV. ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR 

FROM 1643 TO 1814 80 



V. THE RECENT FRENCH CLAIMS . . . .117 
VI. THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE ... 137 

VII. THE BEGINNING OF HOSTILITIES . . .171 
VIII THE FRENCH ULTIMATUM . 1S7 

IX. EFFECT OF THE ULTIMATUM IN ANTANA- 



NARIVO 202 

X. BOMBARDMENT OF TAMA TAVE . . . 220 

XI. ACCESSION OF RANAVALONA III. . . ,255 

XII. PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE OF 

THE MALAGASY 2S9 

XIII. THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR . . . 344 

XIV. THE FLORA OF MADAGASCAR . . . . 396 

XV. METEOROLOGY 433 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



MAP OF MADAGASCAR Front. 

PORTRAIT OF MR. SHAW Frontispiece. 

TAMA TAVE 9 

SAKALA VA MEN AND BOATS 19 

PALANQUINS 31 

GROUP OF HOVAS 53 

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 61 

INLAND VILLAGE rjj 

MADAGASCAR EMBASSY i J9 

ROYAL STREET, TAMATAVE 175 

RAINANDRIAMAMPANDRY 1S9 

ANTANANARIVO 203 

QUEENS PALACE 257 

ROYAL TOMBS, AMBOHIMANGA 265 

RANAVALONA III. 274 

MALAGASY CRIMINAL 303 

TOMBS OF EARLY MISSIONARIES ... 309 

AMBA TONAKANGA CHURCH 317 

CHURCH OF THE OLD STYLE 323 

TRA VELLERS' TREE 399 

PITCHER PLANT 425 



PREFACE. 



For the past two years the English popular 
feeling has been more or less aroused by the 
accounts which have from time to time been 
brought to this country relative to French aggres- 
sion in the island of Madagascar. A great deal 
of indignation was expressed on the receipt of 
the first news of the high-handed action of the 
civilized nation towards the comparatively weak, 
but singularly interesting people; and that feel- 
ing, though dormant, strongly tinges the deep 
sense of sorrow and pity felt in this country for 
those who a few years ago were heathen barba- 
rians, but who have so quickly struggled through 
the dense cloud of superstition oppressing them 
into the true light of Christian civilization. 
These mixed feelings are flavored with no incon- 
siderable amount of surprise and astonishment, 
both at the lame and paltry claims put forward 
by France to justify the present course of action, 
and at the apparent indifference of the French 
people to comprehend them. 

Meanwhile it is found, on inquiry, that really 



6 



PREFACE. 



nothing has been done during these two years to 
ultimately settle the question. Mission work has 
been upset, trade has been stopped or hindered, 
neutral merchants have been ruined, property 
has been destroyed, money squandered, and lives 
lost, and yet no advance has been made towards 
peace. The conduct of the Malagasy, however, 
must have excited the strongest admiration in 
the minds of all who have followed the history of 
recent events. They have shown themselves de- 
termined patriots, clear-headed politicians, good 
soldiers, and conscientious Christians. In their 
dossed determination to resist to the last and 
their indifference to the hardships of the cam- 
paign, in their watchfulness in the trenches and 
bravery in meeting death, they have called forth 
the encomium even of those who have seen 
active service in other parts of the world; while 
their practical Christianity and faithfulness under 
the trying dispensation of Providence have com- 
pletely silenced those detractors who prophesied 
that at the first breath of calamity the Malagasy 
Christians would revert to their ancient idolatry 
and superstition. 

At the same time the Government has retained 
its hold on all the tribes, making its arm felt in 
quelling rebellion and enforcing the laws of the 
country in the extreme points of its dominion. 



PREFACE. 



7 



Reports from the scene of action are, as might 
be expected, very contradictory. On the one 
side we hear of French reconnaissances, in which 
the enemy have been routed with great loss, with 
only a trifling casualty on the part of the inva- 
ders; while from the other camp we hear that 
again and again the attacking party has been 
repulsed with heavy losses, the injury suffered by 
the Malagasy being insignificant. 

While there has apparently been no successful 
endeavor made to present the facts to the French 
* people, their ears have been continually regaled 
with reminders of the "ancient rights of France 
in Madagascar." What these " rights" were was 
never very definitely stated till July last, when, 
in a report of the Committee of the Chamber of 
Deputies, on the bill for granting extraordinary 
expenses connected with the expedition to Mad- 
agascar, it was asserted, on page 2, that "since 
1642, the date at which Richelieu granted to the 
naval captain Rigault the concession for ten 
years of the island of Madagascar and the adja- 
cent islands, France has never ceased to claim 
possession of Madagascar, and that the claim has 
never been disputed by any European power." 

An endeavor is made in the following pages 
not only to set forth a true historical sketch of 
the connection of France with Madagascar from 



8 



PREFACE. 



the earliest times to the present, by which it will 
be seen how little claim the former has to the 
island or to the sympathies of its inhabitants, but 
also to answer various questions which are arising 
in the minds of many with regard to the country, 
its products and adaptability for foreign enter- 
prise and commerce; and its people, their char- 
acter, habits, employments, and advance in civil- 
ization and Christianity. 

My connection, as a missionary of the London 
Missionary Society, with Madagascar, for nearly 
fourteen years, has enabled me to see and fully 
appreciate the huge leaps which have been made 
by these people in the scale of Christian civiliza- 
tion, and I have endeavored to give in the fol- 
lowing pages an impartial statement. If an 
undue leaning towards the Malagasy does occa- 
sionally exhibit itself, it must be placed to the 
account of the love which one is sure to acquire 
for those for whom one has been called upon to 
labor, and especially if that labor has not been 
all pleasant. 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLAND. 

The East Coast Tribe. The Betsimisaraka. Intermixture of 
Tribes. Lagoons, advantage for inter-communication. No 
River Mouths. Harbors. Tamatave. Andovoranto. Ivon- 
drona. Harbors north of Tamatave. Rivers as a means of 
Internal Communication. Canoes for the River Navigation, 
for Sea-going Purposes. The Towns. Fort at Tamatave. 
The Hova Soldiers' Quarters. Houses. Fires. No Public 
Works. The Soil. The Land Question as affecting the For- 
eign Capitalist. 

Madagascar, one of the largest islands in 
the world, being about 970 miles long by 300 
wide, consists physically of three zones. Around 
the coast is a low-lying, comparatively flat tract, 
extending some 30 or 40 miles inland on the east, 
but somewhat more extensive on the south and 
west. Inland of this is a zone of forest land, cov- 
ering the mountainous sides of the central table- 
land, and varying in width from a few miles on 
the west to 40 or 50 miles in its broadest part on 
the northeast. This belt is also not quite contin- 



12 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



uous on the western side of the island, but is 
broken into patches with open country between. 

Above and beyond the forest region is a moun- 
tainous plateau at a height of 3,000 or 4,000 feet 
above the level of the sea, bearing upon its sur- 
face mountains rising 4,000 or 5,000 feet higher, 
formed into chains running from north to south 
and composed chiefly of granite, gneiss, and quartz 
imbedded in a hard red soil very much resembling 
clay. Generally speaking, the appearance of this 
table-land is desolate; few trees are seen, and ex- 
cept round the centres of population where there 
is cultivation, and in the kloofs between the 
mountains, the country is bare or only covered 
with a rough brown grass. "There is, however, 
an element of grandeur in the landscape, from 
the great extent of country visible from many 
points in the clear pure atmosphere, which ren- 
ders very distant objects wonderfully sharp and 
distinct."* 

Politically, there are 22 tribes and provincial 
divisions in the island, each formerly governed by 
its own chiefs, but now, in a greater or lesser de- 
gree, acknowledging the supremacy of the Hovas.f 

With perhaps the exception of the Sakalava 
on the west coast of Madagascar, the Betsimisara- 

* " Great African Island," by the Rev. J. Sibree, p. 23. 
f The tribe living in the central province of the island, called 
Imerina, in which is the capital Antananarivo. 



GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLAND. 13 

ka occupy the largest extent of the coast line of 
this great island. On the eastern side, from about 
the 14th to the 20th degree of south latitude, the 
entire seaboard was under the authority of this 
tribe before the time of their conquest by the 
Hovas. The western boundary is not so easily 
determined, and in the complete absence of all 
written history, tradition is of little value, espe- 
cially in marking the boundary between tribes so 
nearly related, and at the same time subdivided 
into so many chieftaincies, as the Betsimisaraka, 
the Tanala, Taimoro, etc. Besides this, portions 
of one tribe have insinuated themselves into the 
territory of their neighbors, and have been al- 
lowed to select an unoccupied spot and build a 
town or village quite in the heart of another 
province. Such is Tetezamalama, about five 
miles west of Tamatave, the people of which be- 
long to a tribe south of the Betsimisaraka and a 
hundred miles distant from the town. Ivatoman- 
dry, a port in the south, is inhabited by people 
from two tribes. I think, however, it is correct 
to say that, roughly speaking, the western boun- 
dary of the Betsimisaraka is the forest on the 
slopes of the hill rising to the central table-land 
of the island. Admitting this to be so, the Bet- 
simisaraka country would have a length of 360 
and an average breadth of 25 or 30 miles. 



14 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

Nearly the whole of this territory is a flat, 
well- watered, and highly-fertile country, the lux- 
uriant highly-tropical vegatation offering a stri- 
king contrast to the more sterile and rocky pla- 
teau of the central provinces. The most re- 
markable physical feature of the district is the 
succession of large fresh-water lagoons, which 
extend for one or two hundred miles along the 
coast, separated from the sea in some instances 
by a very narrow strip of sand. Here and there 
the sand is broken away towards the sea, forming 
an outlet for the rivers which supply these la- 
goons, but too shallow to be of any commercial 
utility. Generally speaking, but a small tract of 
land separates one lagoon from the next, and I 
imagine that a comparatively trifling outlay, with 
some engineering skill, would suffice to connect 
these lakes by navigable canals. Thus would be 
formed a continuous, safe, and convenient means 
of communication between some of the chief ports 
on the east coast, which are now with difficulty 
reached from the sea, and the transport between 
which overland is expensive, irregular, and unre- 
liable. The lakes on the whole are fairly deep, 
and barges of light draught could at all seasons 
of the year pass from end to end in perfect safety, 
although the sea at the same time might be rough 
and even impracticable for the ordinary coasting 



GENERAL DESCRIPTION OE THE ISLAND. 15 

schooners. If this work is ever accomplished, it 
will be done by foreign enterprise and money, for 
it is not the policy of the native Government to 
make the internal communications of the island 
any better for the foreign merchant. 

Although the district is well watered by broad, 
fine-looking rivers, not one of them is navigable 
from the sea. Every opening on the east coast, 
south of but not including Tamatave, is blocked 
with sand, which forms an impassable barrier for 
any vessels except whale-boats, decked and used 
as lighters, and built sufficiently strong to be un- 
injured by the inevitable bumping on the bar 
which they are sure to experience. 

Tamatave harbor is protected from this great 
drawback by a long reef which joins the shore on 
the south and stretches away towards the north 
for three or four miles, having a deep though 
narrow opening in the centre, opposite to which 
the town is built. Some efforts have been made 
to cut an entrance through the bar at Andovoran- 
to, by means of which small craft might enter 
the river and find good and safe anchorage; but 
up to the present time no great progress has been 
made. Could a permanent entrance of sufficient 
depth be formed and kept clear, a first-class har- 
bor would be found inside, and merchandise 
could be transported by boats or canoes up the 



l6 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

river, as far as Maromby, thus saving nearly one- 
third of the distance to the capital. 

Very much the same may be said for the bar 
and river of Ivondrona, on the banks of which 
are two or three sugar-making establishments — 
the largest in the island — the great desideratum 
of these being an easy and cheap transport from 
Ivondrona to Tamatave or Mauritius. The sugar 
from these mills can be carried by water at very 
little expense to Ivondrona, at the mouth of the 
river; but there all water communication ceases, 
from the causes already mentioned; and the bags 
of sugar have to be carried on men's shoulders, a 
process both expensive and slow. A few bullock 
carts are used, but the want of any pretence of a 
road renders this course only a slight improve- 
ment upon the system of bearers. 

To the north of Tamatave are two or three 
harbors not suffering from the drawback men- 
tioned, but they are only small; and the trade has 
been diverted to Tamatave for all vessels of any 
considerable size. Hence the towns situated near 
are but insignificant commercially. Among these 
are Fenoarivo and Mahambo, both of which have 
harbors that are formed by projecting rocks, but 
are intricate and in no small measure dangerous. 
It is said, however, that soon after the Hova con- 
quest the latter town surpassed Tamatave in the 



GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLAND. I J 

number of shipping that visited it. Probably 
these two ports being the nearest to the Sihanaka 
country north of the capital on the table-land, 
and which has always been the great source of 
the supply of bullocks to this coast, increased 
their importance, even if it is not true to say it 
was the cause of their existence as ports. 

Schooners anchor off Antsiraka (Point Laree), 
the port for Isoanerana (Ivongo), as under the lee 
of the French Island of St. Mary a considerable 
shelter is found from the prevailing south-east 
winds. But this is a port of no great importance. 
The same may be said of Mananara (Manahar), 
the port for Isoavinarivo, where schooners can 
anchor under cover of the point. In both these 
places the cargo has to be landed through the 
surf, which fortunately is not very great in either 
place. 

At Maroantsetra vessels of large sise can an- 
chor, but the harbor is rendered insecure from the 
heavy squalls which so frequently visit it. These 
are caused doubtless by the height of the land on 
the eastern side, down the slopes of which the 
wind rushes with considerable violence, even in 
the winter months, when in other parts along the 
coast there is a steady south-east trade- wind. 

At Ngontsy and Sambava the same obstacles 
are found as render the more southern ports places 

Madagascar and France. 2 



iS MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

of difficulty and danger for those engaged in land- 
ing and loading cargo, and the rivers in the north- 
east are just as valueless as a means of communi- 
cation with the sea as those already referred to at 
Ivondrona and Andovoranto. 

But as a means of internal communication 
the natives are alive to the importance of their 
rivers, and a considerable amount of traffic daily 
passes up and down them. Foreigners also have 
not been slow to appreciate the advantages of 
establishing their plantations, etc., on the banks 
of the really fine rivers with which the province 
abounds. The communication is carried on al- 
most entirely by canoes formed by hollowing out 
large trees, and bending them into convenient 
shape by means of thongs and stakes, and firing 
the inside, to cause them to retain the shape thus 
temporarily given. No outrigger is used, and no 
keel is attached, yet notwithstanding the crazy 
nature of these craft and their unsteadiness on the 
water, very few accidents occur in proportion to 
the number of persons daily employing them. 
Several seats, according to the length of the canoe, 
are placed across at intervals, on which the voy- 
agers sit as they propel the canoe forward by 
means of paddles shaped like a spade, a longer 
one of the same shape being used to steer with. 
In crossing the mouths of some of the larger rivers 




SAKALAVA PEOPLE AND BOAT. 



GENERAL DESCRIPTION OE THE ISLAND. 21 

oars are used, but they are not common. The 
canoes for use in the harbors and in Antongil 
Bay are sometimes fitted with a false keel, and the 
sides are supplemented by one or two planks, 
nailed to ribs fixed inside the hollowed tree, thus 
rendering them more serviceable and safe on the 
rougher water of the sea. In these oars are used, 
with a long steering oar. Sails, also, are often 
employed, under which, considering the rough- 
and-ready style of making the hull, they behave 
very well. 

On the northwest coast the Sakalavas, etc., 
put an outrigger on their canoes, and are far bet- 
ter navigators than those on the east coast. In 
the southeast the people build boats by tying the 
planks together, using the thwarts as ribs, and 
filling the holes made for the entrance of the 
thongs with wooden pegs. In Antongil Bay I 
found a native engaged in boat-building. With 
several men who had been taught by a foreigner 
he had already built several schooners for the 
coasting trade, and at the time of my visit had 
another in process of construction. These were 
made of native wood cut in the adjacent forest, 
and appeared to be good and really well-built ves- 
sels. 

Most of the towns occupied by the Hovas are 
more or less fortified, and, as far as the character 



22 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



of the ground will allow, are built upon the most 
elevated spots. These have doubtless been cho- 
sen not only because they are more easily defend- 
ed, but because, from their height above the 
marshes, they are less subject to malaria, from 
which arises the fever that proves so deadly to the 
Hovas who have lived only in the more temper- 
ate climate of the central plateau. In some parts 
along the coast, however, this selection has proved, 
from the nature of the ground, altogether impos- 
sible; while in others the Hova town and fortress 
are some miles from the port and custom-house, 
which presumably they were destined to defend. 

Their defences consist of rough and very infe- 
rior imitations of the fort at Tamatave, which, if 
properly mounted and garrisoned, would prove a 
powerful defence. It consists of a circular wall 
of coral and lime about 1 8 or 20 feet thick at the 
base. The upper part is hollow, forming a gal- 
lery throughout its entire length, with here and 
there embrasures for cannon. Stone steps on the 
inner side lead downward to the interior court- 
yard and upward to the top of the wall, which is 
protected on the outer side by a parapet breast 
high. The wall, which is about 20 feet high, 
incloses a courtyard 50 or 60 yards in diameter. 
This is entered by two crooked entrances, closed 
by three wooden doors in each. In the central 



GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLAND. 23 



inclosure stand the magazine and residences of 
the governor and his family. Outside the stone 
wall is an earthwork 15 feet in height, and sep- 
arated by about 10 feet from the stone wall, thus 
forming a kind of fosse between. Large gate- 
ways, corresponding to the outer gateways in the 
stone wall, afford the means of entrance and exit. 
The fort and earthwork were both defended by 
cannon mounted on wooden carriages or on wood- 
en pivots. But not only were the cannon old and 
probably useless, but the soldiers who were ex- 
pected to defend the place never had any more 
practice than was obtained from the firing of sa- 
lutes. Even then it was no uncommon occurrence 
for the pieces to rebound out of their high stands, 
requiring the labor of a number of men to replace 
them before the salute could be continued. 

Other forts along the coast were much worse 
off than this, and in one I have even seen a wood- 
en cannon mounted in all solemnity in company 
with its almost equally useless companions, whose 
serious work was completed 70 or 80 years ago. 
Other so-called forts consist of stockades in imita- 
tion of that around the palace in Antananarivo, 
consisting of spiked poles and defended by at the 
most one or two field guns. Of this character are 
the Hova stations at Maroantsetra, Ivongo, Maha- 
noro, Ivatomandry, and Mananjara; while at Fe- 



24 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

noarivo and Mahambo attempts have been made 
to imitate that at Tamatave, which is said to have 
been built by Portuguese. 

Soldiers who have been drafted for the defence 
of these places are Hovas, whose duty has been 
considered their share of the enforced Government 
service to which all the Malagasy are subject. 
Their houses are inclosed within a stockade simi- 
lar to that described above, and none but soldiers 
are allowed to build or live within that inclosure: 
so that every Hova town on the coast is divided 
into three parts — the fort, or rova, in which none 
but the governor and his family live, the soldiers* 
division, near to or surrounding the rova, and the 
civilians' town on the outskirts. 

The best of the houses are built of wood, but 
the majority of bamboo split and plaited, or of 
rushes dried and kept in their places by means of 
two or three long pieces of split bamboo driven 
through each. Nearly all are thatched with the 
leaves of the travellers' tree. In fact, this tree in 
some places supplies all that is necessary for the 
house-building except a few poles made of the 
midrib of the rofia palm leaves. A fireplace is 
obtained by filling a case of wood with sand, on 
which the trivets are placed for supporting the 
cooking pots. With such flimsy materials it is 
matter for surprise that so few fires occur in Mala- 



GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLAND. 25 

gasy towns on the coast; but when one does break 
out it is seldom extinguished until the whole town 
is reduced to ruins, each man only caring to se- 
cure his few domestic utensils and as much wood 
from the burning mass as he can successfully res- 
cue. It is only in towns where a sufficiently 
strong European community exists that any houses 
are pulled down for the purpose of saving those 
beyond them. 

In fact, the want of public spirit, the working 
for the public good, has been one of the obstacles 
to advancement in Madagascar; very little is done 
simply because it may benefit the community at 
large. Hence one finds no public works in the 
country, no roads or bridges, no drainage or sys- 
tem of irrigation ; each man is expected to make 
what canals are necessary for his own plantations. 
No accommodation is found for travellers on the 
roads, although it has been represented that houses 
(lapd) are built in the villages between Tamatave 
and the capital for this purpose. But closer in- 
quiry would have shown that no such public spirit 
actuated the authorities who caused their con- 
struction, for they have been built for the sole 
purpose of giving shelter to the goods of the Queen 
and Prime Minister while being carried up from 
the port to the capital. They are certainly often 
very useful to travellers, but this was not taken 



26 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE). 



into consideration in the least as a reason for their 
construction. 

The soil of the district consists of a sandy belt 
three or four miles in breadth, bordering upon the 
sea, and beyond this an alluvial deposit most pro- 
ductive, as is proved by the rich and luxuriant 
vegetation. The capabilities of the country be- 
tween the lagoons and the forest have not been 
sufficiently tested to warrant any general state- 
ment. But, judging by the rapid growth of cer- 
tain kinds of produce, one is compelled to ac- 
knowledge the great productiveness of the soil 
and climate. All vegetation requiring a rich 
mould and a damp, hot atmosphere luxuriates in 
the Betsimisaraka country; but only a few prod- 
ucts have received much attention from foreign- 
ers, probably owing to the difficulty of obtaining 
land on sufficiently long leases to warrant the out- 
lay required when first establishing a plantation. 
Now that difficulty is to a great extent, if not en- 
tirely, removed, as is shown in Chapter IV. ; and 
the subject of the capability of the country for 
rendering a good return for the labor of the plant- 
er will become one of increasing interest as soon 
as the political horizon is clear. Whichever way 
events shape themselves, there is little doubt that 
the country will be opened up much more rapidly 
than in the past. If the French secure the coast, 



GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLAND. 2J 

or any considerable part of it, they will in their 
own interests render every facility to capitalists 
who may feel disposed to embark their capital in 
plantations or commerce. And there have not 
been wanting indications of the fact that the most 
intelligent among the upper classes of the natives 
have begun to realize that their greatest security 
is not to be obtained by the closing of their coun- 
try to foreign enterprise, but by giving every en- 
couragement to merchants and planters to come 
there and settle. There has been also a rumor of 
a projected Government railway from the coast to 
the capital. 

Formerly those in authority looked with a jeal- 
ous eye upon any attempt to facilitate communi- 
cation between the capital and the coasts. No 
suggestion for the formation of a railway or tram- 
way, though several times made by English firms, 
was ever entertained by the native Government. 
A constant dread of the effects of the influx of a 
large number of foreigners on native politics has 
always been apparent in the treaties made with 
other nations; and there is no doubt that the law 
prohibiting mining and prospecting for gold or 
diamonds has been framed from the same cause. 
A very indistinct idea of the advantages arising 
from increased trade and commerce was all that 
exhibited itself to the mind of the Government 



28 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

In fact, the question with those in authority 
seemed rather to be, How can foreigners be de- 
terred from the desire to develop the resources of 
the country, thus attracting the attention of the 
rapacious? This accounts in a great measure for 
the absence of roads other than tracks worn by 
the bare feet of the porters. It makes us feel too 
that we ought not to have been surprised at the 
answer sent by the Prime Minister to some Creole 
traders in Tamatave, who asked him to facilitate 
the cutting of a canal between the lagoons from 
thence to Andovoranto. After hearing their ac- 
count of the advantages to be derived from the 
formation of this cutting, he said that it appeared 
to be for their emolument only, and so if they 
wanted a canal they must make it themselves. 



MALAGASY CIVILIZATION. 



29 



CHAPTER II. 

MALAGASY CIVILIZATION. 

No Roads. Mode of Travelling. Bearers. Crossing the Rivers. 
Resting-places for Traveller and Bearers. Coinage. Barter. 
The Food Supply. Native Beverages. The Water Supply. 
Manufactures. Spinning, Iron Smelting, Forging, and Cast- 
ing. Straw-plaiting. Native Pottery. Jewelry of Gold and 
Silver. Cabinet-making. Carving Introduced among the 
Hovas, but Indigenous in other Tribes. Musical Instruments. 
Bamboo Drums. Pieces of Iron as Musical Instruments. 
Skin Drums. Fifes or Flutes. Lyres. The Valiha. Gov- 
ernment Bands. 

As there are no roads or railways, the traveller 
must content himself with the only kind of na- 
tive conveyance found in the country — the palan- 
quin. But do not imagine by the name that any- 
thing like the luxurious arrangement used in 
India will be forthcoming for your comfort and 
convenience. A much rougher apparatus, and 
one better suited to the exigencies of the uneven 
and broken country, consisting of a couple of 
poles kept in position by two iron rods, and sup- 
porting a leathern seat a few inches below the 
level of the poles, must suffice for the most fastid- 
ious traveller in Madagascar. 

Having given our cook notice the previous 
day that we intend to start on a few days' journey 



30 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

in the morning, he pnts together into native bas- 
kets such utensils as he will require for cooking, 
and a stock of provisions which cannot be pur- 
chased from the natives in the villages through 
which we pass. A stretcher and bedding are 
wrapped in waterproof canvas, some clothes, 
books, and medicines are stowed away in small 
tin boxes, and our preparations are complete. 
Early on the morning of our proposed departure 
we shall find our yard filled with men, all appar- 
ently most eager to carry our baggage or our- 
selves; and as we have taken the precaution to 
tell our cook the agreement we propose making 
with them for the journey, we might be pardoned 
the delusion of believing that all was settled and 
a start can be effected as soon as we are ready. 

But the Malagasy bearer is a curious creature, 
of whom you can never be certain until you actu- 
ally have him away with you. Probably when 
all is tied on the poles ready for starting, and 
sometimes after the baggage has started, the pal- 
anquin bearers will ask with the most perfect 
show of innocence what wages they are to re- 
ceive, as though they had not been bargaining an 
hour or two the previous day and professedly come 
to an arrangement. This generally means trou- 
ble, and the traveller may think himself favored 
if he is able to leave at all that day. But if all 



MALAGASY CIVILIZATION. 33 

can be satisfactorily adjusted, the palanquin is 
shouldered, and at the average rate of about four 
miles an hour the bearers convey their passenger 
along the sandy trackway, up the steep mountain- 
side, through the rivers, and across the rice plains, 
very rarely missing their footing or endangering 
their passenger or his baggage. 

The rivers are crossed, when too deep to ford, 
by very roughly made bridges, consisting gener- 
ally of a single plank or log, not always level, but 
slanting dangerously to one side or warped by the 
sun into all sorts of angles. Without handrail or 
support below to prevent the vibration of the long 
plank, the nerves of the newly-arrived foreigner 
are often terribly tried while making the passage 
from one bank to the other of a stream roarino- 

o 

over the rocks and boulders ten or twenty feet 
below. In the forest it is no uncommon thins; 
to find a bridge made by simply felling a large 
tree on one bank and allowing it to fall across the 
stream. A few of the inconvenient branches are 
cut away, and until it rots the native bearer has 
all he cares for in the way of viaduct. 

The marshes and bogs are crossed by branches 
and rushes being laid on the surface and renewed 
from time to time according to the wants of the 
individual traveller or band of bearers. If a vil- 
lage or town is adjacent to a marsh, an attempt 

Madagascar ami France. <% 



34 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

is made at supporting a rough bridge upon piles 
driven into the peat and mud in pairs, and joined 
together by a cross pole at right angles to the 
direction of the bridge. Upon these the planks 
to form the pathway are laid. As the ends do 
not necessarily overlap, it is no uncommon thing 
to see a careless bearer tread on a free end and be 
aroused to proper caution by finding himself in 
the water and mud below. This was the charac- 
ter of the bridge at Tetezamalama, destroyed by 
the Hovas when they intrenched themselves on 
the west side of the wide marsh at Farafatana. 

The wider rivers, and rivers with very low 
banks and far from the forest, are crossed by fer- 
ries. These consist generally of the canoes already 
described, larger or smaller according to the dan- 
ger involved in crossing, although I have found 
that at some difficult and dangerous river-mouths 
only very small and miserable craft have been 
forthcoming to ferry the traveller and his bearers 
across. At sunset, on one occasion, my party, 
consisting of myself and ten natives, reached a 
beautiful broad river, called Onibe or Onive 
(north of Mananara), on the opposite bank of 
w T hich is a small village where we proposed to 
sleep. After standing and shouting lustily all 
together for some time, varying the monotony 
by occasional discharges from the gun, we sue- 



MALAGASY CIVILIZATION. 



35 



ceeded in making the people on the other side 
hear, and we were glad to see them coming 
across in a canoe to paddle us over. When it 
arrived we found it to be only a small cranky 
craft that would at best carry but three; so we 
had to divide, and it was an hour before the last 
man with his load was safely ferried over. 

At unfrequented places I have had the pleas- 
ure of crossing in a canoe with the end broken 
off, when the only means of keeping afloat was 
for all to sit at the opposite end, so as to give suf- 
ficient tilt to the canoe to keep the broken end 
well above the surface of the water. With such 
ferry-boats it is no wonder that one occasionally 
gets an impromptu bath, rendered no more pleas- 
ant by the knowledge that the rivers swarm with 
crocodiles. 

In other places I have had to cross on rafts, 
called zahitra by the people. These are simply a 
collection of the largest bamboos that can be ob- 
tained in the neighborhood, lashed together at 
one end to a pair of cross-pieces of bamboo, thus 
forming a kind of bow, while the stern is often as 
broad as the raft is long. This is not a dry meth- 
od of crossing, although perfectly safe, as the top 
row of the bamboos is frequently below the sur- 
face of the river. These are punted over by men 
using long poles of bamboo. Occasionally rafts 



36 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

are made of rushes, the zozoro, or papyrus, and this 
is said to have been the most ancient method of 
crossing the rivers. 

However, all the means of river-crossing seem 
equally hazardous to the traveller, and for the 
Malagasy give point to one of their proverbs: 
"The old woman crossing the river; it's 1 God 
grant what's for my good, whether I am upset or 
get safely over' — a touching picture of human 
helplessness. ' ' * 

Arrived at the village in which the traveller 
proposes to rest or sleep, there is very little diffi- 
culty about accommodation. Any one having a 
house that appears at all suitable (and often there 
is very little choice) will resign possession for the 
night, clearing out all the furniture it may con- 
tain, and seeking a corner in a neighbor's house, 
in the hope of a small piece of money in the morn- 
ing or when the stranger resumes his journey. 
The housing of his bearers need never trouble the 
traveller, as by a kind of freemasonry, and per- 
haps the hope of a budget of news, every door is 
open to the entrance of a bearer and a hearty 
welcome waits him round the fire. He uses the 
cooking-pots, spoons, and plates of the owner, 
makes himself comfortable for the night in a dry 
and warm corner, after having borrowed a mat to 

* Rev. J. Houlder. " Antananarivo Annual," No. V. p. 62. 



MALAGASY CIVILIZATION. 



37 



sleep on, but never dreams of paying anything for 
accommodation. 

Payments are made in Madagascar generally 
in money, though I have found some tribes still 
using the primitive method of barter. The only 
coin at present recognized as currency is the dol- 
lar either of France (the five-franc piece in silver), 
of Germany, Holland, Italy, Russia, or Spain. 
For smaller payments than four shillings these 
coins are broken up and weighed. They are cut 
into all sizes and shapes, having no distinctive 
value attached to each piece, and the worth is 
only ascertained by careful weighing. For this 
purpose every one carries a pair of native scales 
and weights. These are made with so great ex- 
actitude that the variation of the 720th part of a 
dollar can be detected. Buying is a tedious pro- 
cess, rendered more so by the fact that a single 
weighing is seldom accepted by the native, who 
almost invariably puts the money first in one pan 
of the scales and then into the other, to be quite 
certain that the balance is perfectly true. But 
such a cumbersome method, reminding us of the 
time when Abraham weighed his pieces of silver, 
must disappear before the onrush of civilization 
and commerce. At least one offer has already 
been made to the Prime Minister by an English 
firm to supply the country with a coinage of its 

3 



33 



MADAGASCAR AXD FRANCE. 



own. But before this can be accomplished many 
conservative prejudices have to be overcome and 
the suspicious distrust of the people to be sur- 
mounted. After having been accustomed to 
weigh every piece of silver, and to reject every 
smooth dollar, it will not be easy to induce these 
people to accept coins of a nominal value only; 
more especially as with them time is not an arti- 
cle of very great value, and haggling a long while 
over the just balancing of a pennyworth of silver 
is a daily amusement. 

The food supply of the coast tribes is abun- 
dant, cheap, and of good quality. The staple 
commodity is rice, which is usually boiled in 
water, in native earthenware or iron pots, and 
eaten with beef, poultry, or native vegetables, of 
which there are several kinds wholesome and 
good. These people have few, if any, distinctively 
native dishes, and in this way differ considerably 
from the islanders of the Pacific. The beef or 
poultry is almost invariably stewed or boiled, and 
although some of the better classes occasionally 
present the stranger with a roasted fowl, there is 
every reason to believe that this style of cooking 
is not native. Fish is sometimes broiled on the 
embers or on a roughly-made gridiron held over the 
fire; but the sweet potatoes, manioc, yams, and 
arum are boiled, the latter in banana leaves, to 



MALAGASY CIVILIZATION. 



39 



extract the acid principle, so injurious if taken 
into the system. Maize, beans, millet, earth-nuts, 
pistachios, pumpkins, tomatoes, are also usually 
boiled by the natives and eaten with their rice. 
Salt, obtained from the sea and from one or two 
aquatic plants, chillies, and ginger are also uni- 
versally used. The bread-fruit, and the cassava 
made into arrowroot, although tolerably abundant 
on the west coast, are comparatively scarce in the 
east, and cannot be looked upon as an article of 
native diet there. 

In the central provinces, upon the cooler soil 
of the table-land, potatoes and other vegetables 
common on European tables are cultivated and 
are relished by the people. Here also sheep are 
successfully reared. These are of a hairy breed, 
with large fat tails (considered the most delicate 
portion for eating), and partaking very much of 
the character of the goat. The flesh is somewhat 
coarse and hard, altogether lacking the flavor of 
English mutton. 

The principal native beverage is rice water, 
made by boiling some water in the rice pot from 
which the unburned portion of the cooked rice has 
been taken, and that part which is burned and 
that adheres to the sides is allowed to remain. 
This is drunk hot and without any addition of 
sugar or salt. A very great number of the people 



40 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

drink coffee, which they grow and roast for them- 
selves, and generally sweeten with syrup, sugar, 
or sugar-cane juice. In some parts of the country 
a tea is made either from the imported Indian or 
China leaf, or from the leaves of certain plants 
growing in the country. The latter is to Euro- 
pean taste anything but palatable. The water in 
the interior of the country is, generally speaking, 
good, although in some districts many tasteless, 
hard and lime impregnated springs are found. 
On the east coast the water, which has to be ob- 
tained by sinking wells in the sand, is decidedly 
bad, being filled with animal and vegetable or- 
ganisms, easily detected by the microscope. Most 
foreigners on the coast carefully collect the rain- 
water in tanks for drinking, reserving the well- 
water for washing and cooking purposes. 

At least two kinds of intoxicating drinks are 
used by the natives, one a sort of mead, made 
from sugar-cane juice, honey, and one or other 
of the aromatic plants used as a flavoring. The 
other, a spirit distilled from the fermented juice 
of the sugar-cane, and occasionally scented with 
the wild anise of the country, is a much more 
powerful intoxicant, and its use by the people is 
greatly to be deplored. In Betsileo villages it 
was no uncommon thing for villagers to be in an 
almost constant state of intoxication for a week 



MALAGASY CIVILIZATION. 41 

during trie funeral ceremonies of one of their de- 
parted fellow-villagers. 

Although somewhat indolent, the average 
Malagasy is a clever and intelligent workman in 
the various arts that have been introduced at dif- 
ferent times among them. The Hovas, more 
especially, have proved themselves adepts at im- 
itation of the most intricate developments of the 
handicrafts they have learned. Given a Hova 
who has learned a particular art and had a little 
practice at it, and one may rely upon getting a 
very clever imitation of any piece of work that 
can be wrought in that art with the tools he has 
or can make. Hence it is that specimens of na- 
tive-made gold and silver jewelry, especially the 
filigree work, brought to England have excited 
so much admiration among connoisseurs. 

The most universal manufacture in the coun- 
try is spinning and weaving. This is doubtless 
an introduced industry, but from whom it has 
come no very clear tradition gives a clew. There 
is good reason, however, for thinking that the 
Arabs taught the Malagasy the art. The looms 
are very similar, and the patterns of the cloths, 
with their red, blue, yellow, and green stripes, al- 
most identical with those used by the Arabs. Rofia, 
flax, hemp, cotton, bark, silk, beside other fibres, 
are spun with the simplest possible kind of spin- 



42 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

die, consisting of a thin round piece of the bark 
of the tree-fern or anivona palm, about a foot long, 
having a round flat piece of bone attached near 
one end to give weight. The fibre, held in the 
left hand, is attached to a small piece of grass 
stalk tied across the top of the spindle, so as to 
form a kind of hook. Being spun round with 
the thumb and finger of the right hand, the bone 
at the head is sufficiently heavy to give enough 
momentum to allow of the fibre being drawn and 
spun to almost any degree of fineness. 

The thread is dyed with different vegetable 
and mineral dyes found in the country, for which 
the people have discovered the proper ingredients; 
and of late years a number of aniline dyes from 
Europe have been extensively used. 

The native loom is of the most primitive 
construction. The threads having been made 
into loops of equal length, each is placed upon a 
couple of cross -sticks about three feet long. 
These two sticks are then attached at their ends 
to four stumps driven in the ground, and so the 
threads are drawn tight. Heelds are attached to 
every other thread in the centre, and thin pieces 
of wood are also passed across the threads alter- 
nately, as in plaiting. By raising the heelds, 
which are fixed to a cross-piece of wood, a shed is 
obtained for the introduction of the shuttle, which 



MALAGASY CIVILIZATION. 



43 



consists merely of a piece of wood eight or ten 
inches long with some of the fibre rolled upon it. 
This is not u thrown," but simply pushed from 
one side to the other of the warp, often by one 
woman to her companion, and so the first thread 
of the woof is laid. The heelds are then low- 
ered, and the two cross-pieces interlaced are drawn 
forward, thus reversing the shed. The shuttle is 
once more pushed through in the opposite direc- 
tion, and the second thread after being drawn 
tight is knocked up close to its predecessor by a 
piece of wood shaped like a large blunt knife in- 
troduced into the shed. This process is repeated 
until the whole of the warp is taken up. After 
the day's work is done, the loom is easily de- 
tached from the four stumps which hold it and 
rolled up. It occupies very little space in the 
corner of the house, and this is no doubt the cause 
of the failure to introduce the English or Norwe- 
gian spinning-wheel and hand-loom. When the 
simplicity of the apparatus is considered, it is 
wonderful that the natives can produce such fine, 
regularly- woven cloths as those which have found 
their way to England, and have been seen by 
many interested in the progress of heathen and 
uncivilized nations. 

The iron manufacture carried on in the coun- 
try appears to be partly of European origin, and 



44 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



was doubtless introduced by the artisans sent out 
by the London Missionary Society at the request 
of Radama I. The native mode of smelting is 
very simple. Iron ore (the black oxide) is found 
very near to the surface in many parts of the 
country, and is very pure, yielding from 50 to 70 
per cent, of iron. This is placed in the form of a 
semicircular bank in a hole dug in the ground, 
the concave side towards the pipe conveying the 
blast, which enters the pit below a large flat stone 
set up edgeways. Between this stone and the 
iron ore is the receptacle for the charcoal, which 
when once alight is banked up to fill the pit, 
while a continual blast is kept up for several hours 
by relays of men. Their bellows consist of two 
upright cylinders of wood about four feet long, in 
which a piston with a rough kind of valve is made 
to w T ork, while at the lower extremity the cylinder 
is closed. At the side near the bottom is a small 
hole, in which a pipe of bamboo is fitted, convey- 
ing the blast to the fire. One man works each 
piston, and by doing so alternately an almost con- 
tinual blast is kept up. After the usual interval 
the fire is allowed to go down, and the iron, cooled 
into a solid lump, is fished out with hooks, and is 
ready for the smith. In this way, by smelting 
with charcoal in which the ore is buried, a cer- 
tain portion of the carbon is absorbed, and a kind 



MALAGASY CIVILIZATION. 



45 



of steel is the result, which, when wrought into 
knives, hatchets, swords, and spears, and properly 
tempered, is capable of receiving a good service- 
able edge. 

The forge very much resembles the smelting 
apparatus, except that the cylinders for producing 
the blast are not so long. The anvil is simply a 
block of iron let into a log of wood laid on the 
ground; and the blacksmith uses his hammer and 
tongs while sitting very comfortably on his heels, 
presenting a strangely different aspect from the 
brawny-armed men wielding the sledge-hammers 
in our factories and forges. 

Castings are made of iron, brass, or copper by 
melting the metal in crucibles of a peculiar fria- 
ble sandstone (which when freshly quarried is 
very soft, but when burned becomes vitrified and 
extremely hard), and then run into moulds made 
of a moulding-sand' of good quality found in sev- 
eral parts of the central plateau. Some of the 
brass castings in the Chapel Royal will bear close 
examination, and would be no discredit to the 
best foundries of this country. Considering too 
the entire absence of machinery, one is surprised 
at the highly-finished files, scissors, knives, and 
needles that can be turned out of the native 
blacksmith's shop to compete, at any rate in 
price, if not in quality, with those sent from Eng- 



4 6 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



land. So abundant is the iron, and of such good 
quality and so near the surface, that it only re- 
quires the country to be opened up and greater 
facilities to be given to the foreigners for introdu- 
cing European methods and machinery to make 
this branch of industry a lucrative speculation. 

The art of plaiting straw, grass, or rushes to 
make mats, hats, bags, and various domestic arti- 
cles is universal. In some parts of the country 
mats made from a soft rush, the harvfo (belonging 
to the natural order of JuncacecB), are still used as 
the only clothing of the people; and in very many 
tribes mats made of this rush are used as sleeping- 
mats. The zozoro, a rush resembling the papyrus 
(Cyperus <zqualis\ is plaited into the coarsest mats 
for laying first on the floors of the houses, over 
which are laid those of a finer texture made from 
the hazondrano, a Juncacea somewhat coarser than 
the hatvfo. 

On the coast a large trade is carried on in 
sugar-bags, made by plaiting the leaves of the 
pandanus and of the rofia palm divided into strips 
of convenient width. Hundreds of thousands of 
these are exported every year for packing sugar 
in Mauritius and Bourbon, as also a roughly- wov- 
en cloth, called rabanna, made from the rofia fibre. 
Hats, made from a rough but very pliable kind of 
grass found on the table-land, are also exported. 



MALAGASY CIVILIZATION. 47 

Some are extremely fine, and being made double, 
with a coarser kind of plaiting inside, are very 
serviceable, and fetch a good price in the English 
market. These are made with a broad brim re- 
sembling the panama hats; but a commoner kind 
made like a skull-cap is in much request in the 
country for the use of the bearers, who prefer them 
to the brimmed hats which are the only kind worn 
by the soldiers and better class of Hovas. In the 
forest, among the Tanala, a cap with four points 
at the corners of the crown, and ornamented with 
black embroidery, is the kind most commonly met 
with; while among the Betsimisaraka the hat is 
made of palm-leaf plaited, and has a brim broad 
enough to cover the shoulders. 

Various fancy plaits are also made, and many 
of the finest mats, hats, and baskets are plaited 
into the most elaborate patterns. Some are deco- 
rated by being composed of different-colored straw 
or grass which has been dyed for the purpose, red, 
yellow, black, or brown. This is another branch 
of native industry which is capable of develop- 
ment in the interests of commerce, and could be 
made to render a good return. 

Native pottery is of the roughest description, 
and its manufacture has advanced no farther than 
is necessary to supply the very limited require- 
ments of the semi-civilised. Cooking-pots and 



48 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

water-pitchers of various sizes, and a kind of 
double salt-cellar in imitation of those frequent- 
ly met with on the continent, are almost the only- 
articles representing the fictile art in Madagascar. 
The water-pots are of two kinds— one kept in the 
house, and capable of holding twelve or sixteen 
gallons, the other, a small pitcher used for fetch- 
ing the water from the springs. The cooking- 
pots are also of two kinds — one globular, with a 
small mouth, for cooking meat or manioc, etc., 
often elaborately ornamented, and the other, a 
semi-spherical vessel for cooking rice, and fur- 
nished with a lid of the same material. 

The best pottery I have seen, that among the 
Betsileo, is made of a blue and red clay mixed. 
After being properly tempered, a woman takes a 
piece and commences on a small board to build 
up, with the fingers only, and without the aid of 
wheel or any mechanical contrivance, just so 
much of the sides of a pitcher or cooking-pot as 
will stand without losing the shape given it. It 
is then set aside to dry; after which another layer 
is added to its height, one hand inside and the 
other out, regulating the thickness and shape of 
the article. When quite dry it is smoothed by 
being rubbed all over with a smooth stone or 
piece of bone, and occasionally the edges are or- 
namented by being smeared with plumbago. It 



MALAGASY CIVILISATION. 



49 



is then placed in a hole in the ground imbedded 
in a layer of dried cow-dung, which is also used 
to cover in this roughly-formed kiln. A light is 
applied, and after care has been taken to insure 
the ignition of the fuel, it is left to burn itself 
out, when a well-burned and durable article is 
obtained, though plain and devoid of ornament. 
In this connection Mr. Sibree says that " a special 
kind of vessel made for cooking the beef at the 
new year's festival is rather elegant in shape, 
much resembling some of the Anglo-Saxon pot- 
tery now and then found in our own country."* 
" These vessels are circular and somewhat flat- 
tened, and are frequently ornamented with a 
series of lines and zigzags very closely resembling 
those on the early fictile productions of the Ger- 
man races, "f 

Attempts have been made to introduce the 
use of the wheel, and to teach the people the 
manufacture of plates, dishes, cups, etc., but 
these have been abortive, either from the want of 
a suitable clay or from the indifference of the 
natives. Where European pottery cannot be 
obtained, plates and cups are easily made from 
the fresh green leaves of the banana, or travellers' 
tree, which can be folded to answer these pur- 
poses. Spoons or cups of this kind are preferred 

* " Great African Island," p. 208. f Ibid., p. 263. 



50 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

by the people to any other. Among the Betsileo 
and Tanala, dishes are made from the pandanus 
leaf cut into squares, folded up at the cut edges 
and sewed into place. They are then dried in the 
sun, and form a dish or cup that will for a short 
time resist even hot water, gravy, or rice. In the 
Bara this requirement is met by dividing the gourd 
shells into convenient shapes and cleaning and 
polishing the inside. In some places on the coast 
the cocoanut shell is used for the same purpose, 
and even a small square mat closely plaited and 
made to turn up at the corners answers for a rice 
dish. 

In the manufacture of jewelry the Malagasy 
seem to have derived nearly all their ideas from 
foreign sources. Only among the Bara and Tana- 
la have I seen what appeared to be specimens of 
purely native design in ornamental metal-work. 
A peculiarly shaped brass pin was, among one 
branch of the tribe, an insignia of chieftainship, 
and their earrings, bracelets, and anklets were 
evidently of native design. But, notwithstanding 
this dearth of native art among the Hovas, they 
make extremely dexterous and ingenious silver- 
smiths, after having been taught to use a few tools 
and supplied with patterns or models from which 
to work. In imitation they appear to equal, if 
not excel, the Chinese. Thus they will make 



MALAGASY CIVILIZATION. 



51 



most excellent copies of flowers, birds, or Europe- 
an jewelry, and even execute a design from an 
illustrated price-list in sucli a way as to defy any 
but an expert to tell that it is not of English man- 
ufacture and made with all the advantages of 
modern machinery, and not with the few rough 
tools in the possession of the Hova silversmith. 
Some of the silver chains and filigree-work are 
marvels of fineness and exactness, while the deli- 
cate and precise repairs successfully done to valu- 
able watches would drive an English watchmaker 
to despair when he saw the tools with which it 
was to be performed. The long, delicate fingers 
and keen eyesight of the Hova seem admirably 
adapted for this kind of employment. 

Almost the same terms could be used in speak- 
ing of carpentry and cabinet-making, nothing but 
the roughest specimens of these arts having been 
used until European necessities induced the peo- 
ple to turn their hands to this branch of industry. 
Now well-made furniture and cleverly-finished 
cabinet-work can be purchased from the native 
workshops, and, for solid, good workmanship and 
enduring qualities, may be compared favorably 
with much of the showy, ginger-bread furniture 
turned out from the English factories. 

Carving and artistic designs, while apparently 
altogether absent from among the Hovas before 



52 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

the introduction of Western civilization, were not 
by any means wanting in other tribes. Among 
the Betsileo, Bara, and Tanala most elaborate de- 
signs are to be discovered in the ornamentation of 
the house-posts, window-shutters, doors, pitcher- 
stands, spoon-handles, etc. ; and every one travel- 
ling into this part of the island has been struck 
with the skill displayed upon the adornment of 
the tombs and monumental stones in the Betsileo 
country. After taking a great number of rub- 
bings of these carved designs, I was struck with 
the fact that the simple or elementary design is 
almost identical with the same species of orna- 
ment in Polynesia. On a carved hatchet handle 
. in my possession, from Mangaia, are some patterns 
precisely like those I had obtained from the Bet- 
sileo houses and tombs. These patterns appear 
to be an elaboration of the circle and triangle, 
singly or in combination, which fill up the differ- 
ent squares into which the whole post or shutter 
is divided. 

Perhaps the most elaborately-carved post I saw 
during my residence of eight years in the Betsileo 
was at a small village about a day's journey north- 
west of Fianarantsoa. This was the central post 
of a high house belonging to one of the chiefs. 
It was twenty feet long, and carved from top to 
bottom. Each of the four surfaces, about eigh- 



MALAGASY CIVILIZATION. 



55 



teen inches broad, was divided into sections by- 
cross-cuts forming squares with the edge of the 
post. In each of these were different designs 
formed according to the individual tastes of the 
many men who were probably impressed into the 
service of the chief to perform the work. Some 
consisted of radiating triangles whose apices met 
in the central point; some were filled with pairs 
of circles touching each other at the circumfer- 
ence; others were concentric circles, and the cor- 
ners filled with excrescences springing from the 
outermost circle; other squares were filled with 
zigzag lines running parallel to each other, or 
running diagonally across the square, while in 
some were rough imitations of birds, bullocks, 
crocodiles, etc. 

On many of the Betsileo tombs and monumen- 
tal stones are also found, in addition to the de- 
signs referred to, bullocks, or bullocks' heads, 
probably to show the number of cattle killed at 
the funeral of the man buried there. 

But that the Hovas are capable of proficiency 
in this art also is shown by the stone-carving 
round the memorial churches, the elaborate carv- 
ing of the Queen's throne in the Chapel Royal, 
and by the beautifully-wrought bone ornaments 
made in imitation of those worn in England. 

In regard to the musical art it may be said 

Madagascar aud Fi ante. A 



56 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

that, although the Malagasy are passionately foud 
of music, have a fair proportion of good voices, 
and delight in singing, yet their national music 
is of the most primitive kind. All their songs 
are mere chants, containing at the most but three 
or four individual sounds, and many of them 
scarcely removed from a monotone. They were 
evidently invented for the purpose of keeping 
time in paddling their canoes or in transplanting 
the young rice. In both cases it is usual for one 
to sing a kind of refrain while they all keep time 
with the movements of the body, so that at the 
accented note the paddle is inserted and a vig- 
orous pull is given in the former case, or a young 
plant is pushed into the mud in the latter in- 
stance. Children have also many games similar 
to those played by boys and girls in England, 
where one party sings its reply to another, or 
where a company keeps time in its march to the 
song of the leader, all joining in a kind of chorus. 

The instrumental music native among the 
people is also little more than a rhythmical rep- 
etition of two or three notes; but some of their 
instruments are capable of rendering any simple 
tune, and by those who have received instruction 
in music they are so used now. Without pre- 
tending to furnish a complete list of all the musi- 
cal instruments native to the country, it may be 



MALAGASY CIVILIZATION. 



57 



interesting to give a short description of those 
which have come under the writer's observation. 

The simplest and probably the oldest instru- 
ment used to produce a sound for making a 
rhythm is found among the Ibara and the people 
of Ikongo, in the south and southeast of the Bet- 
sileo respectively, and consists of a bamboo eight 
or ten feet long, and three or four inches in diam- 
eter, split at several joints, but not divided. This 
is mounted on two short sticks, forked, and stuck 
in the ground, standing a few inches high. On 
both sides of this bamboo the players are ar- 
ranged, each having in his or her hands short 
sticks for striking. By varying the force of the 
strokes a time is kept, accompanied generally by 
singing and clapping of hands, to which the 
dancers keep time. 

In one of their heathenish ceremonies the iron 
part of an old spade is suspended by a string, and, 
being struck with another piece of iron, is used to 
mark the time in the native dance during the per- 
formance of the sdlamanga elsewhere described; 
but I have never seen it used at any other time. 

Two kinds of drums are used: one, a species 
of tom-tom, is about eighteen inches long and 
nine inches to a foot in diameter. Both ends are 
covered with parchment made of sheep's or goat's 
skin stretched tight and pegged to the body of 



58 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

the drum with wooden pegs. Strings are at- 
tached for suspending the drum from the neck 
of the player, who strikes with the flat of his fin- 
gers. The woodwork is usually hollowed from 
the solid trunk of a tree. The larger drum is 
from two to three feet high and three to four 
feet in diameter, made of thin wood bent into 
shape by heat, and tied with thongs of leather. 
The ends are covered with dried bullock's hide, 
stretched tight on bands of wood fitting outside 
the body of the drum. It is beaten with sticks 
with knobs, but uncovered. Drums seem to be 
universal in the country, as they are found in dif- 
ferent tribes living a long distance apart. 

There are two kinds of native flutes — one 
about two feet nine inches long, made from a 
long joint of bamboo, smoothed inside with a red- 
hot piece of iron, and having three holes near the 
lower end. This long flute I have seen in the 
Betsileo, Ikongo, Bara, and Taimoro tribes. The 
other kind is also made of bamboo, about a foot 
in length, and having six holes, with occasionally 
a seventh for the thumb on the reverse side from 
the six holes. This is found in Imerina, Tanala, 
and Betsileo — where it has probably been intro- 
duced from Imerina. Both kinds have the two 
ends open and are held sideways, slanting down- 
ward when used, the player blowing across the 



MALAGASY CIVILIZATION. 



59 



open end farthest removed from the finger-holes. 
The breath striking the inner edge of the tube at 
right angles sets up the vibration by which the 
sound is produced. The long flutes give a loud, 
mellow note; and a band, composed of half a doz- 
en flutes and a drum, is used by some of the chiefs 
to accompany them on state occasions; and the 
effect, though somewhat monotonous, is by no 
means unpleasant. 

Another instrument used by the Betsileo, the 
Betsimisaraka, the Tanala, and the Ibara is the 
lokangamboatavo, a species of lyre. A piece of 
hard wood about two feet long is fixed at one end 
to the half of a gourd-shell, which forms the 
sounding-board ; at the other end of the stick are 
three frets or bridges, left in cutting out the wood, 
over which two strings made of cat-gut are passed, 
and festened at each end of the long piece of wood. 
The player places the bottom of the half gourd- 
shell against his chest, holding the stick near the 
end in his left hand. By twanging the strings 
with the thumb of the right hand, and using the 
fingers of the left to press the strings firmly on 
the frets, he has six notes at command. I have 
found a want of uniformity in the tuning of these 
two strings; each player seems to suit his own 
taste, tuning them to thirds, fifths, or even octaves 
by untying them and drawing them tight before 



6o MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

readjusting them, as there is no movable bridge 
or peg for tuning. 

In the Betsimisaraka tribe, the only one in 
which I have found it, a kind of single-stringed 
lyre is used, called a jejilava. A stick about four 
feet in length has the half of a gourd-shell fixed 
near one end, and a string attached to the other 
end is passed over a bridge near the gourd and 
fixed securely to that end of the stick. In some 
cases, however, the bridge is altogether dispensed 
with, and the bend of the stick is made to keep 
the string clear. The gourd is pressed against 
the chest of the player by his left hand, the fin- 
gers of which shorten the string by pushing it 
against the bridge or by simply pressing firmly 
against it with the back of the finger. In his 
right hand he holds a piece of dried pandanus 
leaf, folded into the shape of a tall, square bottle 
and containing a few grains of rice. In the same 
hand he holds a thin piece of elastic wood or bam- 
boo, with which he strikes the string between the 
left hand and the end of the stick nearest to the 
gourd, producing a curious combination of sounds, 
the rattling of the rice in the leaf imitating the 
side drum played pianissimo, while the click and 
sound of the string resemble to a certain extent 
the sharp, snapping sound of an old harpsi- 
chord. 



MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 



MALAGASY CIVILIZATION. 



63 



But by far the most elaborate instrument the 
Malagasy have is the valiJia. It is formed of a 
piece of bamboo about four feet long and four 
inches in diameter. u At a first glance this long 
cylinder seems to have a set of strings attached 
to it, which are held out from the trunk by a 
movable fret or bridge inserted near the end of 
each; but these strings are really thin slices of 
the cane, no thicker than a violin string, which, 
though they stand out from the stem, are a part 
of it, and have only been split away for the length 
of two feet. Any further splitting is prevented 
at either end by a band of cord tied round the 
stem. If a string breaks, another is easily cut 
from the trunk. The strings stand at equal dis- 
tances all round the stem, surrounding it as the 
iron frame- work surrounds an umbrella handle 
when the umbrella is closed." Different instru- 
ments have a different number of strings, varying 
from 14 to 20 or 24. They are tuned by moving 
the frets along the string, and when properly 
tuned it sounds one or two complete major dia- 
tonic scales. On some, wires are introduced 
screwed up with pegs, as in a violin, giving a 
sound two octaves lower, and its fifth for filling 
in a simple bass. This instrument is undoubtedly 
traditional among the Tanala, Betsileo and Hovas, 
as none can give any account of its origin. And 



64 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

although Wallace, in his ''Tropical Nature," de- 
scribes an instrument very similar, used in Timor, 
there is reason to believe that it has not been im- 
ported into Madagascar, unless, indeed, by the 
people themselves. In playing, the strings are 
plucked by the nail, and the long nail on the lit- 
tle finger is for this put into requisition. Clever 
players can reproduce any tune on this instru- 
ment, and it is by no means disagreeable. Only 
a short time before I left Madagascar I heard a 
man on board the "Antananarivo" play some 
elaborate dance music, the National Anthem, the 
Marseillaise, etc., in a style far more pleasing to 
the ear than that of the music-box from which he 
had learned them. 

A large number of European instruments are 
now used in Madagascar, and very good bands 
are to be met with in some of the Government 
towns, composed either of stringed or wind instru- 
ments, with cymbals, triangles, and side drums. 
Harmoniums are not at all uncommon, and many 
natives have, thanks to the tonic sol-fa, become 
fairly proficient players, conducting the singing 
in the services on Sunday in a highly creditable 
manner. 



ORIGIN OF THE MALAGASY. 



65 



CHAPTER HI. 

ORIGIN OF THE MALAGASY. 

Theories Regarding the Origin of the Malagasy. Mr. Staniland 
Wake. Objections to the African Origin. Probability of East- 
ern Origin. Traditions. Vazimba. Hovas Admitted to be 
Malay. Physiognomy. Language. The Dark-skinned Races. 
Craniology. Dr. Hildebrandt's Testimony. Some Differ- 
ence in the Two Branches of the Polynesian Races. Habits 
and Customs Connecting Malagasy with Polynesian. Hovas 
Landed on Southeast. Their Probable Course. Arabic In- 
fluence. Immigration of Dark-skinned Race much more An- 
cient. 

Regarding the origin of the Malagasy, many 
writers have, at greater or less length, expounded 
their theories, some of which have been very far- 
fetched, and some based apparently upon a very 
meagre acquaintance with the Malagasy. Mr. 
Staniland Wake has published two pamphlets, 
the former of which was read before the Anthro- 
pological Society in 1869, and was based on pure 
supposition. The suggestion of Dr. Sclater to 
account for the highly specialized character of 
the fauna of the island, viz., that a continent 
since submerged existed at a remote period in the 
Indian Ocean, connecting Africa with the south- 
eastern corner of Asia, was the basis of this the- 
ory. Admitting this, it was easy to imagine that 



66 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



this lost continent of "Lemuria" was inhabited 
by two races, one light-skinned and the other 
with a dark skin and frizzy hair. But, as has 
been shown, the arguments of Mr. Wallace are 
conclusive against the theory of an ancient but 
now submerged continent. By the perusal of his 
later pamphlet, published in 1880, we find that 
Mr. Wake has entirely abandoned his earlier sup- 
position that the light-skinned Hovas were of 
Melanesian origin and the darker races of the 
island were the representatives of the Hottentots; 
and he endeavors to prove by their communi- 
ty of habits and customs that the Malagasy are 
of Siamese origin. But, as far as I am able to 
judge, precisely the same arguments may be 
used, and almost all the instances adduced apply 
equally well to the inhabitants of Malaysia; and 
it seems scarcely reasonable to suppose that as 
the arguments apply to a spot nearer home, the 
district further afield should be looked to as the 
source from which the Malagasy have sprung. 

Geographical proximity must of course always 
carry some weight in an inquiry of this nature, 
although it does not follow that the home of a 
race not autochthonous was the nearest continent. 
The character of the original race, whether they 
were maritime or not in their habits, must be 
taken into consideration in conjunction with phys- 



ORIGIN OF THE MALAGASY. 



67 



ical phenomena, such as the prevailing winds 
and currents, when the inquiry relates to the 
origin of the inhabitants of an island. For these 
reasons, if there were no others, we should incline 
to connect the Malagasy with the Malay race 
rather than with the Siamese, as both have very 
much the same customs and would both be influ- 
enced by the same physical facts of favorable 
wind and current. On the other hand, although 
Madagascar is so near the African continent, the 
inference, from the nature of the coast, the sea, 
and the wind, is that Madagascar was not peopled 
from that source. The absolute want of any- 
thing like a safe harbor on the east coast of Africa 
would create a population very unlikely to trust 
themselves any distance from the shore, even in 
calm weather. And this would imply an absence 
of seagoing craft of any kind, even of large ca- 
noes. Then again, even if, despite natural dis- 
advantages, the original inhabitants of the coast 
had developed into a maritime race, no natural 
phenomena exist to account for their ever find- 
ing their way to Madagascar. The prevailing 
wind is from the southeast and northeast, and 
although in Madagascar a westerly wind does 
occasionally blow during the latter part of the 
cold season, yet it never continues for more than 
a day or two, a length of time far too short for 



68 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



the passage from the nearest point of the continent 
to the most western portion of the island. Besides 
the wind being against this theory, the current 
sets very strongly in the opposite direction. The 
equatorial current sets from the east, one portion 
breaks on the coast of Madagascar a little to the 
north of Tamatave, and divides, one part running 
swiftly to the north and passing round the north- 
ern point of the island, and the other flowing 
more slowly towards the south and joining the 
Cape current, also setting to the southwest. 
Hence it is highly improbable that we should 
have to look to Africa for the root-stock of the 
Malagasy. 

Mr. Wallace has also conclusively shown that 
Madagascar has been an anciently isolated land, 
and the probability is that for many ages it has 
never been connected with the continent, and no 
communication was possible except by water. 

A set of circumstances exactly the reverse of 
the above bears upon the theory of the Malayan 
origin of the Malagasy. The Malays have always 
been a maritime people, possessing many natural 
facilities for the development of this quality, good 
harbors, protected seas, and invariable winds. 
They have shown their enterprise by the extent 
of sea over which they have roamed, and the dis- 
tance between the islands in the Polynesian archi- 



ORIGIN OF THE MALAGASY. 69 

pelagos which they are known to have peopled, 
from New Zealand to the Marquesas. Both 
winds and currents would favor the supposition 
that some of these hardy mariners had been drifted 
out of their reckoning and been carried by their 
influence to Madagascar. 

I am well aware that of themselves these ar- 
guments would not be sufficient to prove any 
connection of race. But other facts which are 
recognized as bearing upon the matter strangely 
support the supposition of the Malayan origin of 
the Malagasy. 

Unfortunately no history of the people has 
been preserved previously to the introduction of 
the gospel, when the language was for the first 
time reduced to writing. Otherwise this would 
be a conclusive indication of the origin of the 
people. We are, therefore, driven to examine the 
traditions current anions: them to obtain some in- 
dication of the truth. 

The clearest and most universal tradition 
among the different tribes with whom I have 
come in contact is that they came from the east 
and conquered the original inhabitants, who ap- 
pear to have been exterminated. These were 
called Vazimba, described as small in stature and 
with black faces. They were probably of an 
allied race to the African, as nomadic tribes of 



70 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

the name of Marimba were mentioned in the 
sixteenth century as occupying the east coast of 
Central Africa. Mr. Dahle, who has given 
considerable attention to this subject, expresses 
his opinion that the " Mazimba (Vazimba and 
Wuzimba) may have been a collective name for 
several East African tribes, growing gradually 
into disuse as these tribes became more sepa- 
rated, and from this common stock the original 
inhabitants of Madagascar (the Vazimba) were an 
offshoot."* They appear to have inhabited the 
interior of the island, as there are but very indis- 
tinct relics of tradition referring to them on the 
east coast, while there are numberless spots point- 
ed to in the interior as graves of the Vazimba; 
and even on the west coast, where there still exist 
clear indications of the existence of such a race, 
tradition says they came from the east. That the 
Hovas were not the only conquerors of the Vazim- 
ba is proved by the traditions of the Betsileo, who 
are also said to have come from the east and con- 
quered the Vazimba. An utter absence of tradi- 
tion among any of the tribes of a western origin 
must carry some weight. 

With scarcely an exception, all writers upon 
the origin of the Hovas have accorded to them a 
place among the Malay races. The remarkable 

* " Antananarivo Annual," No. V. p. 23. 



ORIGIN OF THE MALAGASY. 71 

similarity of physiognomy between the inhabi- 
tants of Imerina and the Maories, and perhaps the 
still more decided resemblance of the former to 
the Eastern Polynesians, has strengthened if not 
originated this opinion. The color and character 
of the hair, the average stature, the shape and 
complexion of the face, the shape and color of 
the eyes, all these are very similar in the two 
races. 

Then as one becomes acquainted with their 
language it is found how closely allied it is with 
the Polynesian languages, and allied not simply 
by a mere coincidence in the sounds of various 
words, but in the more important feature of pos- 
sessing the same numerals, very much the same 
order in composition, and the same or very simi- 
lar names for the most common objects, which, 
being found in Polynesia, are indigenous to Mad- 
agascar. It has been pointed out that the Mala- 
gasy words for bullock, dog, sheep, etc., are ap- 
parently African in their origin; but these, with 
others, would be strange to the immigrants, and 
a name would have to be found for them. Noth- 
ing is more natural than that the names used by 
the original inhabitants should be adopted; and 
in this way the African element would be intro- 
duced into the Malagasy language — presuming 
that the Va^imba were allied to the people on 



73 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

the east coast of the continent. But while this is 
the case with regard to objects not found indige- 
nous in Polynesia, the names of the yam, sweet 
potato, cocoanut, and some others with which the 
eastern immigrants would be quite familiar, and 
which they found in Madagascar, are identical 
with those for the same objects in Eastern Poly- 
nesia. 

But if this, with the habits and customs, the 
arts and manufactures practised among them, 
which we will refer to presently, is sufficient to 
account for the Hova origin, what about the other 
tribes — the dark-skinned races of the island ? All 
the other peoples in Madagascar are very much 
more closely allied to each other than to the Ho- 
vas, who stand alone as a light-complexioned, 
smooth-haired race. Very much greater differ- 
ence of opinion exists regarding the origin of the 
former races than of the latter. This has arisen, 
no doubt, in a great measure from the darkness of 
their skin seeming, with the proximity of the isl- 
and to the east coast of Africa, to connect them 
with the African races. The identity has also 
been rendered more delusive by the known inter- 
mixture of African blood with the coast tribes in 
comparatively modern times. During a long pe- 
riod slaves have been imported from Africa into 
the island, and these have presumably left their 



ORIGIN OF THE) MALAGASY. 73 



impress on the coast inhabitants. But if the com- 
munion of race is to be tested by physiognomy, 
we require very much more systematic and scien- 
tific examination of facial features and cranium 
measurements than has yet been made. The 
general impression left by a hasty examination 
may be used as a slight confirmation of results 
arrived at by other means, but cannot be entered 
as the main witness in proof. For instance, the 
fact that several Hovas at different times to whom 
I have shown portraits of one or two Eastern Poly- 
nesian teachers have in each case asked what 
Malagasy portraits they were, and could scarcely 
be convinced that they represented men of an- 
other nation, may be accepted as subsidiary testi- 
mony to an already accepted theory that the Ho- 
vas and Eastern Polynesians come from the same 
stock, but it is of no further value. 

Dr. Hildebrandt, the remarkable German trav- 
eller, who had with the best scientific instruments 
made many cranium measurements in South Afri- 
ca and compared them with some he made in 
Madagascar, gave it as his opinion that the Mal- 
agasy were of African descent. In a conversation 
I had with him in the early part of 1881, he said 
that, as far as his research in, this matter went, he 
was led to the conclusion that, while there were 
some slight indications of a connection in race 

Madagascar mid Fiance. _ 



74 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



between the Hovas and the South Africans, the 
similarity between the coast tribes of the island 
and those in South Central Africa was most 
marked. This may be so; but it has to be re- 
membered that the part of the coast with which 
he had become best acquainted is just that por- 
tion of it which has been admittedly most affected 
by recent immigrations from Africa. And hence 
those in the northwest cannot be taken as at all 
a typical branch of the dark-skinned race. 

But again, the same arguments based on the 
language of the Hovas, connecting them with the 
Malayo-Polynesian race, applies equally well to 
the remaining tribes of the island. For the lan- 
guage throughout Madagascar is essentially one, 
divided certainly into a number of different dia- 
lects, but differing no more from one another than 
that of Lancashire from the English of London. 
It has been found that wherever the missionaries 
who have learned only the Hova language have 
gone throughout the island they have been able 
to make themselves understood with more or less 
ease. There is far less difference in language be- 
tween the various tribes in Madagascar than be- 
tween the various groups of islands in the South 
Pacific, all of whom, are admitted to be of Malay- 
an origin. 

But in Polynesia we have just the same facial 



ORIGIN OF THE MALAGASY. 75 

differences as in Madagascar. The Samoans are 
as unlike the western islanders as the Hovas are 
unlike the Bara, Betsileo, or Betsimisaraka. And 
seeing that, as Mr. Dahle points out, many of the 
peculiarities of the Malagasy language are Mela- 
nesian in character, these facts, taken in conjunc- 
tion with various customs that are similar, seem 
to point to a community of race between the dark- 
skinned inhabitants of Madagascar and the West- 
ern Polynesians. In fact, every argument which 
is brought forward to prove the affinity of the 
Hova race with the Malayo-Polynesian, as repre- 
sented by the eastern islanders of the Pacific, can 
be used with equal force and certainty to prove 
the connection of the Bara, Betsileo, etc., with 
the western islanders. 

Skins were never used by these people for 
clothing; but barks of various trees, soaked in 
water and beaten with wooden mallets until thin 
and pliable, constituted their earliest form of 
covering. They were early acquainted with the 
use and the smelting of iron, in the latter opera- 
tion using bellows similar to those in use among 
the Malay races. The most solemn contract be- 
tween two parties was concluded by the practice 
of brotherhood by blood. In the presence of the 
chiefs and judges, etc., the common people al- 
ways sit, and not stand. There is a long list of 



76 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

things looked upon as fady or tabooed by all the 
tribes in the island. These and some other cus- 
toms which are found to exist equally among the 
dark-skinned races of Madagascar as among the 
Hovas, point to a Malayan origin, and are direct- 
ly opposed to the theory that Africa was the cra- 
dle of the Sakalava, Betsileo, etc. 

Traditions among the Hovas indicated that 
they landed originally on the southeast coast, and 
that this landing must have taken place before 
the Norman Conquest of England, inasmuch as 
they remember the names of thirty-seven succes- 
sive sovereigns who have reigned over them. 
The present queen is the thirty-seventh; but the 
first of the list is admitted to be by no means 
their first sovereign, only that before his time all 
their history is veiled in obscurity and buried in 
fabulous legends. Hence, as Mr. Sibree points 
out, as there have been thirty-six sovereigns of 
England since the Norman William landed on 
our shores, it is feasible to suppose "that the 
average length of reign was about the same in 
Madagascar as in England," and that therefore 
the Hova incursion was not later than that of the 
Normans into England. 

Landing on the southeast coast, probably few 
in numbers, they found a people whose language, 
differing somewhat from their own, was never- 



ORIGIN OF THE MALAGASY. 77 

theless intelligible to them. Here they resided 
until their numbers had multiplied to such an 
extent that, incited by their spirit of adventure, 
they felt themselves strong enough to march up 
into the interior of the island, where they made 
their permanent home. They may also have 
been pushed farther inland by the incursion of 
the Arabs, who probably landed within the past 
800 years, leaving their marks in the language of 
the country, all the names of the months of the 
year and days of the week and the distinguishing 
customs of the tribe on the southeast coast of the 
present day being of Arabic origin. 

The Arabic influence spread in a very decided 
manner along the east coast, where in places the 
people still maintain that they are descendants of 
Arabs, in others that they are altogether Jews, or 
Zafy Ibrahim, or Ibraha (descendants of Abraham). 
The native name of the island of St. Mary, off 
the east coast, also clearly indicates Arab influ- 
ence— Nosy Ibraha (Abraham Island). The Arabic 
influence on the character of the people on the 
northwest is of much more recent date, probably 
being introduced with the import slave-trade to 
supply the Hova market. 

The immigration of the dark-skinned races 
represented by the Betsileo, Betsimisaraka, Saka- 
lava, etc., appears to have been much more an- 



73 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

cient than the Hova. They were the people in- 
habiting the coast when the latter arrived, and 
the similarity of the language, together with some 
community of habit and custom, accounts for the 
survival of the immigrants among a wild race. 
It is probable that the Hova incursion may have 
originally consisted of but comparatively few in- 
dividuals, perhaps a few hundred, driven out 
of course by a hurricane, and conveyed to their 
landing-place by the currents, and that, as is 
still so common among the South Sea islanders 
in their maritime expeditions, they carried their 
wives with them. That the great distance they 
must have traversed is no argument against this 
supposition is proved by the known cases of isl- 
ands in the Pacific in quite modern times being 
peopled by those from far-distant places after 
having drifted thousands of miles. 

But the earlier inroad of the other tribes in 
the island must either have taken place at a very 
remote period, or else have been the result of a 
much larger expedition. The latter is probably 
the solution, especially when it is remembered 
that the coast tribes have retained, to within re- 
cent times, the love for large expeditions for. pi- 
ratical and slave-catching purposes. As late as 
1816 such a piratical fleet consisted of 6,250 
men in 250 canoes. In 1805 the natives, number- 



ORIGIN OF THE MALAGASY. 79 

ing, it is said, 7,000 men, overpowered a u Por- 
tuguese corvette of 14 guns" sent against them 
by the authorities at Mozambique. And now, 
although these excursions have been stopped, the 
people still exhibit their skill as seamen by the 
clever way they push their canoes and boats over 
the reefs and bars through a high breaking surf 
enough to terrify any but the most adventurous. 

This we think accounts for the populations of 
Madagascar. All have come at different remote 
times to the island from the east, and are unmis- 
takably of Malay origin, or rather from the same 
stock from which the Malays and Malayo-Polyne- 
sians have sprung. Of the existing inhabitants, 
the dark race representing the Western Polyne- 
sians immigrated first into Madagascar, and drove 
the original people into the interior. The Hovas 
came afterwards, lived some time near the coast, 
and when powerful enough drove the Vazimba 
out of Imerina and settled there. 

At the present time a great deal of European 
admixture is evident among the coast tribes, es- 
pecially on the east; and a considerable amount 
of African and Arabic infusion is manifest on the 
west and northwest coasts. These have to be 
carefully taken into consideration in any attempt 
to trace the origin of the coast tribes. 



SO MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



CHAPTER IV. 

ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR FROM 
1643-1814. 

Earliest Connection of France with Madagascar. Rigault. Pro- 
mis and Foucquenbourg. Fort Dauphin. Description of 
Products. French not the Discoverers of Madagascar. Suarez. 
Ruy-Pereira. Tristan d' Acunha. Emmanuel's Expeditions 
under Lopez de Figueira and Juan Ferrano. Dutch Attempts. 
The English Colony of 1644. Flacourt, 164S. French Ex- 
pelled in 1672. French East India Company. St. Mary, or 
Nosy Ibraha. Count Beniowsky's Expedition and Adminis- 
tration, 1774-1786. Bory de St. Vincent, 1S01. Treaty of 
Paris. Contention of M. Lozier against Sir R. Farquhar. 
French Attempts in 1818. Gourbeyre's Escapade, 1835. Ra- 
dama I. Subjugates the Sakalava. 

The various vain endeavors which France 
has made to form colonies on the island of Mada- 
gascar date from the year 1643, when the French 
Eastern Company declared that it had taken pos- 
session of it and the adjacent islands in the name 
of the King of France. Captain Rigault obtained 
from the Due de Richelieu in 1642, for himself 
and his associates, the right or monopoly of trade 
in the islands in the South Indian Ocean, and 
then to form French colonies, "which conces- 
sion was granted to them for six years, to the 
exclusion of all others without the consent of 
the associates, who, to that end, formed a com- 



ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR. 8 1 



pany; and the concession was confirmed by His 
Most Christian Majesty, and was registered at the 
record office of his council of state the following 
year, confirmed again by His Majesty at present 
reigning. " 

In March of that year the company sent a 
vessel, under the command of Cocquet, with 
orders to load with ebony. He was to convey 
Messrs. Promis and Foucquenbourg, their clerks, 
and twelve Frenchmen to settle in the island, and 
there await another vessel which was to be des- 
patched from France in the November following. 
Cocquet arrived off the island about the month of 
September, and "in passing went to the islands 
of Mascareigne and Diego-Rais, which islands 
Promis took possession of in the name of his most 
Christian Majesty." These navigators appear to 
have explored the island of St. Mary, on the east 
coast of Madagascar, and to have entered Anton- 
gil Bay. But no attempt was then made to set- 
tle there. Promis and Foucquenbourg fixed upon 
the bay or "Port of Sainte-Luce named Mangha- 
fia in Lat. 24° 30' south," as a spot suitable for 
their purpose of forming a French colony. 

This is the first record we have of any body of 
Frenchmen landing in Madagascar. Unfortu- 
nately for the success of the expedition, it arrived 
at the commencement of the hot and rainy sea- 



82 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



son, and chose a spot low and marshy, and there- 
fore a hot-bed of malarial fever. Soon discover- 
ing the nature of the place which they had in- 
tended to make their home, the young colonists 
were compelled to seek a more healthy spot on 
which to establish themselves. Travelling a 
little distance along the coast, a selection was 
made of a piece of land at the northern point of a 
rocky and hilly peninsula, in the province of 
Anosy. Here Fort Dauphin was built, and nature 
seemed to offer every encouragement to the stran- 
gers, who found themselves in a fine, salubrious 
climate, the air cooled by the southeast sea breeze, 
and yet outside the range of the much-dreaded 
cyclones of the central Indian Ocean. 

The district around Fort Dauphin is said to be 
a country extremely rich in vegetation and con- 
taining an abundance of useful animals. "The 
bullocks are not so numerous, but they are of finer 
quality than those found in the northern parts of 
the island; the sheep, with their large, fat tails, 
that are looked upon as the most delicate part of 
the animals, and goats are plentiful." Pigs, both 
domestic and wild, are abundant. The latter in- 
habit the forest lands, but prey upon the planta- 
tions of the natives to such an extent that they 
become a dreaded plague, and various devices 
have been employed to destroy these depreda- 



ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR. 83 

tors. They are hunted with dogs trained for the 
purpose, and pits are dug in their haunts, hav- 
ing sharpened stakes projecting from the bottom 
and the mouths hidden by rushes carefully con- 
cealed by earth. The flesh of these wild hogs is 
hard, but well-flavored; they have a peculiarly 
long snout, and are covered with dark, reddish- 
brown hair. Poultry — turkeys, geese, ducks, and 
fowls — is both abundant and very cheap, and quails 
and wild fowl are met with in great numbers in 
the grassy plains and marshes. The rivers and 
the bay abound in fish of various kinds, and oys- 
ters of excellent quality are found on the rocks. 

Various kinds of vegetables are cultivated by 
the people with comparatively little expenditure 
of labor. Rice of different kinds forms the staple 
article of consumption, while manioc, the sweet 
potato, yams, and the arum beans, and earth-nuts 
are among the articles cultivated to increase and 
vary the food supply. There is also a fair variety 
of fruit trees: the orange, citron, lemon, bibas, and 
banana are found around every village. Cotton, 
ginger, and tobacco are also raised, and are said 
to be of excellent quality. Wild honey is gath- 
ered in the forests, where the numerous flowering 
shrubs and plants attract large quantities of bees, 
which make their homes in the hollow trees and 
in the crevices of the rocks. Great quantities of 



84 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

silkworms are also reared in this part of trie isl- 
and, of a species entirely different from that gen- 
erally recognized under that name in England, 
but which produces silk of a fine quality, though 
rather dull-looking, and lacking the peculiar 
glossy texture of that from the Chinese worm. 
The silk, dyed with native dyes obtained from 
various plants native to the country — indigo, tur- 
meric, logwood, nato, etc. — is spun and woven 
into lambas of considerable beauty and value. 
The forests supply a large variety of valuable 
woods for cabinet-making, some useful fibres, and 
excellent gum. Such is the character of the 
country around the spot which still bears the 
name its first founders gave it, Fort Dauphin, or 
Farodofay in Malagasy — a spot having so many 
natural advantages that the wonder is that it ever 
passed out of the hands of the French, who if 
they had any genius for colonization must have 
recognized the value of such a post. 

But it must not be imagined that the French 
were the discoverers of Madagascar. As far as 
existing documents give us the means of judging 
it would appear that Fernando Suarez landed in 
1506, and seems to have founded some trading 
stations for Portuguese enterprise. Doubtless the 
island was known to the Portuguese before the 
above date, for it seems incredible that their nav- 



ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR. 85 

igators could have made the frequent voyages to 
India, after the rounding of the Cape of Good 
Hope by Vasco de Gama in 1497, without sight- 
ing the land lying to the east as they hugged the 
eastern coast of Africa. A few months after this 
discovery, and without any communication re- 
garding it, another Portuguese navigator was 
driven by stress of weather to its shores. A ves- 
sel under the command of Ruy-Pereira was sepa- 
rated in a storm from the fleet of Tristan d'Acu- 
nha and borne to the west coast of the island. 
So struck was the captain with the beauty and 
fertility of every part of the island which he saw 
that he sailed immediately for Mozambique, ho- 
ping there to meet his chief and induce him to 
visit and take possession of the newly-discovered 
land, which he had been assured was rich in spi- 
ces and other valuable products. It appears that 
Tristan d'Acunha not only visited the west coast, 
but remained there sufficiently long to obtain a 
fairly accurate idea of the manners and customs 
of the people, and to construct a chart of the coast- 
line at the same time that Suarez was engaged in 
similar work on the east coast. It is doubtless 
owing to the care which the former bestowed 
upon endeavoring to represent the contour of the 
island, as far as his observations went and the im- 
perfect nature of the instruments at his command 



86 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



permitted, that his name is the only one to which 
the honor of first discovery was given, whereas it 
is beyond all doubt that F. Suarez had seen and 
partly configured the east coast some months pre- 
viously. 

The king, Emmanuel, at a subsequent date 
sent another expedition, under Jacques L,opez de 
Figueira, to ascertain whether or not the country 
was really so rich in spices and silver as it was 
popularly believed to be. Although ginger was 
found to be tolerably abundant, we read nothing 
of other spices nor of silver, and the expedition 
may be said to have entirely disappointed the 
sanguine navigators who entered into it. Hence, 
with the evident intention of conclusively ascer- 
taining the nature of the island and its products, 
its inhabitants and their manners, another fleet 
was sent under the command of Juan Ferrano. 
His commission was to go and obtain as clear a 
knowledge of the country and its resources as 
possible, and if necessary to make such treaties as 
would secure to Portugal the commerce of the 
island. Some ports were formed for this purpose 
and a trade was established, but with the excep- 
tion of that in slaves to the Arabs on the north- 
west coast, very little seems to have been done. 
An effort was also made to introduce Christianity 
among the natives, but this mission seems to have 



ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR. 87 

been abortive and to have ended in the massacre 
of the missionaries. When the Portuguese finally 
left the west coast is not clear, but no effort was 
made to secure the permanent possession of the 
island. 

In a like manner the Dutch subsequently 
opened a trade with Madagascar, and established 
a few trading stations, but their connection with 
the island was of short duration. 

A disastrous attempt was made in 1644 to 
found an English colony in St. Augustin's Bay, 
on the southwest coast, a spot particularly attrac- 
tive to the stranger on account of its fine anchor- 
age and good river communication with the inte- 
rior. These points, taken in conjunction with 
the evident fertility of the district, as exhibited 
by the rank growth on every hand, were sure to 
influence those who were seeking a home in a 
new land. But the spot was so unhealthy that 
few ever left their adopted home; and the num- 
ber of graves in the cemetery alone close by the 
fort, as recorded by some Frenchmen of the Pro- 
mis-Foucquenbourg expedition, show how deadly 
the climate was and what havoc it made among 
the band of hardy colonists.* 

* M. E. de Flacourt, speaking of this affair, says, " The river 
Youghelade is a river as large as the Loire, descending in a west- 
southwest direction from the mountains of Manambola ; and after 
flowing a distance of twelve or fifteen days' journey, it falls into 



83 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



From the time of Flacourt, who in 1648 suc- 
ceeded Prom is, and who by his intelligence and 
energy has earned a well-deserved fame among 
the adventurers to Madagascar, the endeavors of 
France to establish a colony in the island are a 
series of the most miserable failures. Harshness 
and brutality towards the natives, whom they 
never made the slightest attempt to conciliate, 
even supplying their own necessities by turning 
marauders and pillaging from the unoffending 
villagers in their vicinity, and constant quarrel- 
ling among themselves, characterized these early 
abortive attempts on the Grande ilc. Governors 
were appointed in rapid succession, but they were 
only distinguished by their utter incapacity, their 
spirit of rivalry, and their want of discipline, each 
allowing the posts to sink deeper and deeper into 
the mire of insubordination and disorder, while 
no effort was made by any quietly to extend the 

the magnificent bay, called by the Portuguese St. Augustin Bay, in 
•which large vessels were ordinarily anchored. About the year 
1644 an English vessel disembarked 400 men, where they found 
an earthwork built long before by the companions of Francois 
Picard. Three or four years later, twenty-two Frenchmen, hoping 
to find an English vessel bound for Europe, arrived there from 
Fort Dauphin, but they failed to discover a single inhabitant. 
There was a fort and a cemetery, in which it appeared that more 
than 300 had been interred. They were informed by a chief 
named Dian-Maye, who contracted for the supply of bullocks for 
English vessels, that the captain had died of fever (de maladie) 
with most of his men, and that a vessel had taken off the re- 
mainder." 



ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR 89 

influence of France over the surrounding country. 
At the same time it is asserted by French writers 
that such was the lukewarmness or half-hearted- 
ness of the French Government that every expe- 
dition arrived on the coast at the most unhealthy 
season, causing an immense sacrifice of life and a 
feeling of discontent and dissatisfaction on the 
part of the survivors. 

Such being the character of the first attempts 
at colonization, it is not surprising that the na- 
tives were led to unite in driving these unwel- 
come visitors from their shores. So in 1672 the 
French at Fort Dauphin found themselves com- 
pelled, by the patient and long-enduring natives, 
to take refuge in a vessel which happened then to 
be lying at anchor in the bay. "Thus," says a 
French writer, "the fine colony founded by the 
French Eastern Company was completely ruined. ' ' 
And although Louis XIV. found too much to 
employ his time and talents in the management 
of his own kingdom to send another expedition 
to Madagascar, yet the island* was declared to be 
a possession of the Crown of France ; and this 
weak-minded declaration of sovereignty was actu- 
ally confirmed in subsequent years, and still ex- 
ists, so it is said, in the archives of the Admiralty. 
This constitutes, it may be presumed, the ancient 

* Called then the lie Saint Laurent. 

6 



90 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

rights of France, of which we have recently heard 
so much in the French papers and periodicals. 

In Louis XV.' s reign another determined effort 
was made to gain a footing in the island and re- 
establish the old trading stations. In 1733 a visit 
for the purpose of surveying the northeast coast 
was made, and in 1746 Labourdonnais surveyed 
the Bay of Antongil on the east coast; and in 
1750 the French East India Company gained pos- 
session of the island of St. Mary, or Nosy Ibraha, 
the largest off the coast of Madagascar. This the 
French still retain. 

The island of St. Mary* is separated from the 
east coast of Madagascar by a channel about 
three miles in width at its narrowest point off 
Point L,aree. The centre of the island is situ- 
ated in latitude 16 0 45' south and 46 0 15' lon- 
gitude east of Paris. It is about thirty miles 
long, from five to eight miles wide, and has a 
coast-line of over sixty-two miles, with an area 
of about 224,568 acres. An arm of the sea trav- 
erses the island towards the south, forming the 
islet, which has a circumference of five miles. 
The chain of reefs which surround it is broken 
here and there by passages forming practicable 
openings for the entrance of vessels. The chan- 

* The following description is obtained from " Not. statistique 
sur les possessions francaises a Madagascar." Imp. Roy. 1840. 



ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR. 91 

nel which divides the island from the mainland 
is nothing but a vast, sure harbor with a safe 
anchorage. The principal bay in the island is 
Port Louis, which is formed by a breaking down 
of the land two thousand yards in length and a 
thousand in width. In the centre of the bay is a 
small island, called by the French, He Madame, 
and by the natives Lonquez, having a length of 
three hundred yards by one hundred and twenty- 
five yards at its greatest breadth. This island, 
defended by fortifications and armed by batteries, 
contains the Government stores, armory, dock- 
yards, and barracks. To the southeast of this is 
another small island, which forms the head of a 
pier that was built in 1832. The passage on the 
northeast of the former island is deep, and suffi- 
ciently large to admit the largest vessels. 

There are several other anchorages at other 
points on the east coast of St. Mary, among which 
may be noticed the Bay of Lokensy, that faces 
the port of Tintingue. The coast of St. Mary is 
not precipitous; in one or two places only are 
there basaltic capes, but the remainder of the coast 
presents a sandy beach covered with beautiful 
verdure. At first sight the island appears to con- 
sist of an infinite number of small detached hil- 
locks, but on closer acquaintance it is found to 
contain several distinct chains of hills, composed 



93 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

partly of basalt (?) and partly of tufa, in some 
red and others yellow, covered with sand and 
quartz. The soil of the island is, generally speak- 
ing, poor, except a narrow zone in the centre, 
comprising about a fifth part of the area. This is 
the only part regularly cultivated by the natives, 
and is owned entirely by them. The heat and 
moisture of the climate appear highly favorable 
to the cultivation of all tropical products, except 
perhaps cotton. The island abounds in iron, and 
there are plenty of building materials, such as 
stone, lime, and clay suitable for brick and tile 
making. Various kinds of valuable wood are also 
abundant, such as the voamboana, nato, atafana, 
filao, and many others of less value, while the un- 
dergrowth and stunted bushes extend to the sea- 
beach. There is a good supply of water of ex- 
cellent quality, which forms streams sufficiently 
large to be utilized as a motor for saw-mills, and 
these are seldom dry. In some parts of the isl- 
and the streams form large marshes; but it is 
stated that these can, with but little expense and 
labor, be drained. 

The natives occupy houses of wood covered 
with thatch made from the travellers' -tree leaves. 
These are small, but well made, and resemble 
those inhabited by the foreigners established on 
the island. There are thirty-two villages in the 



ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR. 93 

various parts of the district, approached by the 
rudest of footpaths, which pass over rocks and 
through marshes without any consideration for 
the comfort of the traveller. 

The Isle of St. Mary is considered one of the 
countries of the globe in which the rainfall is 
greatly above the average. Rain falls on 220 to 
240 days each year. 

This island was the only spot of land in or 
near Madagascar owned by the French till the 
year 1774, in the face of the grandiloquent proc- 
lamations made after 1672 by Louis XIV. These 
sounded well in French ears, but meant no more 
than do the present enigmatical phrases so fre- 
quently seen in French newspapers, of "French 
ancient rights" to Madagascar, or the "just 
claims ' ' of France to the best portions of the 
island ; phrases fitted to catch the popular ear, but 
unable to bear the light of sober reflection and 
even a very cursory research. 

In 1774 an establishment was formed in the 
Bay of Antongil by Count Benyowski, the only 
man who ever gave promise of an ability to or- 
ganize and govern a French colony in Madagas- 
car, but who, from jealousy on the part of those 
in authority, was thwarted in his honest endeavors, 
and eventually killed in his attempt to maintain 
his position. Beniowski, or Benyowski, was a 



94 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

Polish count, who, after serving under the Em- 
peror of Austria during the Seven Years' War as 
a lieutenant, visited Holland and England, pro- 
fessedly to gain some knowledge of shipbuilding 
and the art of navigation. On his return to Po- 
land he was appointed one of the chiefs of the 
Confederation of Bar in 1768, and after proving 
successful in several engagements with the Rus- 
sians, he was eventually taken prisoner and sen- 
tenced to banishment to Siberia in 1769. Having 
rendered some personal service to Nilof, the gov- 
ernor, the rigor of his confinement was somewhat 
relaxed, for we find that he was appointed tutor 
to the governor's children and that he married 
his master's daughter. He used his greater free- 
dom in arranging a daring scheme for securing 
his own liberty and that of sixty or seventy of 
his companions in exile. This was achieved in 
1 771 by taking possession of a Russian sloop-of- 
war lying off Kamtschatka, and setting sail to 
Japan; from thence he passed on to Formosa, to 
Macao, where his wife died, to India, and subse- 
quently in a merchant vessel to Mauritius, where 
he met with anything but a warm reception from 
those in authority, and where he found that his 
plans regarding Madagascar were frowned upon 
by the governor, and himself regarded as a dan- 
gerous adventurer. 



ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR. 95 

Finding no encouragement in the Isle of 
France, Benyowski went to headquarters, and 
his schemes were looked upon favorably by the 
Due d'Aiguillon, an enthusiast on the subject of 
colonial aggrandizement. A commission was 
granted to the count to found colonies for France 
in Madagascar; but the elements of trouble and 
failure were introduced into the patent by the 
stipulation that the necessary supplies should be 
sent from Mauritius, and Benyowski should sub- 
ordinate himself and his plans to the Governor of 
Mauritius. The count appears to have remon- 
strated against the injustice of thus making his 
success altogether dependent upon the good-will 
of those who had already shown strong opposition 
to him. But no change could be effected, and he 
was compelled to accept the position, which re- 
sulted in the eventual defeat of his plans and his 
own death. 

He returned to Mauritius in the latter part of 
1773 and found that all his fears of opposition 
from the Government of that colony were likely 
to be more than realized. So miserably had all 
previous attempts on Madagascar by the French 
been mismanaged that the Governor of Mauritius, 
De Tournay by name, considered the prospects of 
his own island endangered by the expedition of 
the count, which would prove abortive also, be- 



96 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

cause, ( ( the people of Madagascar, having for one 
hundred and fifty years repelled all the attempts 
of France, they would not submit at this moment 
when they were united under a solid government 
formed by themselves." 

Before rendering any aid to Benyowski, De 
Tournay determined to appeal to the Home Gov- 
ernment; but the former was far too resolute and 
decided a man to brook such delay. He accord- 
ingly sent over a part of his expedition in Decem- 
ber, 1773, to contract with the chiefs and make 
conciliatory terms with such as were willing to 
receive them. Meanwhile he was detained in 
Mauritius by various difficulties — the defection of 
some of his men, the sickness of his officers, and 
the dilatoriness of the authorities; while not only 
was he treated contemptuously by the governor, 
but, according to his memoirs, messages were sent 
to the chiefs in Madagascar discrediting him, and 
cautioning: them of his intention to reduce the 
whole island to slavery. 

Hence, upon his arrival in Antongil Bay in 
June, 1774, the count found a great number of 
people prepared to meet him; but he appears to 
have acted in a wise and judicious manner in en- 
deavoring to favorably impress the natives with 
the objects of his expedition. He made treaties 
of alliance with the chiefs, who were quite willing 



ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR. 97 

to allow him to settle in the country and build a 
town, so long as no kind of fortress was erected. 
They were doubtless led to this by their knowl- 
edge of the actions of former settlers; and Ben- 
yowski showed his wisdom and his extensive 
knowledge of mankind in acceding to these con- 
ditions and so conducting his little settlement as 
to produce a sense of confidence in the minds of 
the adjacent chieftains. 

Having secured the tranquillity of Louisbourg, 
the town he had built, an effort was made to ex- 
tend his influence into the interior and towards 
the south by sending trusted messengers with in- 
terpreters to reason with the chiefs and to con- 
vince them of the advantages of trade; while at 
the same time a great deal of useful information 
respecting the character of the country, the habits 
• and numbers of the people, was collected for the 
future use of the count, or u Governor, " as he was 
thenceforward styled. The reports brought in en- 
abled him to build and fortify various posts along 
the coast — at Ivongo, Ngontsy, Fenoarivo, Tam- 
atave, and Foule Point, as well as a sanatorium 
for his invalids on the higher land at a distance 
from the malaria of the marshes which surround 
Louisbourg or Maroantsetra. 

Owing to his indefatigable activity his author- 
ity quickly extended to all the people with whom 



98 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

lie came in contact, and treaties of peace and alli- 
ance were made with, the chiefs. Still he was 
surrounded with trouble, for not only were many 
of his followers suffering from the fever of the 
country, but he also found that the pusillanimous 
jealousy of the Government in Mauritius had 
prompted them to withhold the necessary sup- 
plies. Representations of the distress thus occa- 
sioned were made to their fellow-countrymen 
without meeting with any response, and Ben- 
yowski was at last forced to apply to France for 
relief. Meanwhile it appears, from the memoirs 
of the count, that efforts were made by the Gov- 
ernor of Mauritius to stir up disaffection among 
the friendly tribes; and he even sent over some 
men, a supercargo, storekeeper, and some clerks, 
with no good intention towards the infant colony. 
A few days after their arrival they were discov- 
ered in acts evidently intended to compromise the 
settlement, and one man even w T ent so far as to 
say he had authority to take possession of the 
governor's effects and papers in case of his death. 
It required the greatest fortitude and wisdom on 
the part of Benyowski to prevent the destruction 
of the settlement, and there appears reason to fear 
that, but for the faithfulness of his officers, he 
must have fallen a victim to the machinations of 
these emissaries of prejudiced officials. 



ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR. 99 

On more than one occasion the Sakalava com- 
bined in an attempt to exterminate the foreigners, 
but were totally unsuccessful, so powerful was the 
alliance between the French and the tribes ad- 
joining their posts. Just after one of the success- 
ful expeditions against the Sakalava, who had 
approached to the opposite side of the forest, 
Benyowski received despatches from France in 
answer to his application of over two years pre- 
viously; but, unfortunately, although the French 
Government showed itself sufficiently interested 
in its subjects to freight a vessel with stores and 
ammunition, yet the count received instructions 
to confine himself to the defence of the positions 
he had gained, and not strive to push farther 
afield, as there was a feeling of uncertainty on 
the part of the Government as to the desirability 
of forming a permanent colony in Madagascar. 
Further, he learned by later letters in the mail 
that the vessel carrying the much-needed supplies 
had been wrecked on the south coast. 

Taking these matters into consideration the 
count determined at once to return to Louisbourg 
and not push his advantage against the Sakalava. 
But he found it very difficult to dismiss his allies, 
as they said they would not desert him, having 
heard that he was to be taken away to be tried in 
France. This was not the only cause for their 



IOO MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



unwillingness to depart, as became apparent soon 
after the count's return from the west. A feeling 
had been gaining ground among the natives that 
the governor was the lineal descendant of Ramini, 
the last sovereign of Mananara. This report had 
arisen from the declaration of a slave, Suzanne, 
whom Benyowski had brought over with him 
from Mauritius, who declared that he was the 
son of Ramini's daughter, who had been taken 
away captive with her and sold as a slave in 
Mauritius. These declarations had been gaining 
favor with the people, and so great was the respect 
for Benyowski that even Rafangoro, the reigning 
chief, agreed to abdicate in his favor. The count 
thought that c ' the urgent crisis in his own affairs, 
deserted as he was by every friend except such as 
he could obtain in a barbarous nation, rendered it 
justifiable to avail himself of this and many other 
superstitious notions of the natives tending to 
point him out as the possessor of this vacant 
chieftainship. The belief appeared to be gaining 
ground at the very time when the affairs of the 
colony rendered it a great temptation to the count 
to take advantage of it." Hence it is not sur- 
prising, when three of the most powerful chiefs 
waited upon him to instal him as one of their 
number, that even the pain of breaking away 
from his appointment under the French king did 



ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR. 103 

not weigh very heavily with him against the po- 
sition of influence he would gain by the accept- 
ance of the proffered honor ; more especially as 
three officers and fifty soldiers revolted just at this 
time against the underhanded intrigues of the 
Governor of Mauritius, and declared they desired 
to join their fortunes for ever with Benyowski, 
from whom they would never separate. 

Having received his acceptance of the offer, 
the chiefs retired to make arrangements for the 
public ceremony; and on the following day, Sep- 
tember 16, 1777, a great kabary was held, when 
Benyowski was publicly proclaimed to be the 
ampasakabe, or chief king of the district. The 
heads of the people, on their behalf and in their 
name, swore fealty to the new king, and gave as- 
surance of their fidelity and confidence. The 
governor replied, saying "he should endeavor 
to establish a government on a firm foundation, 
and to promote the happiness of the people, by 
introducing all the arts of civilization and a sys- 
tem of just laws." 

The people insisted upon one point, viz., that 
their new king should separate himself entirely 
from France, and asked him where he wished 
them to build his capital. He replied that al- 
though it was his intention to break w T ith France, 
yet it was necessary that he should be at hand to 



104 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

meet the French commission which was then on 
its way to inquire into the state of the colony. 
The commissioners arrived on September 21, and 
made a complete examination of the posts, the 
forts, the servants, and officers; and five days 
after landing they held a meeting with the peo- 
ple for the purpose of a complete investigation 
into the character of the administration of the 
governor. The result was that a certificate was 
presented to him, upon his resignation of his 
office into the hands of the commission, attesting 
to the perfect regularity of his conduct of the 
colony and clearing his character from the asper- 
sions of his enemies. 

On September 29 the commissioners reem- 
barked. But notwithstanding that he had re- 
signed his office under the French king, yet he 
consented again to act as head of the establish- 
ment, at the earnest request of the soldiers and 
the officers next in command to himself; but at 
the same time he protested that such action must 
not be looked upon as a return to his former 
standing in the French service, for this he had 
positively renounced. 

On October 12 an imposing ceremony, invest- 
ing Benyowski with his kingly authority, took 
place. The natives, to the number of 30,000, 
had assembled to take the oath of blood and hear 



ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR. 105 

the address of trie sovereign. The oath of blood 
is performed in the following way. A native 
cooking-pot is partly filled with water, into which 
is put a collection of various articles, such as a 
bullet, a flint from a gun, a little powder, some 
rice in the husk, etc. Two spears are then pro- 
cured, one of which is held upright in the vessel 
while the other is used to strike the former while 
pronouncing the words of the oath calling down 
the most frightful maledictions upon the one sub- 
scribing to it if unfaithful to its terms. Then a 
small incision is made under the breast of each 
contracting party, and a drop of the blood is 
caught upon a piece of ginger, which is eaten by 
the other. A small quantity of the water from 
the cooking-pot is also handed to each in a leaf 
and drunk. * 

It appears from the memoirs that the people 
took the oath of sacrifice also, which consists in 
the slaughtering of a bullock, and each contract- 
ing party taking a little of the blood, while re- 

• In the above I have taken M. L. de Lacombe's description. 
Grandidier went through the same ceremony, which differed only 
in minor points. Benyowski said that each sucked the blood of 
the other. I was asked to make myself the brother of Ratsian- 
draofana by the oath of blood, when I was told that a small piece 
of the flesh was taken from each and swallowed by the other. I, 
however, thought it more dignified to tell the king that an English- 
man's "yes or no" was as powerful a bond as the fdta-dra, or 
" bond of blood." For other variations in this ceremonial, see the 
" Great African Island," Sibree, pp. 223-225. 



106 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

peating imprecations against himself and his chil- 
dren if they should prove unfaithful to their oath. 
The women also came and took the oath to obey 
the countess (who had arrived from Hungary), 
and to defer to her in all their quarrels. 

Benyowski set about vigorously to establish a 
settled form of government, which was to have 
been partly of a representative character, consist- 
ing of two councils: one containing thirty-two 
of the principal chiefs to form a kind of privy 
council to assist the count and watch over the 
welfare of the state; the other to be composed of 
the provincial governors and their councils. 
There is no doubt that if he had been allowed to 
carry out his plans, which met with the entire 
approval of the chiefs, the history of Madagas- 
car would have been widely different and its 
condition far more prosperous. 

But strange as it may seem, two months after 
these events the count left Madagascar in a brig, 
"La Belle Arthur," for Europe, with the inten- 
tion of endeavoring, with the consent of the 
chiefs, to make a treaty of commerce and alliance 
with France or some other European nation. On 
his arrival in France he reported himself at Ver- 
sailles, and so well pleaded his case that the Cabi- 
net admitted his rights; and, in consideration of 
his services while governor under France, he 



ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR. 107 

was presented with a sword of honor. But so far 
from making any treaty with him, and so ac- 
knowledging his position as king, the Government 
refused to have anything more to do with him. 
Foiled in Prance, Benyowski offered his services 
to the Emperor of Germany, and was at the bat- 
tle of Habelschwerdt, 1778. But not being more 
successful in his aims in Germany, he tried to 
obtain in London men and money for his pur- 
pose and to enable him to return to his kingdom, 
but again he was doomed to disappointment 
These reverses, h wever, only stimulated him to 
further effort, and in 1784 he was rejoiced at 
receiving enough support from some merchants 
in America to enable him to return to Madagas- 
car. 

He lauded July 7, 1785, at Nosi-be, and gain- 
ing the mainland in a boat, he walked across the 
northern portion of the island to Antongil Bay, 
where he was received with the greatest enthusi- 
asm after his long absence by those in the estab- 
lishments which he had founded. To obtain 
the rule, and to gain possession of the Govern- 
ment stores, was an easy task; but such an act 
meant rebellion, and the Governor of Mauritius 
was not likely to lose the opportunity this afforded 
him of crushing the obnoxious count. A frig- 
ate, the 1 1 Louisa," was despatched to take him, 

Madagascar aud France. *7 



108 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

* 4 alive or dead," and arrived off Foule Point 
1786. 

4 ' After procuring what provisions they wanted, 
the "Louisa" proceeded along the coast of Ngon- 
tsy, and having moored the vessel about half a 
league from the shore, they sent two boats, well 
manned, with two pieces of cannon on the bows 
of each, in order to effect a landing. When this 
was done they marched immediately towards Ben- 
yowski's settlement. After crossing five marshes 
they heard the people at work at the settlement, 
and soon after saw a -red flag, which is the com- 
mon signal for battle in the island. Benyowski 
had at this time retired to the fort, with two Eu- 
ropeans and about thirty natives, who happened 
to be with him. The fort was situated on an 
eminence, surrounded by strong palisades and de- 
fended by two four-pounders and a few swivels. 
These were played off against the French, who, 
however, continued to advance, and when they 
had got sufficiently near were ordered to return 
the fire. The first discharge proved decisive. 
Benyowski received a ball in the breast, and 
fell behind the parapet. He w r as barbarously 
dragged forward by his hair and expired in a 
few moments. ' ' * 

Such was the end of this extraordinary man, 

* History of Madagascar." Ellis, Vol. II. p. 91. 



ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR. 109 

who was the only representative France ever had 
in Madagascar with genius sufficient and pene- 
tration keen enough to have made the island a 
French possession. But he was never seconded 
in his efforts by those in authority at home, who 
appeared to have had very little anxiety about 
the extension of French interests, and who re- 
garded his character and action in very different 
lights. Some French writers speak of him as a 
cruel, tyrannical usurper, while others say that 
"his name is still held in veneration by the Mal- 
agasy tribes on the coast among whom he formed 
his establishments." 

After the death of Benyowski no further effort 
was made by France to form a colony in Mad- 
agascar. The revolution which soon after broke 
out occupied all the attention of the Government. 
The only notice taken of former pretensions was 
exhibited in the despatch of such men as Lesca- 
lier in 1792 and Bory de St. Vincent in 1801 
and Decaen in 1804, to ascertain the condition of 
the various trading stations, kept up for the pur- 
pose of supplying the wants of Mauritius and 
Bourbon, and as ports from which to despatch 
the slaves bought for the markets of those islands. 
All the horrors of the slave-trade existed under 
French control there; and notwithstanding every 
attempt which has been made to put a stop to 



110 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

the export of Malagasy as slaves, there is reason 
to believe that in the island of Bourbon are many 
who have been kidnapped from the west coast by 
Creole captains, and taken to fill the want felt by 
the planters in the stoppage of the supply of coolies 
from India, for which their own cupidity and want 
of fair dealing are alone responsible. 

These traits have characterized French deal- 
ings with all native races, whether in the Indian 
seas or the Pacific, and to this cause must be at- 
tributed the hatred which the coast tribes bear to 
the French and French Creoles. Instances have 
frequently come under the notice of the writer il- 
lustrating the relief felt by people in a lonely vil- 
lage or town when it has become known that their 
visitor is English and not French. Even in the 
Ikongo, a long distance inland, the first question 
asked, before any communication was allowed to 
be made to the king, was, "Are you French ?" 
and the traveller heard afterwards for his satis- 
faction that, had he been of that nation, steps 
would have been immediately taken to send him 
out of their country. 

The value of French influence in Madagascar 
is well estimated by Lescalier in the official re- 
port he gives of his voyage referred to above. 
He says that " Europeans" (this must mean the 
French, as no other nation had made an attempt 



ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR. Ill 

on the east coast, which alone he visited) "have 
hardly ever visited this island but to ill treat the 
natives and to exact forced service from them ; to 
excite and foment quarrels among them for the 
purpose of purchasing the slaves that are taken 
on both sides in the consequent wars; in a word, 
they have left no other mark there but the effect 
of their cupidity. The French Government have 
at long intervals formed, or, rather, attempted to 
form, establishments among these people; but the 
agents in these enterprises have attended exclu- 
sively to the interests and emoluments of the 
Europeans, and particularly to their own profits; 
some of these ministerial delegates have even 
been dishonest adventurers and have committed 
a thousand atrocities. It cannot therefore ex- 
cite surprise that sometimes they have experi- 
enced marks of the resentment of the Malagasy, 
who, notwithstanding, are naturally the most easy 
and sociable people on earth." 

It appears, both from French as well as Eng- 
lish writers, that one cause of the want of suc- 
cess on the part of the French in obtaining a firm 
footing in Madagascar arose from a dread on the 
part of the colonists of Mauritius and Bourbon 
that if France possessed Madagascar their islands 
would become only secondary. They thought that 
the larger island would require so much protection 



112 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

and patronage that they would be absolutely ne- 
glected, and hence they threw cold water upon 
every effort at colonisation. 

The European wars of the empire entirely dis- 
tracted the attention of France from Madagascar, 
and her fleets in distant seas were too weak to 
protect those colonies she had long possessed. 
One by one they fell into the hands of the Eng- 
lish, and in 1810, owing to the fact that Mauritius 
was the entrepot for the prises taken by the French 
fleet from the allied powers and a convenient port 
in which the enemy could refit, an English force 
was sent and captured Mauritius, Bourbon, and 
all the possessions of France in the Indian Ocean. 
Men were also sent to Tamatave, Foule Point, 
and the other establishments of the French on 
Madagascar, to destroy or occupy them. Thus 
ended the French occupation and all just claims 
to Madagascar. 

By the Treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814, Article 
8, Bourbon was returned to the French, while 
Mauritius and her dependencies were still held 
by the British. Hence, as the Madagascar sta- 
tions were always looked upon as dependencies 
of Mauritius, these naturally became English. 
When Sir Robert Farquhar, the first English 
Governor of Mauritius, proclaimed formal pos- 
session of Madagascar by His Majesty, the French 



ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR. 113 

Governor of Bourbon, M. Eozier, strongly pro- 
tested that Madagascar was not named in the ces- 
sion of territory to the English by the terms of the 
treaty of 1814. The baselessness of the contention 
that Madagascar was a dependency of Bourbon is 
shown by the whole course of events from 1643, as 
well as by the words of the official report in 1801, 
in which these words occur : 4 1 The Isle of France ' ' 
(as Mauritius was then called) u can be considered 
only as a military post, and Bourbon as its maga- 
zine." So that even Bourbon itself was looked 
upon as one of the dependencies of Mauritius. 

Some diplomatic correspondence passed in ref- 
erence to the subject, and eventually, on October 
23, 1 81 7, England handed over all her possessions 
to the Hova king, Radama I., who was just then 
beginning to make his power felt throughout 
the island. A treaty was made with him on that 
date by which, in consideration of his abolition of 
the export slave-trade, the English Government 
agreed to pay an annual pension of $2,000, 10,000 
lbs. of gunpowder, 100 muskets, and various 
quantities of military stores and accoutrements. 
Some French writers speak very bitterly of this 
treaty as an infringement of their rights and a 
mark of the perfidy of England, and even saddle 
her with "having a hand" in the pillage of their 
vessek and trading stations on the coast, as well 



114 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

as the insolence of the natives towards them. We 
fail to see any injustice in the English action, and 
it seems more reasonable to look at their former 
treatment of the natives as the cause of the want 
of respect on the part of those who had been 
cheated and robbed by every adventurer who 
ever came under the colors of France. 

Smarting under what they supposed to be an 
ignoring of their position in the island, the 
French, in 1818, commenced retaking from the 
Malagasy those ports which had once been in 
their hands — at Fort Dauphin, Tamatave, Foule 
Point, Mananara, and St. Mary. But Radama 
was in 1823 sufficiently established to make the 
attempt to rule his country alone, and appeared 
suddenly on the east coast, at the head of a con- 
siderable force, and swept the invaders from his 
shores. 

In 1829 another equally futile attempt was 
made by the French, under Gourbeyre, to gain a 
footing and revenge themselves upon the Mala- 
gasy for past disasters. But at Foule Point they 
were put to rout by the natives with great loss, 
and Gourbeyre was glad to betake himself and 
his expedition to Bourbon. Even St. Mary can 
scarcely be said to have been theirs, for, accord- 
ing to French authority, there were but thirty- 
seven soldiers there in 1836, who must have been 



ATTEMPTS TO COLONIZE MADAGASCAR. 115 

permitted by the islanders to have remained there 
on sufferance ; and Radama, having no fleet, 
looked upon the island as too insignificant and 
too unapproachable to trouble himself about its 
possession. 

Radama L was a man of considerable natural 
ability, tact, and forethought, faithful and honor- 
able in the carrying out of his engagements, but 
still with the uncultured savagery of the heathen 
barbarian. His wars were marked by constant 
rapine and license, his government by a rough 
and severe justice. The advance which he and 
his subjects made during his reign is to be ac- 
counted for entirely by the wisdom he displayed 
in accepting the good offices of strangers who 
came to his country from pure philanthropic mo- 
tives, and whom he was able to discriminate from 
the many who resided in his country simply to 
trade, which, too often in those days, meant 
cheating and robbing. It is to Radama' s credit 
that, notwithstanding the many inducements to 
break the treaty with England and continue the 
slave-trade, he kept faithful to his promise, and 
forbore to make profit by eluding the vigilance of 
the English cruisers. 

Meanwhile M. Roux, the French Governor of 
St. Mary, had again and again tried to stir up 
the tribes on the mainland to the south to take 



Il6 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

up arms against Radama, and after the establish- 
ment of the native post at Foule Point an endeav- 
or was made to induce the natives to attack and 
destroy it. But their efforts in this direction 
proved altogether abortive, as the coast people 
felt more confidence in their Hova conquerors 
than in their French oppressors. 

In 1824 Radama formed the project of subju- 
gating all the other tribes of the island to his 
sway, and, accompanied by Mr. Hastie, the Brit- 
ish resident, led a force against the Northern 
Sakalava and subdued them, chief after chief 
meeting him and swearing fealty to him. Dur- 
ing the remainder of the lifetime of the king these 
people acknowledged his supremacy, although 
French agency was not wanting to attempt to 
stir them up to resistance and to an assertion of 
independence. 



THE RECENT FRENCH CLAIMS. 117 



CHAPTER V. 

THE RECENT FRENCH CLAIMS. 

Loyalty of Sakalava Chiefs. Rebellion in 1839. So-called Ces- 
sion of Territory, and Treaty of 1840. Lambert Company. 
Radama II. 's Death. Indemnity Paid by Malagasy. Land in 
the Capital Claimed by the Heirs of M. Laborde. "Govern- 
ment Gazette " on the Validity of Claim. Indemnity Demanded 
for Lives of Arabs on the " Tousle." Native Accounts. Arrival 
of M. Baudais. Examination of Native Witnesses. Sudden 
Demand of France for all the Northwest Coast. Native Objec- 
tions. M. Le Timbre and Hova Flags. Embargo on the 
"Antananarivo." Points which Militate Against French 
Claims. The Matter of the " Antananarivo." Detention by 
Le Timbre Indirectly Causes Death of Americans on South- 
west. Account of the Outrage on Mr. Emerson. Outrage to 
the American Flag. Determined Action of American Consul. 

The Sakalava remained faithful to the Kino; 
of Madagascar, as Radama I. was styled, and to 
his successor Ranavalona I., until 1839. Then 
the severity and harsh enactments of that persecu- 
ting queen drove a portion of the tribe (those in 
Iboina) into rebellion. Hova troops were sent 
against them and conquered them. They fled 
the country, and took refuge in Nosi-be, Mayot- 
ta, Nosi-Mitsio, and other small islands off the 
northwest coast. A French man-of-war soon 
after coming to Nosi-be "made common cause 
with the Sakalava; and it is alleged that in July, 



Il8 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

1840, the latter ceded their territory on the main- 
land together with Nosi-be to the French. That 
island was accordingly taken possession of by the 
French in 1841, and has ever since remained in 
their hands; but from that date till the year 
1882 no attempt had ever been made to enforce 
the right the French claim to have acquired on 
the mainland; and the Hova Government has 
always strenuously resisted any such claims by 
foreigners. ' ' * 

Shortly after the possession of Nosi-be, accord- 
ing to a native eye-witness still living in Tama- 
tave, a scheme was made to obtain a footing on 
the mainland and on some of the smaller islands. 
A French man-of-war arrived off Nosi-Mitsio, 
and the chief was induced to go on board, as it 
was stated that the ship had come to show him 
how friendly the French wished to be with him. 
At first he declined to go, but was at last per- 
suaded to trust himself on board, when the vessel 
immediately left and took him to Bourbon. He 
was feted there for some time, was presented with 
a sword and uniform, and eventually signed a 
document agreeing to a French protectorate. 
When this was completed he returned to find that 
his people were by no means so ready to brook 

* "What are French Claims on Madagascar?" by Rev. J. 
Sibree, F. R. G. S. 



THE RECENT FRENCH CLAIMS. 119 



any interference. Serious disturbances occurred 
while the French man-of-war was still there, and 
the chief begged to be taken away to Nosi-be. 
He was landed there, and the French returned, 
reduced the island to order, and followed many 
fugitives to the mainland, which they also claimed 
as part of the chieftainship. This is only a na- 
tive account, and I give it for what it is worth; 
there is doubtless some truth in it, as the narrator 
is a trustworthy native pastor. 

In 1862 much more important negotiations 
seemed to put a large part of the island into the 
hands of a French company, called the Lambert 
Company. Radama II., who was then king, 
was powerfully influenced by foreigners, and very 
decided leanings towards the French were evinced 
in his conduct of the kingdom. It is well known 
that this infatuation, his almost constant state of 
drunkenness, and his countenance of duelling, 
caused the revolution which ended in his death, 
after a short reign. By the terms of the agree- 
ment with the Lambert Company, he granted 
them sovereign rights over all the land between 
the 12 0 and 16 0 of south latitude. 

A concession of this kind is entirely opposed 
to the principles of the Malagasy Government, a 
fundamental one being that all land belongs to 
the sovereign, and that no foreigner can own land 



ISO MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

in the country. So powerful was the opposition 
in the succeeding reign to the claims of the com- 
pany that a compromise was effected, in order to 
satisfy at once the prejudices of the natives and 
the vested right of the company. This was done 
by means of a payment of $240,000 on the part 
of the Malagasy Government to the company; 
and the acceptance of this indemnity entirely re- 
scinded all claims of the French to any part of 
the mainland; for it is a noticeable fact that in the 
agreement made the king was styled "King of 
Madagascar," not king of the Hovas, thus im- 
plying his sovereignty over the whole island. The 
same may be said of their treaty made in 1868, 
where several times, as in the English and Amer- 
ican treaties, the queen is styled Queen of Mada- 
gascar, which must necessarily mean the whole 
island. No claim was made to the territory on 
the northwest, and the French vessels in common 
with those of other nationalities paid the usual 
customs to the Hova authorities placed there to 
receive them. What can be better proof than 
this that the French acknowledged the right of 
the queen — who was even appealed to when dis- 
putes arose between the French traders there and 
the Hova officers ? 

The first time that an attempt was made to 
wrest any land from its original and rightful 



THE RECENT FRENCH CLAIMS. 121 

owners was made by M. Cassas on behalf of the 
heir to the former consul, M. L,aborde. A piece 
of land had been given to the latter for his sole 
use at Andohalo, in the centre of the capital, in 
the same way as plots had been given to British 
subjects who were favorites with the sovereign. 
On these they built, and, in fact, used them as 
their own freeholds. But each plot had reverted 
to the queen on the death or departure of the orig- 
inal recipient; as, for instance, the plot given to 
Mr. Cameron, who enjoyed the undisturbed use of 
his piece of land till his death, when the houses 
and land reverted to the crown. But on M. L,a- 
borde's death an unrighteous endeavor was made 
to compel the recognition of the claim of his heirs 
to possess this land in perpetuity. To this the 
Government demurred, stating the above agree- 
ment, and also referring to the fact that when M. 
Laborde was driven out of the country by Rana- 
valona I. no attempt was made to claim the land. 
" And further," says the "Government Gazette, " 
"the document said to have been signed and 
sealed, in support of this claim, cannot be admit- 
ted as proving the validity of the claim, because 
M. C. Laborde, who alone appears as witness, 
kept the seal of Radama II. , and could use it as 
he pleased; and not only so, the date of the docu- 
ment is 1864, but Radama II. died in 1863. And 



122 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

after he was dead even M. Clement Laborde still 
kept the seal, and not till the Government ex- 
pressed some indignation did he give it up. Be- 
fore any arrangement had been made M. Cassas 
left for home in 1879."* 

" In 1881," to quote from the same authority, 
"M. Meyer came up to the capital to take the 
place of M. Cassas. He was received with the 
same honor as had been shown to M. Cassas. M. 
Meyer's business was to report that a dhow called 
the 'Touele,' belonging to Arabs, but French 
subjects, had come to Marambitsy, a port on the 
boundary of the land under the rule of Bokary 
Bekirondro, and that four Arabs had been killed 
and the cargo stolen or lost. He claimed an in- 
demnity of $9,740 for the lives of the men and for 
the value of the merchandise." 

The Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs 
sent to the Governor of Mojanga to seek the mur- 
derers of these Arabs. But a little time after the 
messengers had left for Mojanga and adjacent 
Hova stations a letter from Bokary Bekirondro 
was received, stating that those Arabs were sell- 
ing; arms and ammunition at x\ndoka, which is a 
place not yet acknowledged as a port by the Mal- 
agasy Government; that is, a place without a cus- 
tom-house. Therefore the messengers of Bekiron- 

* " Ny Gazety Malagasy," for June 23, p. 2. 



THE RECENT FRENCH CLAIMS. 1 23 

dro forbade them to land and sell them; in conse- 
quence of which the Arabs fired on the Malagasy, 
and Jangoa, a Sakalava and a Malagasy subject, 
was killed. 

While negotiations were still pending, M. 
Baudais arrived in 1882, and M. Meyer left the 
country. 

The business in connection with the dhow 
"Touele" was taken up again by M. Baudais 
and the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. 
The former was told that, as M. Meyer had been 
previously informed, messengers had been sent to 
inquire into the matter, and that when they ar- 
rived at Mojanga every effort was made to dis- 
cover the Sakalava who were said to have mur- 
dered these French subjects. One, whose name 
was Ijoby, was arrested. When brought up he 
was examined by the governor, and he said, 
"When those Arabs, French subjects, came to 
sell arms at Marambitsy we were sent by Bekiron- 
dro to forbid them selling them, as it was a viola- 
tion of the treaty between France and Madagas- 
car, which stipulates that no arms should be im- 
ported into the kingdom of the sovereign of Mad- 
agascar except those sent for by the Government. 
On account of the breaking of this agreement we 
were despatched by Bokary Bekirondro to forbid 
the sale. Twice we forbade it, but no notice was 
8 



124 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

taken ; and when we came the third time to stop 
them the Arabs became enraged, and they said, 
'What do you know about it?' They fired at us, 
and our leader was wounded and fell into the wa- 
ter, while many of the others were killed. When 
we saw that they attacked us in earnest — for our 
hands could not shield us from their balls — we 
fired, because they were not only breaking the 
treaty, but attacked us first. ' ' 

When these words of Ijoby were sent by the 
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to M. Bau- 
dais he would not take them into consideration at 
all, but pressed for the payment of the indemnity 
mentioned by M. Meyer, saying that w T hat the 
Arabs had done was no infringement of the stipu- 
lations of the treaty. Notwithstanding, because 
of the desire of the Government of Madagascar 
for the continued friendship of the Government 
of France, and its dislike of vacillation, they paid 
the indemnity. 

After a little time had elapsed M. Baudais de- 
clared that the northwest coast of Madagascar, 
under the Princes Benas and Monja, belonged to 
the French, and he said that a treaty to that effect 
had long been made with the Sakalava. The 
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs protested 
strongly against the possession of that land by any 
foreigner, and the proof of their not possessing it 



THE RECENT FRENCH CLAIMS. 1 25 

was the treaty signed in 1868, in which the Gov- 
ernment of France acknowledge that the queen is 
the sovereign of the whole of Madagascar. Be- 
sides this, that tract of country was comprised in 
the land for which Rasoherina, the queen, paid 
$240,000 in 1856, and from that time the French 
ceased to own the smallest piece of land in Mada- 
gascar. Again, the fact that the merchants, 
whether French or English, paid all the custom 
duties to the queen, and that these were received 
by officers placed there by her, is proof that the 
land was recognized as belonging to the sovereign 
of Madagascar. 

But although these proofs were placed before 
them it only made matters worse here, and Com- 
mandant I^e Timbre took forcible possession of 
the Hova flags which had been hoisted by Behar- 
amanja and Mahavanona, and laid an embargo 
on the " Antananarivo," a ship belonging to the 
Queen of Madagascar, and objected to the land- 
ing of the rifles bought from an American com- 
pany in Tamatave. 

The above is a concise statement of the claims 
of the French to the northwest territory, from 
which it is seen that the Government felt itself 
too weak to resist the payment of the indemnity 
for. the Arab smugglers who were killed by the 
Malagasy is self-defence, although they felt its 



126 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



great injustice. It is difficult to see how the 
French Government reconcile the above demand 
with their claim to the very territory in which 
the escapade occurred. Outrages of a similar na- 
ture, but where only Malagasy have been killed 
by French subjects, have been by no means un- 
common; and I have heard on good authority 
cases of kidnapping and murder on the west coast 
which for inhuman atrocity are only equalled by 
the exploits of some of the South Sea kidnappers. 
But the Malagasy Government have not had suf- 
ficient power to enforce their claims for repara- 
tion, and the perpetrators not only are still free 
and unpunished, but at least one French captain 
makes a boast of how many he killed in one voy- 
age. And yet, when some Arabs of doubtful na- 
tionality, by choosing to fly the French flag, are 
killed for their misdeeds in territory claimed by 
the French Government, the Malagasy are com- 
pelled to pay the sum of ;£ 1,948 because some of 
their subjects endeavored to defend their own 
lives ! The matters which bear against the 
French claims to the part of the Sakalava terri- 
tory are clearly tabulated by W. C. Pickersgill, 
Esq.,* in the "Madagascar Tract," No. 2. Fol- 
lowing his arrangement they appear as follows: 
1. Ranavalona II. and her predecessors have 

* Since appointed H. B. M.'s Vice-Consul at Antananarivo. 



THE RECENT FRENCH CLAIMS. 127 

been acknowledged by French treaties as sover- 
eigns of Madagascar, without any reservation 
whatever. 

2. The Hova authorities have collected cus- 
toms at various ports in the disputed territory 
ever since the country became theirs by conquest. 

3. The Sakalava chieftains and princes have 
all at various times presented their tokens of 
fealty to the Hova sovereigns. 

4. The Sakalava people have paid a yearly 
poll-tax to the Hova. 

5. The French flag has never been hoisted on 
the mainland (northwest) of Madagascar. The 
Hova flag has been flying for more than forty 
years on the territory now claimed by France. 

6. Hova governors have from time to time en- 
croached upon the privileges granted to the van- 
quished Sakalava by Radama I. The Sakalava 
have looked to the Queen at Antananarivo for 
redress. No jurisdiction has been exercised by 
France or colonial French in these matters. 

7. British war vessels have cruised in the 
waters of the disputed territory for the suppres- 
sion of the slave-trade. A British consul has 
landed there, and has dealt directly with the 
native authorities, according to terms agreed upon 
by himself and the Hova Government, without 
any reference whatever to France. 



128 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

8. French representatives have repeatedly 
blamed the Hova Government for not asserting 
its authority more fully upon the west coast. 

9. France has quite recently imposed a heavy 
fine upon the Hova Government for a so-called 
1 'outrage committed by the Sakalava upon an 
Arab dhow flying French colors. ' ' 

Other points might be adduced to show the 
hollo wness of these so-called "just claims, " but 
the above suffice for our purpose. 

After Commandant Le Timbre had tried to 
frighten the Governor of Tamatave with threats 
of bombardment, he set sail for the northwest, 
and cut down the two flagstaffs bearing the 
newly-erected Malagasy flags. Not a very dif- 
ficult task, seeing that the Sakalava were not 
likely to defend them against armed Frenchmen, 
and the nearest Hova station was several miles 
distant. He returned to Tamatave and offered 
the flags to the governor if he would give him a 
written receipt for them, which, however, he de- 
clined to do. M. L,e Timbre then laid an em- 
bargo on the " Antananarivo, n the only ship pos- 
sessed by the Malagasy Government, which was 
being used as a training ship for some half a dozen 
Hova youths, among them the Prime Minister's 
son, to fit them to become naval commanders and 
officers. The vessel was under the command of 



THE RECENT FRENCH CLAIMS. 129 

a Norwegian captain, conversant with the Mal- 
agasy language and with life on the west coast. 
He had been commissioned by the Hova Govern- 
ment first to make one or two trading expeditions, 
and then the soldiers told off for service on the 
west coast would have been appointed, and he was 
to take them round to their various posts. Hear- 
ing of this, and before any intimation had been 
given that war was likely to be declared, M. Le 
Timbre sent word to the captain to unbend his 
sails and make no attempt to leave the port; that 
if such should take place, he would fire into the 
vessel. So for several months the Malagasy were 
checked in their endeavor to carry out that 
which the French had again and again reproached 
them with not doing — firmly establishing their 
authority on the west coast. Admiral Gore-Jones 
advised the Malagasy to do this, and the native 
idea is that he promised help towards the firm 
planting of Hova authority over the troublesome 
Sakalava. 

The action of M. Le Timbre had results be- 
yond the mere detention of the Malagasy vessel, 
for to it may be also attributed indirectly the 
murder of an American and two others on the 
southwest coast. Mr. Pakenham, in forwarding 
to Lord Granville an account of this affair, which 
is given below, says, "I fear that French con- 



130 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE). 

sular authority in Madagascar must be held, at 
least morally, responsible for this outrage, inas- 
much as they have prevented the Hova Govern- 
ment from sending troops by sea to the west coast 
of Madagascar, and thus left all foreign traders 
there at the entire mercy of unprincipled Saka- 
lava chiefs, who have seized the opportunity to 
throw off even the nominal allegiance to the 
Queen of Madagascar." 

The account of the murder forwarded is as 
follows: 

" Messrs. Emerson and Hulett, who came via 
Natal, arrived at Morondava some months since, 
and after travelling into the interior from there, 
came south to Nos Bey, when they procured the 
services of M. Parent as guide and interpreter. 
They left Tolia on the 9th instant, with the in- 
tention of proceeding to Antanosy. On the fol- 
lowing day, about noon, they arrived at a water- 
ing-place, where they rested for some time; they 
here met a number of Bara and Mahafaly people, 
who had a few cattle, and were apparently on 
their way to the beach to sell the cattle at St. 
Augustine's. The natives appeared quite friend- 
ly, and nothing hostile was observed in their 
manners. On resuming the journey they pro- 
ceeded about half a mile, and were near some 
trees and bush, when, without the slightest warn- 



THE RECENT FRENCH CLAIMS. 133 

ing, shots were fired, and Mr. Emerson, who was 
slightly in advance, fell and died immediately ; 
after this out rushed about forty or fifty men (the 
same that they had seen at the watering-place) 
with spears, and attacked the others; the bearers 
thereupon threw down their packages and fled 
to the bush, one African getting speared and 
killed. 

' ' Mr. Hulett, who happened to be a little way 
behind, went after one, Antanosy, who was carry- 
ing his revolver, but he was afraid to give it to 
Mr. Hulett, and advised him to run or he would 
certainly be killed; as they were alone, and while 
altercating, a party of the natives came on them 
throwing spears, wounding both Mr. Hulett and 
the Antanosy in the legs. They were therefore 
obliged to run. After going some distance the 
Antanosy dropped the revolver, which Mr. Hulett 
recovered, and although much exhausted, he 
turned upon his pursuers, who thereupon went into 
the bushes and returned to the main body. Mr. 
Hulett says that the last time he saw M. Parent 
he was surrounded by the natives, who were men- 
acing him, while he was apparently attempting 
to expostulate with them. But the Antanosy 
says that he saw M. Parent get a spear wound in 
the right side. Mr. Hulett, seeing that his feeble 
resistance would be of no avail, went off into the 



134 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

bush with the Antanosy (Cravat), and they hid 
themselves till about midnight, when they went 
back to see if they could find the bodies of their 
comrades, but could not do so in the dark, so 
they then made the best of their way towards the 
beach. On arriving next morning at a village 
they had passed before on the journey up, they 
hired some people to carry them to Tolia, where 
they arrived on Monday evening the nth instant, 
and where they now are, both very ill in conse- 
quence of their wounds. 

"On the news arriving at Nosi-be on Tues- 
day, Mr. Allan, an employe of Messrs. H. and F. 
McCubin, went to Tolia and hired about twenty 
men with whom he proceeded to the scene of the 
murders; and having found and recognized the 
bodies of Messrs. Emerson, Parent, and the Afri- 
can, mutilated with spear wounds, and both arms 
of M. Parent either cut or torn from the sockets 
and carried away, they buried them on the spot, 
as they were in an unfit state to bring to Tolia, 
Mr. Allan leaving some marks, so that he would 
again know the spot, the burial taking place on 
the morning of the 15th instant. 

"Dated September 19, 1882. n * 

Another escapade following the embargo laid 
upon the " Antananarivo, " and equally with that 

* " Correspondence Respecting Madagascar," 1 (1883), pp 12, 13. 



THE RECENT FRENCH CLAIMS. 135 

showing the weakness of French officialism 
abroad, was the action of the same commander 
towards an American vessel which came in about 
this time bringing a consignment of rifles and 
ammunition purchased by the Hova Government. 

The "Forfait" being the only armed vessel 
in the harbor, her commander seemed to consider 
that he had full control over all warlike appa- 
ratus. He accordingly forbids the landing of these 
arms; and sends a steam launch armed with a 
small cannon in her bows, which is deliberately 
loaded alongside the American bark and pointed 
at her gangway, and this while the American 
flag was flying from the peak. u Next morning 
a letter from the United States consul brought 
the 'Forfait's' commodore and his compatriot the 
French representative on shore, up to the Ameri- 
can office, with a request for an opportunity of 
explaining things. 'Gentlemen,' said the sturdy 
old Federal colonel who stood beneath the stars 
and stripes, 1 1 can have nothing to do with you 
until yonder insult to my nation is removed;' 
whereupon the launch was immediately taken 
away; there was much apologizing, and many 
assurances that no offence whatever had been in- 
tended, and the rifles and cartridges were landed 
without the least further opposition.*" 

* " Madagascar Tract," No. 2, W. C. Pickersgill, Esq. 



136 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

However, the French acting vice-consul made 
another attempt to get these rifles into his hands 
after they had left the American store and were 
being carried by the natives to the fort, and it 
was only by the interference once more of Amer- 
ican authority that they were snatched from the 
hungry grasp of the Frenchmen. This is the 
way that Frenchmen abroad are trying to show 
the u nation altogether barbarous" how civiliza- 
tion ennobles the mind, strengthens the good 
points of character, and elevates a nation. 



THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE. 



137 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE. 

Embassy Sent to Europe. Arrival in Tamatave. Refusal of 
French to Allow it to Leave in Mail Steamer. Departure in 
Bullocker. Arrival at Marseilles and Paris. Their Treat- 
ment by the Special Commissioners. Practically Prisoners 
and not Guests of France. Departure for England. Recep- 
tion by Lord Granville. Deputation to Foreign Secretary. 
Understanding between England and France. Correspond- 
ence between the two Governments. Revision of Treaty. 
French Unwillingness to allow the Right of the Malagasy to 
make their own Laws. Willingness of Ambassadors to Mod- 
ify Treaties respecting the Land Tenure. The " Madagascar 
Times" on New Land Clause. Only Obstacle to the Forma- 
tion of European Companies Removed. Ambassadors and 
the Liquor-traffic. American and British Treaties on the 
Imports of Rum. 

Finding how impossible it was to come to 
any arrangement with the French authorities in 
the island, and feeling sure that events were 
drifting on to war, the Queen of Madagascar de- 
termined upon sending an embassy to the treaty 
powers and Germany. This was done in the 
hope that by representing their case clearly and 
personally to the civilized courts who had interest 
in the welfare of the Malagasy, and who had long 
been engaged commercially with the island, there 
would be little difficulty in proving that they 



I38 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

were morally right, and hence, they argued, there 
would be a speedy termination of that which was 
unjust. In despatching this embassy, it is true, 
the Queen and Prime Minister had very indis- 
tinct ideas, both of the way that diplomatic busi- 
ness is managed by civilized powers, and of the 
numberless collateral considerations which materi- 
ally affect the decisions of Cabinets, even when 
right and justice are opposed by might and rapa- 
cious greed. They thought in their innocence 
that righteousness, and not mere expediency, was 
the governing principle in the civilized Christian 
nations, and imagined that on the representation 
of their side of the case a kind of committee of 
the different nations would be called to determine 
what was right and which of the contending 
parties was in error, and that then an immediate 
withdrawal from the false position by the con- 
demned party would result. " Utterly impracti- 
cable," we say; but, in principle, are they an age 
before or an age behind the times? 

The embassy consisted of Ravoninahitriniari- 
vo of the 15th honor and Ramaniraka of the 13th 
honor, together with their secretaries and aides- 
de-camp. They were also accompanied by Mr. 
Tacchi, who had been appointed by the native 
Government to act as their escort and interpreter. 
The appointment was signified to the French 



THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE. 141 

commissioner soon after he left the capital; and 
again, in a letter which Ravoninahitriniarivo 
wrote on July 4, 1882, he mentions the subject 
in connection with his protest against the ac- 
tion of M. L,e Timbre. In this letter he says: 
"The Madagascar Government has seen with 
pain the copy of the letter addressed to you by 
M. A. Le Timbre, declaring that he has seized 
the flags of the Queen of Madagascar hoisted at 
Beharamanja and Mahavanona (Bay of Passanda- 
va). 

u By this note I declare, in the name of the 
Government of Madagascar, that it protests 
against this act of Commander Le Timbre in 
having forcibly removed the flags of the Queen 
of Madagascar, hoisted in her kingdom, in despite 
of the good relations existing between the Gov- 
ernments of France and Madagascar. 

"I declare, moreover, that the embassy of the 
Queen of Madagascar, which has already been an- 
nounced to you, and which will visit the Govern- 
ment of France and the other friendly powers, 
will not fail to communicate this deplorable affair 
to the French Government; for the Government 
of Madagascar earnestly desires the maintenance 
of the good relations now existing between France 
and Madagascar, with a view to the progress of 
civilization, commerce, and agriculture. " 



142 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

This protest, mild and perfectly reasonable, 
seeing that this action had been taken by M. L,e 
Timbre before any declaration of war had been 
made, and while a pretence of friendly relations 
was still maintained, was treated with contempt 
by the French authorities in Tamatave, as was 
also another which speedily followed it, on July 
11, protesting against the embargo laid on the de- 
parture of the "Antananarivo" from the harbor 
on pain of seizure; and the reasons given for pro- 
testing against this high-handed action appear to 
us perfectly valid: (1) 1 'The Malagasy people, 
like those of other nations, have the right to nav- 
igate their ships on the sea. (2) The relations 
existing between the two Governments being 
good, such a thing ought not to exist at a time 
when they are on the best terms."* 

It is a puzzle to others beside the Malagasy to 
understand the principle upon which the com- 
mander of the "Forfait" acted; and the self-con- 
tained way and dignified style of addressing them- 
selves to the subject is not only surprising, but 
highly commendable in the Hova Government. 
Without any bluster or precipitate haste, they 
simply let it be known that while they could not 
tamely submit to the action of French officials, 
they were also impressed with the belief that the 

* "Africa," No. r, 1S83. 



THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE. 143 

Home Government of France could not sympa- 
thize with it if they were fully informed of the 
facts in all their bearings. 

In July the envoys arrived at Tamatave and 
were received with all honor by the governor of 
that place, and application was made and a pas- 
sage secured for them on board the ( ( Argo, ' ' the 
French mail steamer plying between Mauritius, 
Bourbon, Madagascar, and Mayotta. She was 
expected in a few days, and all preparations were 
completed by the time she appeared steaming 
from the north into the harbor. But just at the 
last moment a note was sent from the commander 
of the " Forfait " to the agent of the "Argo," an 
Englishman, to say that the ambassadors were not 
to be allowed to go on board, even though their 
passage money had been paid and their names 
entered on the ship's papers. No reason was as- 
signed for the action, and it appears to have been 
a gratuitous insult offered to them to show how 
powerful a man a French naval commander is. 
It was said afterwards that they had not been ac- 
credited to the French commissioner as special 
envoys of the Queen of Madagascar, and hence 
they could not be recognized as such by leaving 
in a French mail steamer; and, therefore, they 
appear to have been considered unfit subjects to 
take a passage privately on board a vessel plying 

Madagascar and France. Q 



144 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

for passengers of any kind so long as the fare was 
paid. 

They, however, were able to leave in a bul- 
lock steamer after nearly a month's detention at 
Tamatave, and arrived at Marseilles without fur- 
ther trouble on October 7, 1882, where they were 
immediately taken charge of by M. Roux, the 
Malagasy consul in Paris, and treated with every 
honor and a considerable amount of courtesy. 
They were conducted to the capital with all des- 
patch, and a commission, consisting of M. Decrais, 
M. Billot, and Admiral Peyron, was appointed to 
confer with them. The first conference took place 
on October 17, when it became evident that the 
Malagasy envoys, even if they were called by one 
of the commission " barbarians," were still pos- 
sessed of that native keenness which enabled them 
clearly to discern justice from injustice, and that 
they were not likely to submit to terms which in 
the least endangered the welfare and independence 
of their country. An honest endeavor was made 
by the envoys to "acquit themselves worthily of 
a civilized and Christian nation," and to an un- 
biased mind they succeeded in putting these qual- 
ities in favorable contrast with the action of their 
detractors. Their own graphic description of the 
treatment they received in Paris, contained in a 
letter to Lord Granville, tells its own tale. 



THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE. 145 



" On our arrival in Paris," they say, " we re- 
quested to be permitted to pay our respects to his 
excellency the President of the French Republic, 
but we were informed through our consuls, who 
have resigned since our arrival in London, that 
his excellency would only receive us after coming 
to an agreement as to all the matters in dispute. 
Prompted by a desire for peace and reconciliation, 
we immediately commenced negotiations with the 
three special commissioners, and during six weeks 
we vainly put forward the arguments and facts 
'showing that France had no just claim to any 
portion of the mainland of Madagascar. ' " On the 
26th of November the French Foreign Office in- 
sisted upon the signing of an ultimatum, by which 
France would have a right of protectorate over 
the west coast of Madagascar, with general rights 
over the whole island. 

It appears from the statement of the ambassa- 
dors to Lord Granville that a verbal suggestion 
had been made to them on the part of the French 
commissioners, to the effect that the French Gov- 
ernment would be satisfied 011 the "protectorate 
question" if, "to save the dignity of France, the 
Hova Government would withdraw their custom- 
houses from Dalrymple Bay, opposite Nosi-be, for 
a time, upon the understanding that they should 
be free to garrison the coast again in a few years' 



146 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

time."* The Hova ambassadors, on the part of 
their Government, agreed to these terms, and de- 
sired that they should be reduced to writing for 
signature. This was nothing but a most reason- 
able request, and it was acceded to by the French 
commissioners. But when the document was 
drawn up and brought to the ambassadors for sig- 
nature, what was their surprise and disappoint- 
ment to find that not only had all mention of any 
provision for the reestablishment of Hova au- 
thority been omitted, but the document provided 
for the establishment of a protectorate over the 
whole island. 

" As it was impossible for us to sign this, and 
thus betray the independence of our country, we 
were immediately informed that we were no long- 
er considered as the guests of France, and that 
our flag must be removed from the hotel. Having 
received this message, and witnessed the removal 
of our flag against our will, we left Paris for 
London, "f 

During the six weeks that they stayed as the 
guests of France the envoys were practically 
prisoners, watched and guarded by vigilant sen- 
tries in the shape of lackeys to warn off the ap- 
proach of any who might interfere with the right 



* Lord Granville's Despatch to Lord Lyons, 1, "Africa," 1883, 
p. 29. f "Africa," No. 1, 1883. 



THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE. 147 

development of the Republic's plans. Some sym- 
pathizers, and one or two personal friends of the 
envoys, went from London to visit them in their 
hotel, but were not admitted into their presence; 
and the letters of introduction, even if not opened 
by their gaolers, were at any rate examined by 
them before any reply could be sent to the re- 
quest for an interview. 

After such treatment it is not surprising that 
a sense of relief took possession of the embassy 
when they quitted Paris for England, where a 
very different reception was accorded them, and 
where they, in common with all nations, found 
that, notwithstanding differences of opinion po- 
litically, no intentional insult would be offered to 
the flag of those who were accepting the hos- 
pitality of the nation. 

"Leaving Paris, where they must have felt 
themselves to be strangers in a strange land, they 
crossed over to England and proceeded to Lon- 
don, and there soon found a welcome from mis- 
sionaries whom they had known in Madagascar, 
and from a large number of their friends who had 
long taken an interest in their country."* 

On December 2 the ambassadors reported their 
arrival to Lord Granville, and forwarded to him 

* "Missionary Chronicle," of the London Missionary Society, 
1883, p. 12. 



148 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

their credentials, which accredited them as 1 c Am- 
bassadors Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to 
the Court of Her most Gracious Majesty Vic- 
toria, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, and 
Empress of India. ' ' They expressed the pleasure 
they felt on setting foot in the country to which 
they have been so greatly indebted in the past, 
and gave expression to similar sentiments as a 
message from their queen. "The queen, our 
mistress, " they say, u in confiding this mission 
to us, has bid us express our feelings of gratitude 
to a great nation which has ever been the firm 
friend of Madagascar; and we can assure your 
lordship that the object of our present visit is to 
consolidate and cement those friendly relations 
which have always existed between our respect- 
ive Governments." The objects of their mission 
were set forth clearly and succinctly, without im- 
plying a request that England would take up 
their cause, further than would be prompted by 
her own inclinations after hearing the statements 
of the envoys. They simply came to lay ' 1 before 
her Britannic Majesty's Government the unfor- 
tunate relations now existing between our Gov- 
ernment and that of France," and "to propose a 
revision of the treaty between Great Britain and 
Madagascar, whereby we hope to facilitate the 
commercial relations between our respective sub- 



THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE. 149 

jects, and to settle more definitely any questions 
upon which there may now exist differences of 
opinion."* 

Efforts had been made by the friends of Mad- 
agascar to pave the way for the favorable recep- 
tion of the envoys before their arrival on our 
shores, and to facilitate the objects they had at 
heart. 

The London Missionary Society had memo- 
rialized Lord Granville, giving details of the work 
which has been accomplished in and for Mad- 
agascar by its agents from 1818, when its people 
w T ere found to be warlike barbarians, down to the 
present time, when such marked progress has 
been made both socially, politically, and reli- 
giously. 

Almost simultaneously with the landing of the 
embassay a large and influential deputation waited 
upon Lord Granville, and in concise, telling 
speeches such men as Sir Henry Barkly, a former 
Governor of Mauritius, and Bishop Ryan, at one 
time Bishop of Mauritius, endeavored to show 
why Her Majesty's Government should use its 
best endeavors to bring about a peaceable solution. 
This was done by setting forth the increasing 
trade between Madagascar and Mauritius, which, 
so far as the imports are concerned, supplies the 

* " Africa," No 1, 1SS3, p. 21. 



150 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

latter island with many articles of the greatest ne- 
cessity, as beef, rice, etc. ; by noticing that if the 
French gained a protectorate over the northwest 
coast, there was little doubt that the remainder 
of the island would soon come under the same 
rule, and that rule we are not in the habit of 
looking upon as very enlightened or friendly. It 
was pointed out by the bishop, who was present 
at the signing of the treaty in 1862, that Radama 
was called King of Madagascar by M. Dupre. 
He also remarked that " nothing can be more re- 
markable than the way in which civilization has 
been introduced, chiefly through the efforts of 
England, into Madagascar. One society that 
went there found that the natives had no written 
language; they gave them one. It is not only 
the London Missionary Society that is working 
there, but other societies also. There is a bishop 
there. So that in various ways England is en- 
deavoring to promote civilization. 7 ' 

Lord Granville, in replying, made one or two 
very important statements bearing upon the case, 
but which, unfortunately, have not been acted up 
to. After noting that the serious attention of that 
country was first attracted to Madagascar in 181 7, 
when the treaty already referred to on page 113 
was signed with Radama I. with a view to the 
suppression of the slave-trade, his lordship made 



THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE. 151 

this statement: " In 1850 Lord Palmerston recog- 
nized the right of the French to the island of No- 
si-be. In 1853-4 there were discussions between 
the two Governments, which resulted in the un- 
derstanding that neither would take action w T ith 
reo-ard to Madagascar without previous consulta- 
tion with the other. Later on this understanding 
was recognized. In 1858-9 to 1S62-3 most concil- 
iatory assurances were given. With regard to the 
French protectorate over a great portion of the 
island all I can say is that, as at present advised, 
I am not aware of any treaty which gives such a 
right to France. n 

A committee was also formed in England, con- 
sisting of very many of the most influential friends 
of Madagascar and of aboriginal races generally, 
for the purpose of keeping that country informed 
of the progress of events affecting the welfare of 
the Malagasy. It was to cooperate and second 
the efforts made by the embassy to secure the 
good-will and good offices of England towards 
the settlement of the difficulty and misunder- 
standing between the French and Malagasy Gov- 
ernments. From this committee emanated a 
couple, at least, of well-written and exhaustive 
pamphlets, setting forth in an impartial light the 
real value of the so-called 14 rights of France" to 
a protectorate over the whole or any part of the 



152 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

island. A memorial was also sent to the Foreign 
Secretary, on behalf of the committee, signed by 
the chairman, A. Mc Arthur, Esq., M. P., the sec- 
retary, F. W. Chesson, Esq. , and the treasurer, G. 
Palmer, Esq., inclosing one of the "Madagascar 
Tracts ' ' drawing attention to one or two matters 
of importance in the consideration of the subject. 
The memorial points out that it was impossible 
for the ambassadors to accede to the demands put 
forward by the French commissioners unless they 
were prepared to sacrifice the independence of 
their country. After reverting to the untenable 
nature of the claims under the treaty which the 
French assert was signed in 1840, they point out 
that " there are five times as many English as 
French subjects in Madagascar, and that the 
amount of our trade with the island is quadruple 
that of the French. The British people, from no 
ulterior or unworthy motives, have also done 
much, by means of religious and educational 
agencies, to promote the civilization of the na- 
tive population. They cannot look on unmoved 
while this good work, the result of large expendi- 
ture of money as well as of many years of labor, 
is exposed to the risk of destruction ; nor can they 
contemplate without alarm the prospect of Re- 
union and other French colonies making the 
northwest provinces of the island the scene of a 



THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE. 153 

traffic in African labor, which experience has 
clearly shown to be another form of the slave- 
trade." 

These are the grounds upon which the com- 
mittee felt itself urged to ask Lord Granville to 
use every endeavor to bring about a speedy and 
satisfactory settlement of the difficulty. It was 
seen that not only would a war interfere with the 
continued progress of the Malagasy, but it would 
also seriously affect the welfare of British residents 
in the country and the colonists in Mauritius. It 
was hoped by the committee that France might 
be willing to submit the case to arbitration, and 
the misunderstanding be arranged without re- 
course to arms. It would assuredly have been 
more to the credit of a great nation like the 
French had they thus arranged the matter, rather 
than to try to obtain a shadowy ray of glory by 
the overthrow of a weak, struggling nation like 
the Malagasy. 

Lord Granville not only acquiesced in the 
principle involved in the various requests made 
to him to exert his influence with the French 
Government to bring about a peaceable settle- 
ment of the difficulty, but he had already made 
application through Viscount Lyons to M. Du- 
clerc for the grounds upon which the French ac- 
tion in Madagascar was being taken. 



154 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

Upon the request of Lord Granville, M. Du- 
clerc furnished Lord Lyons with the view of the 
French Government regarding the proceedings of 
their forces on the coast of Madagascar. But the 
only reason given for their action is the most gen- 
eral and obscure: "A long time ago the failure of 
the Court of Imerina to carry out the engagements 
which bind it to us gave rise to the commence- 
ment of negotiations, during the course of which 
the Government of Queen Ranavalona has not 
always shown that conciliatory and favorable dis- 
position which we had a right to expect from 
it. Meanwhile we had to draw its attention to 
measures taken at its instigation which affect the 
rights secured to France by the conventions for- 
merly concluded by various independent native 
chiefs; thus, as a particular instance, the flag of 
the queen has been improperly hoisted on terri- 
tories situated to the northwest of Madagascar 
which have come under our protectorate by vir- 
tue of existing treaties. " 

With regard to this it may be said that the 
Malagasy Government has been most anxious to 
carry out its engagement with France, except, 
perhaps, the French claims of liberty to purchase 
land. But as this is opposed to the law of the 
country, and has been so from the earliest times, 
it is quite certain that the Malagasy Government 



THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE. 155 

did not so read the treaty of 1868, upon the letter 
of which the French base this right. No Eng- 
lishman ever pretended to have the right of ac- 
quiring freehold. Then, with regard to the "dis- 
position ' ' of the Government towards the French 
subjects, it is well known by those who have 
lived for any length of time in the island that in 
their anxiety for peace and good-will the native 
officials have granted, against their judgment, 
French demands which have not been conceded 
to Englishmen, because, as the people say, the 
French seemed to be always anxious to carry 
some complaint to their consul which might be 
made a matter of diplomatic correspondence with 
a view to embroiling the two Governments. 

Air. Pickersgill gives a case in point. He 
says, "I was complaining to the Prime Minister 
of a Frenchman being permitted to retain posses- 
sion of land which he had obtained illegally, while 
I and others had been obliged to comply with the 
law, and I was begged to look at the matter from 
a Malagasy point of view. 1 You see how we are 
situated,' said the Prime Minister. 1 If we offend 
a Frenchman he immediately appeals to his con- 
sul, and the consul threatens us with bombard- 
ment. We regard you as our best friends, but 
have oftentimes to treat you with scant considera- 
tion in order to keep the peace. If all the threats 



I56 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

of bombardment made by France's representatives 
had been put into execution there would now be 
little of the island left above the surface of the 
Indian Ocean for anybody to claim.' "* 

With regard to the latter part of M. Duclerc's 
communication, it has been shown in the last 
chapter how much u independence" was enjoyed 
by the chiefs with whom France treated, and how 
much value was to be attached to the right of 
protectorate. 

In reply to this, Lord Granville sent a request 
to the French Government, asking to be informed 
to what treaties M. Duclerc alluded "as ceding to 
France the protectorate of certain territories on 
the northwest coast of the island. ' ' This request 
for information was tendered on August 28, but no 
reply being forthcoming, Lord Granville writes 
again on October 7 to Mr. Plunkett, who ad- 
dresses a note to the French Government men- 
tioning the former request, and stating that u as at 
present advised, Her Majesty's Government are 
unaware of any treaty stipulations in virtue of 
which the French Government claim territorial 
jurisdiction over any part of the mainland of 
Madagascar," and also intimating the fact which- 
Lord Granville also mentioned to the deputation 
who waited upon him in November. c ' Your ex- 

* " Madagascar Tracts," No. 2, p. 15, by W. C. Pickersgill, Esq. 



THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE. 157 

cellency," says Mr. Plunkett to M. Duclerc, "is 
also aware that the understanding between Great 
Britain and France has hitherto been that the 
two Governments should maintain an identic at- 
titude of policy in Madagascar, and act in con- 
cert in the matter, and your excellency will have 
no difficulty in understanding the regret with 
which Her Majesty's Government would view 
the advancement, on the part of France, of any 
territorial claims which might be calculated to 
disturb that understanding. ' ' 

Still the French President did not feel himself 
called upon to answer the question, nor respond 
to the intimation of the arrangement for an "iden- 
tic attitude of policy on the part of the two Gov- 
ernments." Offers were made by the English 
Government to act as mediators, but M. Duclerc 
took umbrage at the repeated offers of assistance 
in this direction on the part of this Government, 
and instead of urgently remonstrating against the 
indignity put upon an Anglo-French agreement, 
the Foreign Secretary tried to explain away his 
own words, lest France should be offended at 
England asking that agreements should be acted 
upon. 

The iteration of the idea of mediation seems 
to have offended the extreme sensitiveness of the 
French Minister, who replies, "The English Gov- 



158 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE). 

ernmetit exactly appreciates the state of affairs 
when it rejects the idea of offering a mediation 
which the differences do not admit of. This dec- 
laration dispenses us from laying stress upon an- 
other expression in the English note. I do not 
know what the English Government means by 
1 to press their good offices upon the French Gov- 
ernment,' but to us this expression is untransla- 
table in French, for the word which would be 
the literal translation would be absolutely inad- 
missible."* 

Eord Granville, in reply to this, sends the ex- 
planation "that the phrase was only intended to 
convey that Her Majesty's Government, while 
they were ready to give their assistance in bring- 
ing about an understanding, had no desire to put 
forward an offer of such assistance if it was not 
acceptable to France." 

An admirable letter of Dr. Dawson Burns to 
Lord Granville expresses very much the same 
feeling. He says, "It follows, that in acting 
alone, and in a manner injurious both to Mad- 
agascar and ourselves, the French Government 
had violated this understanding, and had exposed 
itself to such urgent remonstrances as should, not 
have been without practical result. If it be asked 
whether we were prepared to go to war for such a 

* M. Duclerc's Despatch of January 4, 1883. 



THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE. 1 59 

cause? the answer is clear that long: before the 
question of peace or war would have come up for 
consideration France must have receded from a 
position alike offensive to England and menacing 
to Madagascar. The position of France in Europe 
is such as not to render her careless of the good 
or evil opinion of England on a subject in which 
her course is so manifestly wrong; and I cannot 
but think that a tone at once temperate, but 
emphatic and earnest, would have issued in a 
change of policy averting the bombardment of 
Tamatave and the cessation of intercourse be- 
tween Madagascar and all friendly powers. ' ' 

It seems to have been a case preeminently 
suited for friendly arbitration, more especially as 
M. Duclerc declares that the conference with the 
Malagasy envoys " was broken off on the question 
of the right of property, and on the interpretation 
of the clauses of our treaty of 1868, which secures 
the benefits of it to our countrymen." The Mal- 
agasy have shown themselves willing, in the re- 
vision of the treaty with England, to make very 
considerable concessions on this matter: and if it 
was on this ground only that the negotiations were 
broken off, it seems to have required nothing but 
the "offices of England" as mediator to have 
brought about a peaceful solution. M. Duclerc' s 
statement, referred to above, from his despatch to 
10 



160 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

M. Tissot, to be communicated to Lord Granville, 
is altogether at variance with the statement of 
the ambassadors, and is negatived by their action 
in England and America. 

It is true that by the revised treaty English- 
men cannot acquire the freehold of land in Mad- 
agascar, but they are at liberty to make leases for 
any length of time mutually agreed upon between 
them and the owners. Thus, for all practical pur- 
poses, the difficulties of planters and settlers are 
met satisfactorily. It is against the law of the 
country for a Malagasy to sell the freehold to a 
foreigner, and this law was in force long before 
the signing of the French treaty in 1868, which 
is a fact now forgotten by the French Ministry. 
It is one of the "ancient laws and customs of the 
country that foreigners cannot maintain a fee- 
simple title to land in Madagascar," and the only 
ground on which France claims it is based on 
Article IV., which provides that "they shall be 
able, as the subjects of the most favored nation, 
and in conformity to the laws and customs of the 
country, to settle wherever they may deem ad- 
visable, to lease land, to purchase all kind of per- 
sonal property, and to engage in all commercial 
and industrial operations which are not interdicted 
by the Government of the country." 

It is difficult to understand how the French 



THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE. l6l 

can on this article, circumscribed by the well- 
known law of the land, claim a right to purchase 
the freehold of property. Neither can this law of 
the Malagasy be looked upon as an outrageous 
assumption in opposition to foreigners. In Great 
Britain, as Lord Granville argues with M. Du- 
clerc,^>nly a few years ago no alien could possess 
the fee-simple to real property, and the only com- 
promise that could be resorted to in such cases 
was to grant such leases as would convey as near- 
ly as might be all the advantages of a freehold. 
Yet, despite European usage, even when backed 
by the customs of such a country as England, the 
Freneh are not willing to admit that the Mala- 
gasy have any right to their own laws, if they 
happen to restrict the greed of French adven- 
turers. For M. Duclerc maintains that "as to 
the right of property, the domestic legislation of 
the Hova nation cannot override the engagements 
resulting from a convention regularly concluded." 
(Surely it is the interpretation of the convention 
which is sought here to be used to override the 
domestic legislation.) " The convention is the 
only rule applicable to the relations between the 
two contracting Governments. ' ' 

The correspondence in the 1 ' Blue Book ' ' shows 
how much the ambassadors had been led to expect 
from the advice and help of England. And the 



i6z 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



carefully guarded expressions of cold sympathy 
send a thrill of pity to the heart for those who, in 
their endeavor to act in righteousness, serving 
their God and the country he has given them, 
met with so little encouragement, notwithstand- 
ing the concessions they were willing to make in 
the interests of peace and the spread of Christian- 
ity. 

That the land question need not have been 
treated as such an insurmountable obstacle to 
peace is seen by the willingness evinced by the 
ambassadors to admit alterations in the existing 
treaties giving greater facilities to the foreigner. 
The wording of our own revised treaty referring 
to this matter is very clear and broad: "Her Maj- 
esty the Queen of Madagascar fully allows her 
subjects the right of renting or leasing such prop- 
erty according to their own pleasure and accord- 
ing to the terms of time and money which may 
be agreed upon between lessor and lessee. But it 
shall be distinctly understood that Malagasy sub- 
jects are prohibited by the laws of their country 
from the absolute sale of land to foreigners, . . . 
and Her Majesty the Queen of Madagascar enga- 
ges that British subjects shall, as far as lies in her 
power, enjoy within her dominions full and com- 
plete protection and security for themselves and 
for any property which they may so acquire in fu- 



THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE. 163 

ture, or which they may have already acquired 
before the date at which the present article shall 
come into force. " 

In the American treaty the fact that foreigners 
cannot own land is clearly stated as a kind of pre- 
amble to a like concession to the above: "Accord- 
ing to the laws of Madagascar from all time, Mal- 
agasy lands cannot be sold to foreigners, and 
therefore the citizens and proteges of the United 
States of America are prohibited from purchasing 
lands in Madagascar.'' To an impartial onlooker 
there is no further cause for insistence on more 
liberal terms. For all the practical purposes of 
trade and commerce these concessions are equal 
to a freehold possession — any length of lease that 
the owner and foreigner can agree upon, and no 
Government interference to prevent an indefinite 
number of renewals. 

It is interesting to note under this head that 
the "Madagascar Times," published in Antana- 
narivo, bears witness to the effective working of 
the new clause. In the issue for April 2, 1884, is 
the following paragraph: "Every one that we 
know of who applies for land gets it. The Amer- 
icans are procuring land on the basis of their new 
treaty, and inform us that they are very well sat- 
isfied. 

"We are informed that the Malagasy Govern- 



164 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

ment is preparing a thorough system for provi- 
ding governors with printed forms and registers, 
and for appointing a commissioner whose work 
will be to visit outlying districts and regulate all 
matters connected with the leasing of land. 

4 'As to Crown lands, let the foreigners who 
require lands make out their application with all 
the straightforward and formal precision that is 
exacted in other countries; let that application be 
submitted to the governor of the district and to 
the consular representative there, if there is one. 
If hindrances or uncalled-for delays are wilfully 
thrown in the way, or flagrant acts of bad faith 
are evident, then let appeal be made to Antana- 
narivo, and we are certain no person who wishes 
to have land will be refused. ' ' 

This is just the kind of assurance which has 
always been wanting hitherto. Companies have 
again and again been talked of for planting, cat- 
tle-rearing, and manufacture; but they have never 
been developed because of the insuperable diffi- 
culty regarding the 'land. But under the present 
provisions of the treaty the only obstacle to the 
success of such companies in Madagascar, so far 
as the native Government is concerned, has been 
removed. Apart from present disturbances with 
tha French, there is no reason why coffee, rice, 
vanilla, spice, sago, and fibre-planting should not 



THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE. 165 

be carried out on a large and highly profitable 
scale; while the vast extent of prairie and pasture 
land presents a tempting prospect for the forma- 
tion of cattle ranches in a country where fat oxen 
can be purchased from three dollars and upwards, 
according to the district. 

While the ambassadors made, on behalf of 
their Government, concessions regarding the leas- 
ing of land, all well-wishers of the aboriginal 
races will rejoice in the improved position of the 
liquor-traffic conceded to them by the British and 
American Governments. For years past this has 
been one of the crying evils in Madagascar, espe- 
cially on the coast. England has gone with her 
arts and civilization, with her missionaries and 
the Bible, to raise the barbarians and Christianize 
the heathen; but at the same time she has allowed 
her subjects to import into the country the rum 
which was to undo much of the good she was try- 
ing to accomplish. 

When on the way to Madagascar for the first 
time, I was told in Mauritius by the representa- 
tive of one of the largest firms that "the trade 
with Madagascar was spoiled, and had been 
ruined by the missionaries." I quietly dissent- 
ed, but not knowing anything of the country then 
I could say very little; but I remembered it is 
usually admitted that each missionary going to 



1 66 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

an uncivilized country like Madagascar is the pi- 
oneer of civilization, trade, and commerce, all of 
which accompany the introduction of Christian- 
ity. I could now answer my informant by saying 
that it is not the missionaries, but themselves, 
whom the merchants must thank for the want of 
speedy progress in commercial pursuits, and that 
rum has been the means they have employed to 
spoil the trade. Rum always finds a ready sale 
here, and fetches a good profit. "It is, " to use 
the expression of a trader recen'ly in Madagascar, 
u as good as ready money;" and this tempted the 
first importers. 

Missionaries in the interior of the island de- 
plore the effect upon their people of the manufac- 
ture and sale of native rum ; but that is a very 
mild spirit compared with the " fire-water " which 
was poured into the country from Mauritius and 
Bourbon, to the ruin of the Betsimisaraka. It is 
manufactured from molasses and the refuse from 
the sugar mills, and is so crude and cheap that it 
can be retailed in Tamatave at from fourpence to 
sixpence per quart. There is great difficulty in 
ascertaining the quantity imported ; but from 
Mauritius alone during the year 1881 no less than 
10,087 barrels, containing more than 462,915 gal- 
lons of this vile produce, were brought to the 
country and landed on the east coast and Nosi-be. 



THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE. l6j 

The native Government has again and again 
tried to restrict the trade, but its efforts have been 
ineffectual. But it has done something by forbid- 
ding, and to a certain extent preventing, the in- 
troduction of the rum by the natives into the 
central provinces. The barrels too received as 
customs duty — which for this, as for all other 
commodities, is paid in kind — were returned to 
Mauritius, to be sold there on account of the 
Government; a silent though ineffectual protest 
against a trade which the Hova Government was 
unable to resist, but which civilized nations up- 
held by superior force, to the utter ruin of both 
body and soul of the poor, ignorant natives, who 
are too inexperienced to resist the temptation of 
drinking themselves to death by the product of 
foreign commerce, the so-called civilizer. 

But not only are the people being ruined body 
and soul, not only are they becoming so debauched 
that they cultivate barely sufficient rice to supply 
their most urgent wants, but they fail utterly to 
supply that most pressing demand of the foreign 
merchant and planter — the labor market. As 
long as 10,000 barrels of rum are introduced in 
one year and drunk by a people numbering not 
more than three-quarters of a million, it is vain 
for the planter to look for constant, regular, and 
trustworthy labor among these people. But this 



1 68 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

is the lowest view of the matter. There has been 
a higher and graver responsibility resting upon 
the British nation, who with one hand have sent 
the Bible and the missionaries to teach these peo- 
ple, and with the other have poured into the 
country that which washes out at one sweep both 
the moral and religious life of the natives and 
conducts them to an early grave. It is to the 
disgrace of those speaking the English tongue 
that it was their voice which was uplifted to pre- 
vent the native Government from imposing a 
higher duty upon this importation, and so re- 
stricting in some measure the evil effects upon 
their people. 

But the envoys succeeded in obtaining such 
concessions from the English and American Gov- 
ernments as will enable them in a great measure 
to reduce the amount of spirit imported, or at any 
rate so increase it in price as to render it less ac- 
cessible than hitherto to the very poorest. 

The clause in the American treaty is by far 
the most liberal, and is not hedged in with any 
limitations. "In regard to alcoholic liquors, the 
Malagasy Government may regulate the importa- 
tion according to its pleasure, or prohibit the im- 
portation altogether, or limit the importation as 
required; may levy as high a duty as it may see 
fit, or make it a misdemeanor to sell or give such 



THE EMBASSY TO EUROPE. 1 69 

liquors to certain classes of its subjects. " We 
could have wished that the corresponding article 
in the British treaty had been equally favorable 
to the native Government's desire to restrict this 
traffic. 

The first article in the new rum treaty, signed 
May 25, 1883, says, " Spirits of all kinds may be 
imported and sold in Madagascar by British sub- 
jects on payment of the same duty as that levied 
by the Malagasy excise laws upon spirits manu- 
factured in Madagascar. The scale of excise 
duty to be levied upon spirits manufactured in 
Madagascar shall be communicated by the Mala- 
gasy Government to Her Majesty's consul, and 
no change in the excise duties shall affect British 
subjects until after the expiration of six months 
from the date at which such notice shall have 
been communicated by the Malagasy Government 
to Her Majesty's consul." The third article 
states that, "The Malagasy Government may 
stop the importation by British subjects into 
Madagascar of any spirits which on examination 
shall be proved to be deleterious to the public 
health, and they may give notice to the impor- 
ters, consignees, or holders thereof to export the 
same within three months from the date of such 
notice; and if this is not done, the Malagasy 
Government may seise the said spirits and may 



170 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

destroy them, provided always that in such cases 
the Malagasy Government shall be bound to re- 
fund any duty which may have been already paid 
thereon." 

This opens a wide field for misunderstandings, 
and will prove a fruitful source of disputes, while, 
considering that there is at present no excise duty 
in Madagascar, every facility is given for evading 
the payment of customs duty on the rum. And 
what is wanted is not a treaty to prohibit u dele- 
terious" spirit, but one which will make good 
spirit too dear to be used by the poor people in 
the excessive way it has been in the past. To 
the Malagasy, who never drink spirit except in 
such quantities as render them intoxicated, all 
spirits may be legitimately deemed ''deleterious" 
by the philanthropist. Once or twice, during a 
residence of thirteen years in Madagascar, I have 
known an excise duty to be imposed of one shil- 
ling on every bottle of spirit manufactured; but 
it has been almost a dead letter, and if levied at 
all, which is doubtful, it has soon lapsed, most 
probably because the highest men in the kingdom 
were not averse to enrich their own coffers by the 
manufacture and sale of the native rum. 



THE BEGINNING OF HOSTILITIES. 171 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE BEGINNING OF HOSTILITIES. 

M. Baudais leaves the Capital. Bombardment of the Northwest 
Coast. Rejoicing of French in Tamatave. Native Accounts. 
Effect in Tamatave. Description of Tamatave. Meeting of 
British Subjects. Circular of French Vice-Consul. M. Bau- 
dais' reply to H. B. M.'s Consul. The " Creuse. " French 
Officer's Attack on British Subject. Governor Prepares for 
Struggle. Ambulance. Unfavorable reception by French Au- 
thorities. 

Soon after the hauling down of the Malagasy 
flags on the northwest coast by the French, M. 
Baudais and his secretary left for Tamatave, and 
shortly after his arrival news was brought by the 
" Argo," the French mail-packet, of the bombard- 
ment of several towns and villages on the north- 
west coast. Great excitement immediately showed 
itself among the French and Creole inhabitants, 
who have nothing to lose and may gain by these 
troubles. It was rumored that Anorontsanga, Am- 
bodimadiro, and other places had been shelled 
and burned to the ground. Hand-shakings, ges- 
ticulations, and loud talking were the order of 
the day among the French subjects, and great 
was their boasting of the prowess and bravery of 
Admiral Pierre, who had, it was said, reduced the 



172 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

above-named places without losing a man, while 
the enemy had lost 1,200. 

M. Baudais quickly repaired to the fort at 
Tamatave, and in reply to a question of the gov- 
ernor, said he had received a letter from Ad- 
miral Pierre giving an account of the bombard- 
ment. "But," said he, "that is not my business, 
but Admiral Pierre's. I am your friend, and when 
the admiral comes here he will do nothing that 
I do not sanction." But, as the "Government 
Gazette" states, in commenting on this speech, 
"such a foolish excuse as that could be understood 
even by an idiot, for it can be seen that all they 
do is done unitedly."* An endeavor was made, 
without committing himself, to give the governor 
the idea that he, M. Baudais, did not approve of 
the action of Admiral Pierre, and that nothing of 
the kind was likely to take place at Tamatave. 
This was evidently done for the purpose of lull- 
ing the governor into a false security and of in- 
suring the neglect of any precautionary measures. 

It may be well here to give an idea of what 
had really taken place on the northwest coast. 
On May 7 Admiral Pierre arrived off Anoront- 
sanga, and sent messengers on shore, who met 
with the governor at the custom-house. They 
informed him that he, his officers and soldiers, 

* " Ny Gazety Malagasy," No. 1, p. 3. 



THE BEGINNING OF HOSTILITIES. 173 

were to leave the place and take down the Hova 
standard: and that if they did not clear out in 
four hours the place would be attacked. The 
governor answered that the land belonged to 
Ranavalona, Queen of Madagascar, and that he 
had received no orders to fight against the French. 
He asked them also to produce the Sakalava 
who, they said, had given them the land. But 
long before the time assigned, and before the wo- 
men and the sick could be removed, even while 
the governor was still at the custom-house, the 
bombardment commenced. The firing was con- 
tinued until Anorontsanga and the adjacent vil- 
lages and towns were destroyed. 

On the same day a French man-of-war ap- 
peared at Ambodimadiro, and the custom-house 
officers boarded as usual. They were told that 
the captain had a message to send into the town. 
Accordingly the governor met the messengers at 
the custom-house, and he was told to vacate the 
place with his soldiers w T ithin two hours, 1 ' for the 
land belongs to the Sakalava," they said. The 
governor was ordered to haul down the flag, but 
he answered in similar language to that of the 
governor at Anorontsanga; and in about half an 
hour, while the custom-house officers" w T ere still on 
board, the place w r as bombarded, before the sick, 
the women and children, had had time to leave. 



174 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

All in Tamatave waited in the greatest anxi- 
ety for the arrival of the French men-of-war that 
were expected soon to make their appearance in 
the harbor. The women and children began to 
leave the town, to take refuge in the interior. 
The events of the succeeding fortnight after the 
above news had been received in Tamatave will 
best be understood if I make extracts from my 
journal kept at the time; but it may help to a 
better understanding of the situation if I first de- 
scribe in brief the town. Tamatave is built on a 
long, narrow peninsula of sand, having an eastern 
direction, with very deep bays on either side: that 
on the north forming the harbor, in which ships of 
the largest size can find a secure anchorage. On 
the peninsula are built the houses of the European 
and other foreign settlers, the largest facing the 
principal street, Royal Street, which runs east 
and west down the centre of the town. Here are 
found the British, French, American, German, 
and Italian Consulates, with the houses and stores 
of the principal merchants. In another street 
runing parallel with Royal Street, a little farther 
south, live a few storekeepers, artisans, clerks, and 
others. Still farther south is the Betsimisaraka 
part of the town, in which the houses, built in 
defiance of all regularity, are composed for the 
most part of rushes or bamboo. In the centre 



THE BEGINNING OF HOSTILITIES. 177 

stands the house of the Betsimisaraka prince, in 
whose compound is erected a flagstaff upon which 
is hoisted the flag of the queen. For the first 500 
or 600 yards the compounds of the owners on the 
north side of Royal Street reach to the sea-beach, 
but beyond this the street bends a little to the 
south and leaves room between the yards of the 
traders and the beach for the native bazaar. 
Here a great number of little houses as well as 
stalls covered with thatch were huddled together, 
in utter disregard of all sanitary precautions, and 
in a way to give every facility for the whole place 
being consumed if a fire broke out in any one of 
the houses. 

Behind the bazaar to the west, still keeping 
the direction of the main street, stands the Lon- 
don Missionary Society's chapel, built of wood, 
and the church of the Society for the Propaga- 
tion of the Gospel, a little farther to the north. 
At the northwest of these buildings, about 1,000 
yards distant, is the Hova fort, already described, 
and beyond it was the soldiers' town, with an- 
other L. M. S. chapel in the centre. Following 
Royal Street for about a mile from the beach, one 
found another native town, inhabited chiefly by 
strangers from the capital and those who made a 
living by supplying the wants of these travellers. 
In the soldiers' town were about 130 houses, and 

Madagascar ami Prance. t t 



178 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

in the latter town, Antanambao, about 100, the 
chapel being on the north side. Between An- 
tanambao and the main street are several detached 
houses occupied by foreigners whose business is 
in town, the most distant of these being the one 
occupied by myself. 

My compound is large, occupying about an 
acre and a half, in which stand the dwelling- 
house, of wood, a bungalow used as dispensary, 
schoolroom, and storehouse, having at one end a 
belvedere, from the top of which a good view is 
obtained of the whole country round as well as of 
the harbor and the sea to the south. Near to An- 
tanambao and southwest of my house, which I 
rented from Mr. Aitken, is a long tract of coun- 
try covered with low, bushy trees and extending 
as far as Ivondrona. 

Turning now to my journal I find that: 
On Saturday, May 19, the people heard the 
news brought by the " Argo," and no small alarm 
was felt among them. Some seemed afraid that 
the French ships of war were then on their way 
to Tamatave, and that at any moment they might 
be attacked. Our pastors and church members 
were frequently at my house asking for details, 
and if such and such a rumor they had heard was 
likely to be true. I did my best to reassure them, 
and begged them to rest patiently and trustfully 



THE BEGINNING OF HOSTILITIES. 179 

till they were actually in presence of the danger, 
and not try to meet it half way — a piece of advice 
much more easily given than followed. Many 
were too frightened to remain in Tamatave, and 
left in haste either for Imerina or for some coun- 
try place at a safe distance from the probable field 
of danger. Some, however, the evangelist, the 
schoolmaster, one of the pastors, and the girls' 
school-teacher, begged to be allowed to take shel- 
ter in one or other of the out-buildings in my 
compound. This, after some hesitation, and not 
without some dread lest I should in this be over- 
stepping the boundary-line of duty as a neutral, I 
at length promised; and a look of considerable 
reliei took the place of the scared, frightened 
gaze with which they came to plead for the small 
protection I was able to offer. (Very fortunate 
was it for me that subsequently I was able to in- 
duce all those Hovas who were not actually sol- 
diers to leave the coast and retire inland, for had 
they remained there might have been in the eyes 
of the French some cause for the charge they first 
tendered against me.) I was engaged during a 
great part of the day in receiving and allotting 
space in my house for the goods of those who are, 
in a certain way, dependent upon the society, 
and who have thus some right to claim our help 
and sympathy. Before night my house looked 



I So MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

more like a warehouse than a mission-house, with 
boxes and trunks and even furniture stored round 
the walls, leaving me a small space in the centre. 

Foreigners, both French and English, are 
flocking in from the country, where they have 
been residing, in order that they may place them- 
selves under the protection of their consuls and 
the men-of-war which are riding at anchor in the 
harbor here. T. C. Pakenham, Esq., H. B. M.'s 
consul, called a meeting this afternoon of all the 
British subjects at the consulate, in order to give 
advice and instruction. But in the present posi- 
tion of uncertainty very little advice could be ex- 
pected further than that "all the British subjects 
should, in the prospect of war, endeavor to keep 
themselves calm and not listen to every report 
they hear, many of which may eventually prove 
to be untrue, and all of them exaggerated; but 
that care should be taken re$rardinof all contracts 
and agreements with the natives." 

There is little doubt that this meeting was 
called, and such instructions given by H. B. M.'s 
consul, as the result of a circular which had been 
addressed to French citizens on the east coast of 
Madagascar by the acting French consul and 
commissioner, M. Raffray, in which he stated 
that the difficulties between France and the Ho- 
vas, of which all were aware, "were about to be 



the; beginning of hostilities. 181 

cut short. ' ' He further goes on to say, u I do not 
think there is any occasion to entertain any dis- 
quietude. But, following the counsel of Admiral 
Pierre, I have thought that there is occasion to 
warn you and to recommend you to be pru- 
dent."* Notwithstanding this official commu- 
nication from the French consulate, bearing date 
May 2, no warning whatever of impending dan- 
ger had been given to the British consul, in order 
that he might give a like caution to the subjects 
of Her Majesty and so place them on an equally 
secure footing as the subjects of France. But it 
is quite possible that this official circular is only 
another instance of the petty officialism and wan- 
ton interference that have had no small influence 
in hurrying on the present complications with 
France ; for the substance of the information 
given in the acting-consul's letter is denied in a 
letter sent from M. Baudais, the French commis- 
sioner, soon after his arrival at Tamatave, to Mr. 
Pakenham. In this he says, " Complications be- 
tween the Government of the French Republic 
and that of Queen Ranavalona II. are possible, 
but they are not imminent, as you appear to be- 
lieve. You may rest assured, M. le Consul, that 
when the time comes I shall give you notice of 

* Despatch of C. T. Pakenham, Esq., H. B. M.'s consul, dated 
May 17, received June 16, 18S3. 



1 82 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

the situation which the attitude of the Hova 
Government may create for us. For the time 
being you may, while counselling prudence, re- 
assure your fellow-subjects both as to their own 
safety and as to their commercial undertakings. 
As regards the tranquillity of Tamatave, I have 
communicated with the governor, and I have the 
assurance that it will not be disturbed."* 

Notwithstanding this letter to the British con- 
sul, the circular of the French vice-consul was 
not recalled; and hence, while carefully caution- 
ing and preparing the French residents, an en- 
deavor was made to impress upon the British 
community the uselessness of disturbing the ex- 
isting relations with the people, and that nothing 
was necessary for perfect safety further than com- 
mon prudence. 

On Sunday, May 20, there were scarcely any 
people in the churches; in fact, as compared with 
the usual attendance, the buildings looked empty. 
Very few women were present, their husbands 
having taken the precaution of sending them and 
their children into the interior. Even some of 
the soldiers deserted at the distant prospect of 
war, and at least one man of honors was discov- 
ered trying to make his escape across the river 
at Ivondrona, and was brought back in disgrace. 

* May 21, 1883. 



THE BEGINNING OE HOSTILITIES. . 183 

The excitement, although not apparent on the 
surface, was, nevertheless, very intense; and this 
remark applies equally to the foreigners as to the 
natives. This morning a savage, perhaps drunk- 
en (we will charitably suppose so) attack was 
made upon a Mauritius trader, a British subject, 
by an officer from one of the French men-of-war. 
The latter demanded, in an officious tone, to 
know whether the former was a British or a 
French subject, seeing that he was engaged in 
supplying provisions to the 1 ' Dryad. ' 1 The Mau- 
ritian not deigning to answer such a question, 
tendered in so offensive a tone, turned his back 
upon his interlocutor, for which the Frenchman 
used the equally polite argument of the fist and 
knocked the other down, afterwards adding in- 
jury to the insult by throwing the stores out of 
the boat into the sea. It is but just to the French 
authorities to say that this act of outrage was vis- 
ited summarily upon the head of the offender, 
who was placed in irons until the admiral's ar- 
rival. 

During the ensuing week nothing of note oc- 
curred. The governor and officers have to the 
best of their ability been preparing for the coming 
struggle and time of distress. The fort has been 
prepared and guns placed in prominent positions, 
rough earthworks have been thrown up and 



184 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

trenches have been dug around the main fort, and 
means of communication between these and the 
forts along the coast have been secured by cov- 
ered passages. Seeing that there was a probabil- 
ity of war, and this being the time for making 
provision, I set about arranging for an ambulance 
and a hospital. A house was secured for this 
purpose, flags made, and badges with the Geneva 
cross upon them made for the arms of those to be 
engaged in the ambulance service. Upon repre- 
sentations being made to the Governor of Tama- 
tave, he collected his soldiers in the fort and 
asked me to bring there one of the badges as well 
as a flag, in order that all might clearly under- 
stand what was the sign by which they would 
know those who were employed in the beneficent 
occupation of attending to the wounded. Hear- 
ing that in civilized warfare no one wearing 
these crosses on the arm or moving under the 
shadow of that flag was wilfully injured, they 
one and all gladly consented to folldw this hu- 
mane custom and abstain from any attempt to 
molest or impede in their work any so engaged, 
even though they might be Frenchmen carrying 
arms against them. Having obtained so satisfac- 
tory a concession, which certainly would not have 
been given twenty or five-and-twenty years ago, 
before Christianity and civilization had so altered 



THE BEGINNING OF HOSTILITIES, 185 



the national character by their softening and hu- 
manizing influences, application was then made 
to the French Commissioner. He was informed 
of the facts stated above, but his reply was very 
far from what was expected. He said, "If you 
like to establish a hospital and hoist the hospital 
flag over it, or form an ambulance corps, why, 
I suppose you are at liberty so to do; but I do not 
at all think that the admiral will respect either 
the hospital flag or the badge on the arms of your 
men, as we are not warring against a civilized 
nation, but a nation altogether barbarous."* 

Notwithstanding this unfavorable reception of 
a scheme which we supposed would be probably 
as useful to the French as to the Malagasy, I con- 
sulted with the missionary in charge of the Soci- 
ety for the Propagation of the Gospel's station in 

* No opportunity occurred of testing the policy of either party, 
yet it certainly reflects great credit upon the "savage " nation that 
they were quite willing to respect the Geneva cross, even though 
worn by their enemies, the French, while the sentiment so dis- 
creditable to the highly civilized nation was all the guarantee that 
could be obtained for the safety of myself and native workers. I 
ought perhaps to say that beside my direct mission work of teach- 
ing and preaching, I have been compelled, from the nature of the 
climate as well as the facility thus afforded for finding one's way 
to the people's hearts, to give considerable attention to medical 
duties and the dispensing of medicine. Three times a week the 
sick folk to the number of twenty or thirty came to the consulting- 
room in the bungalow and took their prescriptions to the evangel- 
ist in the dispensary, where they received their medicines. It was 
therefore natural that the people should request that some provis- 
ion might be made for any wounded in the coming struggle. 



l86 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

Tamatave, and together we made arrangements to 
meet the case of any sick or wounded. Bandages 
were prepared, splints procured, and by the kind- 
ness of Captain Johnstone, of the u Dryad," who, 
in his justifiable anxiety to give no cause for 
offence to the French authorities, could promise 
us no help from his surgeons, we were yet permit- 
ted to borrow a couple of stretchers for convey- 
ance of the wounded to the hospitals. 

On Sunday, the 27th, it was found that after 
the first scare a great many of the people had re- 
turned to their homes in Tamatave, and we had 
much better congregations, with a large propor- 
tion of women. They had but taken refuge in 
the villages inland, fearful of the immediate con- 
sequences of the presence of the French. But, 
although back in Tamatave, the worshippers 
showed no more confidence in the pretence of 
peacefulness on the part of those whom they have 
long regarded as their greatest though secret en- 
emies. A restless anxiety was plainly depicted 
on each countenance, and the position of all was 
one of the most painful suspense. 



THE FRENCH ULTIMATUM. 



I8 7 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE FRENCH ULTIMATUM. 

Arrival of the " Flore." Ultimatum Sent to the Capital. M. Bau- 
dais' Visit to the Governor. Difficulties of Communication 
with the Capital. Roads. Fever. Rivers. Crocodiles. 
Ultimatum Arrives in Capital. Its Terms. 

On Thursday, May 31, the "Flore," the flag- 
ship of Admiral Pierre, came in sight and an- 
chored in the harbor near Point Tanio at about 
4:30 a. m. She brought news of the capture of 
Mojanga, which is now in ruins. The accounts 
describing the bombardment and capture of that 
town, which is by far the largest port on the 
northwest coast, are very conflicting. All, how- 
ever, concur in stating that the natives made a 
stout resistance; but bravery and pledged loyalty 
were no match for the shells fired from the long- 
range guns of the French men-of-war, and the 
simple defenders of their country were compelled 
to take to flight. 

On Friday, June 1, we heard that M. Baudais, 
the French Commissioner, and Admiral Pierre 
had sent an ultimatum to the Hova Government 
in the capital. This had been anticipated, be- 
cause it was known that M. Baudais had been to 



l88 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

the native governor in the fort to demand, atnono- 
other things, that relays of couriers should be 
placed on the road to Antananarivo to facilitate 
the despatch of communications to and from the 
Government. 

The journey from Tamatave to the capital is 
usually accomplished by foreigners with light 
baggage and in a palanquin in eight to twelve 
days. But Government letter-carriers cover the 
ground in about four days; while, with relays wait- 
ing at each large village, avoiding any delays ei- 
ther by night or day, messages can be sent in two 
and a half or three days. The actual distance 
is about 200 or 220 miles. I have known one 
Government carrier to complete this distance, un- 
der promise of reward in a matter of urgency, in 
two days and a half. This is not only remarka- 
ble as an instance of endurance, but also of hard- 
ihood in overcoming the difficulties of the way. 

There is no road other than a beaten track, 
which in some places is impracticable to feet 
shod with European boots, both from the clayey 
nature of the ground and the steepness of the 
mountains over which the path leads. There are 
no bridges; the rivers and almost innumerable 
streams are crossed either by fording or in canoes. 
There are no inns or places of entertainment on 
the way, and the villages are few and far between. 



RAIXANDRIAMAMPANDRY, 

GOVERNOR OF TAMATAVE. 



THE FRENCH ULTIMATUM. 



IQI 



Hence the certainty of a supply of food when 
needed for the hurried messenger is often very 
remote. There are also certain positive perils to 
which he is exposed, that must be looked upon 
as the causes of the total disappearance of some 
messengers. There is the fever that Radama L 
looked upon as one of the defences of his coun- 
try, to which all are exposed, and which to trav- 
ellers in the forest regions often proves fatal. 

The Malagasy fever, resembling somewhat the 
jungle fever of India and that of Zanzibar, is of 
the intermittent type, usually tertian. It is caused 
by the system imbibing malarial poison from the 
numerous swamps and lakes surrounded by luxu- 
riant tropical vegetation, the leaves from which, 
falling into the water and decaying, generate 
under the fervent heat of the sun the noxious 
gases and fever germs that some suppose to be 
the cause of malaria. According to one medical 
authority, for many years resident in Madagascar, 
these fever germs can be discovered any night 
by taking a portion of water from the surface of 
a swamp and examining it under a microscope, 
when there will be found to be present minute 
vegetable organisms that are never present during 
the daytime. If it be correct that these micro- 
scopic plants are the germs of the fever, it will 
help to account for the well-known fact that it is 



192 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

positively dangerous to remain in some places at 
night that are perfectly harmless during the sun- 
light. 

When first attacked the victim usually suffers 
considerably, passing through successive stages 
of cold, heat, and subsequent perspiration, with 
diminution or cessation of fever. The first illness 
may last a fortnight or three weeks, and leaves 
behind it a prostration and depression extremely 
difficult to bear patiently, with occasionally more 
disastrous legacies, such as enlarged spleen or 
congested liver. All subsequent attacks are very 
much less violent in form, though very wearing 
to the system; but having once contracted the 
disease, the patient is always liable to return of 
the attack; and although quinine — almost the 
only known remedy — acts in a remarkably bene- 
ficial way in the majority of cases, yet, it does not 
prevent a recurrence of the fever, even after the 
patient has left the neighborhood of the malaria 
and has taken up his residence in Europe. " Kill- 
ing the fever " has been heard of in some parts of 
the world by the administration of excessive doses 
of quinine; but the experiment has not, I believe, 
been tried in Madagascar. 

It is a curious fact that, although those born 
in a particular tract of malarious country are 
fairly exempt from its noxious influences, yet not 



THE FRENCH ULTIMATUM. 193 

only are foreigners to the country attacked by the 
fever, but natives from other parts of the island 
are alike subject to it, notwithstanding that they 
may have lived in another unhealthy tract, and 
been there free, or 1 ( fever-proof, ' ' as the Malagasy 
have it. So in Tamatave: of the 600 soldiers 
who arrived in company with the native gov- 
ernor in 1882 to form the garrison, quite three- 
fourths were attacked by the fever and suffered 
severely, although very many of them had come 
from a swampy part of the central table-land, and 
had either had the fever or, being born there, had 
not been subject to it, and were considered fever- 
proof. On the coast too the disorder sometimes 
assumes the malignant or typhoid form, and is 
usually fatal. However, after the first attack, it 
is considered by medical authorities to be very 
rarely dangerous, with proper care and treatment, 
if there are no other coexisting complications, 
and it is neither contagious nor infectious. 

Another cause of the difficulty of communica- 
ting with the seat of government is the state of 
the rivers, especially at certain seasons, when 
they are swollen into roaring torrents by the 
drainage of the plateau during the months of 
rain in the interior. Canoes are frequently up- 
set, and the urgent traveller is swept away in the 
impetuous stream; and even in the shallower wa- 



194 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

ters, where it is customary to ford, many a weak 
or over-fatigued messenger is lost, never to be 
heard of again, among the white foaming water 
dashing among the rocks in the rough bed of the 
rapids, or devoured by the crocodiles lying at the 
bottom of the quieter but still more treacherous 
pools. 

Crocodiles (Crocodilus Madagascariensis) abound 
in most of the rivers, and especially near the coast 
are a real terror to native travellers. They attain 
a great size, and are by no means the timid crea- 
tures which some writers have represented them 
to be. They belong to a distinct species from 
those in Africa, and they are not, as some have 
supposed, identical with the caiman or alligator 
of South America, which has a much larger 
snout, irregularly-sized teeth, and partly webbed 
feet. They are so voracious as to well deserve the 
name which has been applied to them — "sharks 
of the rivers;" and although they usually attack 
their prey in the water, where they are quite at 
home, yet cases have been known of their follow- 
ing children on shore. Every year many cases 
occur near Tamatave of mutilation or death from 
these terrors of the rivers. 

Between the time of the commencement of 
hostilities on the northwest and the bombardment 
of Tamatave two cases were brought in fearfully 



THE FRENCH ULTIMATUM. 1 95 

mutilated by these reptiles. One of these, a boy, 
had merely put one leg into the centre of a ditch 
over which he could easily have leaped in the 
daytime. A crocodile must have been lying 
very near the spot. It took the boy's leg in its 
mouth, severely wounding him above the knee, 
the flesh of the thigh being terribly torn in the 
efforts of the boy to extricate it; when the animal 
made its next snap it took him in the shin, and 
afterwards in the ankle. Fortunately the poor 
fellow did not faint till he had extricated his leg 
and had crawled or hopped away to a safe dis- 
tance. Only a month or two before a crocodile 
seized one of our school-children who, in company 
with a number of his playmates, was bathing near 
the bank of the river. His companions for some 
time thought he had but dived in his play, and it 
was not till they saw a splashing some distance 
down the river that they guessed what had hap- 
pened and raised the cry for assistance. Canoes 
were soon manned and chase was given; but all 
too late; for not until the following morning was 
the body discovered, a couple of miles down the 
river and partly devoured. 

It is no wonder that such creatures should 
have struck terror into the hearts of the inhabi- 
tants, and that in their heathen state they should 
have regarded them with a certain amount of awe 
12 



196 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

and even reverence, and that a great deal of su- 
perstition should have surrounded these monarchs 
of the rivers and streams. No native would, a 
few years ago, have dared to kill a crocodile, fear- 
ing disaster to himself or family from the survi- 
vors of his reptile enemy. At a certain village I 
heard that a crocodile in the neighboring river 
had committed many depredations upon sheep, 
dogs, and pigs belonging to the villagers, and I 
offered to go and try to shoot it if one of them 
would come and show me its haunt. But not 
only was a guide refused, but my informant com- 
menced to speak in whispers, saying that other- 
wise the crocodile would hear, and would in ven- 
geance take one of his children for speaking dis- 
respectfully of him. 

11 But," I argued, "if I kill him it will be all 
right." 

" No," said he; " for then his relations would 
come and execute their will upon me or my fam- 
ily." 

As civilization and enlightenment have been 
making themselves felt, so the superstitious dread 
of destroying these scourges of the water has been 
losing its hold on the people, who do not now 
scruple to kill all they are able to master. The 
crocodile has other enemies, in the shape of 
rats, hedgehogs, serpents, and birds, the first 



THE FRENCH ULTIMATUM. 197 

two of which devour its eggs, and the others its 
young. 

Such are some of the difficulties to be met 
with by the Government letter-carriers, whose 
duty frequently compels them to travel by night 
as well as by day, through river and marsh, forest 
and jungle, over soft, burning sand and sharp- 
cutting, rocky mountain-paths, scarcely stopping 
either for rest or food until the end of the journey 
is gained. The greatest respect is paid to these 
men, both on the road by the villagers, who are 
bound to supply them with food, and also by 
those to w 7 hom they are sent. They are admitted 
at once on their arrival, whether that be during 
the day or in the night, to the palace if sent to 
the capital, or into the fort if bearing a message 
to Tamatave, and their credentials and despatches 
examined. 

The ultimatum from the commissioner and 
admiral arrived three days after its departure 
from Tamatave, and was delivered into the hands 
of the Prime Minister on June 4. Its terms were: 

"The French Government, animated by a 
sincere desire to reestablish as quickly as possible 
those relations of peace and friendship with the 
Government of Her Majesty Queen Ranavalona 
II. which have united them for so long a time, 
have resolved on employing all means for pro- 



198 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

tecting the position they have obtained in Mada- 
gascar, and have given orders to the undersigned 
to make known to the Government of Queen 
Ranavalona the conditions upon which hence- 
forth the good relations which France desires to 
preserve with this Government can be kept up : 

"1. The Government of the queen must pos- 
itively recognize the rights of sovereignty or pro- 
tectorate over certain territories which treaties 
concluded with Sakalava chiefs confer upon us. 
These territories extend from Baly Bay on the 
west to Antongil Bay on the east, rounding Cape 
Amber. 

u 2. The 85th law, in complete contradiction 
to Art. 4 in the. treaty of 1868, shall be repealed, 
and the queen shall engage herself to give formal 
and immediate guarantees, which the Commis- 
sioner of the French Republic, who is furnished 
with full powers by his Government for settling 
this question, shall make known to her at the 
proper time and place, in order that in future 
the right of ownership of or of leasing land for a 
very long period can be exercised with all liberty 
by French citizens. 

" These conditions shall be the object of a 
special treaty, for the signature of which the Gov- 
ernment of Her Majesty Queen Ranavalona II. 
shall engage to send within fifteen days a plenipo- 



THE FRENCH ULTIMATUM. 1 99 

tentiary to the place which the Commissioner of 
the French Republic shall appoint. This pleni- 
potentiary shall also have the powers necessary 
for accepting such changes in the treaty of 1868, 
or any part of it, if there be cause for such, as the 
Commissioner of the French Republic shall pro- 
pose to him. 

"3. The queen's Government must engage to 
pay, within thirty days of the receipt of the pres- 
ent ultimatum in Tamatave, into the hands of 
the Commissioner of the Republic, the sum of a 
million francs, being two hundred thousand dol- 
lars, for indemnity due to the French citizens. 

4 'The undersigned, immediately the present 
ultimatum is accepted, will make known to the 
Government of Queen Ranavalona II. the con- 
ditions which they demand as guarantee for the 
execution of the clauses enumerated above. These 
conditions are not presented to the Government 
of Ranavalona II. as matter for discussion, but for 
reply by a 1 Yes ' or a 1 Xo ' within eight days. 
This time has been thus calculated: Three days 
for the journey from Tamatave to Antananarivo 
(200 miles), as many for the return journey, and 
two days for reflection. 

"The undersigned have received from their 
Government the formal order not to give the least 
margin in the time fixed. If, then, the answer 



200 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

be ambiguous or incomplete, or if it should not 
be received before midnight of the ninth to the 
tenth of June by the Commissioner of the Repub- 
lic, who will transmit it to the Commander-in- 
Chief of the Naval Division of the Indian Ocean, 
then Rear-Admiral Pierre will be obliged with 
regret to open fire on the defences of the town of 
Tamatave, to take possession of it, and also to 
destroy all Government establishments of Her 
Majesty Queen Ranavalona on the east coast of 
Madagascar. The custom-house at Tamatave 
will be occupied, and the custom dues will be 
collected by the French authorities to the amount 
of the sum claimed, and as long as the above- 
mentioned complete satisfaction is not obtained. 

"Ulterior measures will be resorted to for the 
future guarantee of the right of ownership of land 
to our citizens. The results on the northwest 
coast of the operations of the Rear- Admiral, Com- 
mander-in-Chief in the Indian Ocean, are of a 
nature to show the Government of Queen Rana- 
valona II. the power he possesses to carry out his 
designs. 

1 ' In the name of the Government of the French 
Republic the undersigned openly declare that the 
Government of Queen Ranavalona II. and the 
Prime Minister will, be held responsible for all 
that may happen throughout the extent of Mad- 



THE) FRENCH ULTIMATUM. 201 



agascar, both to French citizens and others, of 
whatsoever nationality. Whatever may befall 
them, directly or indirectly, as to their lives, lib- 
erty, possessions, families, or family possessions, 
would occasion the demand of indemnities the 
amount of which will be fixed by the undersigned, 
and of which the payment will be at once de- 
manded. 

1 ' If the Government of the queen, after having 
accepted the conditions of the present ultimatum, 
should cause intentional delay in the accomplish- 
ment of one or several of their promises, or if the 
plenipotentiary should at any time withdraw, on 
account of the insufficiency of his powers, hostili- 
ties will commence without further summons be- 
ing given. 

( ' The undersigned have the strong hope that 
the Government of Queen Ranavalona, in accept- 
ing conditions the moderation of which it would 
be difficult to deny, will free them from having 
recourse to the employment of stronger measures, 
and nothing will cause them greater satisfaction 
than to be spared the necessity of useless blood- 
shed. 

' '(Signed) 

"M. BAUDAIS, French Consul. 
" M. PIERRE, Rear-Admiral." 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



CHAPTER IX. 

EFFECT OF THE ULTIMATUM IN ANTANANARIVO. 

Effect in the Capital of French Action on the Northwest Coast. 
Notice to British Subjects. To the French. Seventy French 
Subjects Taken Safely to Tamatave. The People not such 
Barbarians as Admiral Pierre Thought Them. Kabary. Proc- 
lamation of the Queen. Speech of the Prime Minister. The 
Answer to the Ultimatum. 

When the news first arrived in the capital 
that the northwest coast had been bombarded, it 
was scarcely believed. In fact, it was not until 
it was known that official notice to that effect 
had been received by the Government that any- 
thing like conviction took the place of incredulity 
in the minds of the common people. French 
consuls had so often threatened the Government, 
and had held before them a picture of the horrors 
of bombardment on their coast, in order to en- 
force some French demands, that, now the threat 
had been carried into execution, it seemed im- 
possible of belief. 

Soon a scare evinced itself among the foreign 
residents. What was to be the effect of this hostile 
action of the French admiral upon the natives in 
the capital, and how would it affect them in their 



THE ULTIMATUM IN ANTANANARIVO. 205 

relations towards the Europeans? Some of the 
latter had been long enough in the country to 
have witnessed the savage nature of the people 
stirred to its depths in the revolution at Radama's 
death, and they knew there was cause for fear. 
Others had heard of the extent of cruelty to which 
the Hovas had been addicted in their wars with 
the other tribes, and they dreaded lest this spirit 
might break through their profession of Christi- 
anity, and kindle the mad passions of those who 
knew that foreigners were engaged in burning 
their villages and killing their defenceless fellow 
countrymen. But the religion of the Hovas was 
not a mere form, put on for the occasion or for 
pleasing the queen, and their conduct at this try- 
ing time most conclusively proved that the mis- 
sionaries' work had affected their hearts and lives. 

The Prime Minister called the foreign resi- 
dents together, telling the English, Norwegians, 
and Americans, of whom there were 185 in all, 
that the queen had bid him say to them that as 
they had always been the friends of Madagascar, 
they need have no fear; she would protect them 
from molestation and their property from destruc- 
tion. She, however, asked them to live as near 
each other as possible in one quarter of the town, 
that they could be the more easily guarded. This 
was done most effectually by the Prime Minister 



206 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



sending a guard of soldiers into each compound, 
as a watch for the night. No subject of the above 
nations has had any cause of complaint; all has 
been perfectly quiet and orderly in the capital, 
notwithstanding the stirring and exciting events 
that have been transpiring on the coast. 

The French subjects were informed that, as 
an admiral of their fleet had destroyed Malagasy 
villages after having insulted the Hova flag, it 
was unwise and even unsafe for them to remain 
in the country. The Government had no quarrel 
w T ith them personally, but as they belonged to 
that nation which had acted thus, it would be 
impossible for the queen and Prime Minister to 
guarantee their safety in the capital indefinitely. 
But, in order that it might not be said they were 
driven out of Antananarivo, five days were al- 
lowed them to make the necessary arrangements 
for departure, during which time the Prime Min- 
ister undertook to protect them. The five days 
having expired, they were told to leave; and, evi- 
dently with the idea of representing themselves 
as expelled and badly treated, they left without 
any bearers. All were walking, and the priests 
and lay brothers were carrying bedding and other 
necessaries. 

The queen, hearing of this, sent for them, 
after they had proceeded some distance on the 



THE ULTIMATUM IN ANTANANARIVO. 20J 

road, and told them that they were to have bear- 
ers; and, as they could not induce any men to go 
with them for wages, she would supply them with 
a sufficient number to carry their women and 
children, with their baggage. Nor was this all, 
for had the Prime Minister and queen abstained 
from doing more, it is very doubtful whether any 
of those seventy French subjects would have 
reached the coast alive. But more was done; a 
guard of soldiers with officers went with the party. 
They supplied the travellers with houses and 
food, and defended them on the journey for about 
three weeks. Doubtless they had many annoy- 
ances and inconveniences to suffer, arising from 
travelling with such a large company; but all 
travellers in Madagascar have to put up with 
troubles and privations incident to the route. 
But the native officers behaved nobly: for al- 
though while still on the way they heard of the 
bombardment of Tamatave and the destruction 
of the native town, yet no harm befell them. 
Although their French compatriots in Tamatave, 
who despised the Malagasy as a "nation of bar- 
barians," had given up all hope of seeing them 
again, and though they had to be passed through 
the lines of the Hova soldiers, west of Tamatave, 
which they were besieging, yet they were deliv- 
ered up safe and sound to the French officers. 



208 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

No one could have blamed the Malagasy, had 
they kept the French as prisoners and prevented 
their entering the town, where to a certain extent 
they would be able to give information respecting 
the Hova forces and their position. But the 
queen had said that though they were fighting 
the French, these priests and sisters of mercy 
must reach the coast in safety; and, to use the 
Rev. G. Cousins' words, u Christianity triumphed, 
the influences of civilization triumphed; all got 
safely down, and we thank God for it; but we rec- 
ognize in that the forbearance of the Malagasy." 

Another instance of the forbearance of the na- 
tives is given by Mr. Cousins. He says that, 
" After the French began to knock down those 
little places on the coast, a vessel went into one 
of the ports in the south, intending to get prod- 
uce. The native officials, according to custom, 
sent off one or two of the officers to make inqui- 
ries as to the name, owner, object, and destination 
of the ship, and to give them pratique. Those 
officers were not allowed to go on board; they 
were told to go about their business; not a single 
one of their questions was answered. They were 
told that for them to go on board a French ship 
asking such questions was an insult to the French 
flag. They were told to be off, and they went. 
That night it began to blow, and the ship drifted 



THE ULTIMATUM IN ANTANANARIVO. 209 

towards the coast, which is a very dangerous one. 
The commander of the garrison — for there was a 
garrison there — all his officers, all the people, at 
once went to the rescue; they did their utmost to 
save the French captain and crew from destruc- 
tion, and they succeeded. They had been told to 
go about their business a few hours before; now 
they were politely thanked for their good offices. 
That was forbearance, and that is a fact which 
means a good deal. It really indicates the spirit 
in which these people have acted. They have 
been anxious to avoid war, and they want to be at 
peace; but they are determined they wont give 
up their country. n 

A proclamation was issued calling the people 
together into the capital to hear from the queen 
how matters stood between her and the French. 
She was also anxious to consult them on the fu- 
ture course to be pursued. This is the first time, 
probably, that the people have been called upon 
to give their voice in the management of the 
State. It is the first shadow of a popular voice 
in the Government; but we may fondly hope 
that, having been once admitted thus, the prin- 
ciple will always be recognized, and the regular 
practice of some form of representation of the 
people in the Government will surely erelong 
develop itself. Under the late queen harsh des- 



2IO MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

potism lost its rigor, justice and moderation as- 
sumed the sway, and the sovereign was revered 
and even loved by a contented and happy people, 
progressing rapidly in freedom and civilization. 

On June 7 the people assembled at the usual 
meeting-place, and the Prime Minister delivered 
the queen's message: 

' ' You are assembled here, O ye people, at the 
time appointed for your coming together. Well, 
we have been sent as messengers from our sover- 
eign, Ranavalomanjaka; and this is what she has 
commanded us to tell you. In accordance with 
the proclamation I issued to you on Wednesday 
(the day before), she says: 'I commanded you to 
come together, and you have come, O my people, 
at the appointed time, for you did not disappoint 
me, Ranavalomanjaka. You are told to come by 
day, and you come by day; you are told to come 
by night, and you come by night; you are easily 
guided, for, though many, you do not overtax 
one's powers; though a multitude, one's voice 
grows not hoarse in addressing you. Therefore I 
thank you, O my people, for I have fathers, I have 
mothers, having you. May you live long, enjoy- 
ing all prosperity, blessed by God ! 

" 'Now this is what I have to tell you: We 
made a treaty with the French, and agreed to be 
friends and not foes. Moreover, the treatment 



THE ULTIMATUM IN ANTANANARIVO. 211 

they have received, the respect and deference 
shown to them, you have both seen and heard; 
for even in matters where forbearance was not 
due forbearance was shown, in the hope of 
strengthening friendly relations. When a dis- 
pute arose here in reference to certain claims 
they advanced, and a settlement of these became 
impossible, we sent Ravoninahitriniarivo and his 
companions as an embassy. And although this 
involved a heavy expenditure of money, I did not 
lay the burden upon you, O my people, lest any 
of you should be lukewarm in the matter; and I 
acted thus from my unwillingness to have any of 
the blood of the children of my people uselessly 
shed in the land. The greatest forbearance was 
exercised, that justice might be secured and from 
an unwillingness to fight with foreigners. How- 
ever, although we exercised this forbearance and 
used all suitable means to prevent war, they have 
now attacked Anorontsanga and Mojanga. 

"'Now, upon attacking Anorontsanga, they 
informed Rainimiraony, the governor, that if he 
did not evacuate the place within four hours they 
w r ould bombard him. But Rainimiraony replied 
that the country belonged to Ranavalomanjaka, 
and that he should not leave, and that if they 
bombarded him that must be their affair, for he 
had not yet received any instructions from the 



212 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

Government here at Antananarivo telling him of 
a rupture of friendly relations between the two 
Governments, and that he was to engage in war 
with the French. He added that it was not be- 
cause he was not in a position to retaliate that he 
refused to do so, but simply because he had no in- 
structions to that effect; and he asked Admiral 
Pierre to produce the Sakalava who claimed the 
country as theirs, as that was not a matter in 
which the French had any right to interfere. 

11 ' At Mojanga, again, they told Ramanbazafy 
to clear out within an hour, leaving all arms be- 
hind him. Ramanbazafy replied that he should 
not go, and thereupon was attacked. Women 
and children, besides invalids, were still in the 
place, and the destruction of private property was 
great. 

U< A little later on came a despatch from 
Rainandriamampandry, Governor of Tamatave, 
stating that M. Baudais and Campan had been to 
the fort to make inquiries, and to inform him 
that, according to rumors, the Malagasy intended 
to set fire to the houses of the foreigners in Tam- 
atave. Rainandriamampandry told them in re- 
ply that the laws of the sovereign of Madagascar 
condemned evil-doers, and that if any one did as 
they said, he would be guilty in the eyes of the 
law ; and on his part, Rainandriamampandry 



THE ULTIMATUM IN ANTANANARIVO. 21 3 

asked them about the bombardment of the north- 
ern ports by the French men-of-war, without pre- 
vious negotiations and while friendly relations 
still existed. To this Baudais answered that he 
too had heard of this; but that was no concern of 
his, but Admiral Pierre's. "Moreover, there 
would soon be important business in hand," he 
said; and he told Rainandriamampandry to see 
that relays of couriers were properly stationed 
for conveying despatches up and down the coun- 
try. 

"'Well, on Tuesday the "ultimatum" ar- 
rived from Admiral Pierre and M. Baudais. It 
is a lengthy document, but these are the points 
to be submitted to you: They claim a third of 
Madagascar and demand two hundred thousand 
dollars; moreover, the time allowed for answer- 
ing their despatch is eight days; that is, three 
days for conveying it to the capital, two for con- 
sidering its contents, and three for conveying the 
answer to the coast; and in the event of our not 
acceding to their demands, or of the answer not 
arriving in time, or should Rainandriamampan- 
dry make any military preparations or move any 
troops, then they would bombard and destroy all 
the ports on the east coast. Now, shall we yield 
to their demands, or what do you think we should 
do?' " 

Madagascar aud France. T - 



214 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

Then the people refused with a loud shout, 
saying, u God forbid that we should do that!" 
They stood up, one after another, and made 
speeches, tribe by tribe, protesting against any 
cession of territory to the French, though but of 
the size of a grain of rice. In many different 
speeches they showed that they did not in the 
least shrink from death in defence of their coun- 
try; and they begged for guns and spears, and 
that every able-bodied man should be drilled, so 
that one and all might fight in defence of the fa- 
therland. 

The Prime Minister spoke again as follows: 
"This also I have to say, sirs: You have heard 
the demands of the French, and liberty of choice 
has been given you, O ye people, as to whether 
they should be acceded to or not, and I see that 
you refuse. Now this is the message the sover- 
eign intrusted me with: 1 When you have heard 
the people's reply, and they do not accede to the 
claims of the French, but reject them, then say 
this to them: All countries have been divided 
out by God, that each nation may possess its own; 
and God gave this land to my ancestors, and has 
now intrusted it to me. This country had its 
boundaries fixed by Andrianimpoinimerina, and 
was conquered by the prowess of Radama I. Our 
grandfathers were maimed and hindered in those 



THE ULTIMATUM IN ANTANANARIVO. 215 

days as they carried into execution the purposes 
of Andrianimpoinimerina; yea, some of you now 
present were there and saw these things with 
your own eyes. And this kingdom has been 
governed in justice and righteousness, and the 
way in which I have ruled over it you have both 
seen and heard. We made treaties with foreign- 
ers across the seas; nay, whether we had treaties 
or not, all foreigners have received respectful and 
honorable treatment; and even when they did 
things that grieved us I have borne with them, 
from my desire to see wisdom advancing in this 
country. All foreigners who have made treaties 
with us have acknowledged that Madagascar be- 
longs to me; and even the French acknowledged 
this in the treaty they made with me in 1868. 
Yet now the French say, ( 1 A third of Madagas- 
car belongs to us. ' ' 

11 'Therefore I say to you, O my people, that 
if this country*, which God has intrusted to me, 
the country where my ancestors rest and where 
the bones of your forefathers lie buried, is claimed 
by others, why, then I stand up in defence of the 
goodly heritage God has given me. God made 
me a woman; but when any one tries to seize the 
heritage He has given me, and the country sub- 
dued by my ancestors is disturbed, then I feel 
strong to go forth as your leader; for I should 



2l6 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

feel degraded, O iny people, were I not to defend 
the heritage which God has given me. 

" 'This is a righteous war in which we are 
engaged. I have made every possible effort to 
maintain friendly relations; I have borne and 
submitted to things that no one could have ex- 
pected me to bear. I am not invading others 
nor seeking to destroy others; but I am invaded 
by others and others are seeking to destroy me. 
Fear not, therefore, seeing that you have the 
right on your side; for if those who are unjustly 
invading, and claim what belongs to another, 
have no fear, much less we who are defending 
our own. I have all confidence, therefore, O my 
people, for the right is the weapon with which 
we are defending this country, and the issues of 
war are in the hands of God. Is it not so, O my 
people?' " 

u It is so," said the people. 

" 'I have no wish to excite you, but report 
says they will come up here (into the interior), 
and will break open the tombs where your fore- 
fathers and your fathers rest, that they may seize 
your property; for the wealth of the Malagasy, 
they say, is to be found in their tombs. Now 
can you bear that, O my people?' " 

Then the people replied with a loud shout, 
" God forbid that we should do that !" 



THE ULTIMATUM IN ANTANANARIVO. 217 

The Prime Minister spoke once more, saying, 
"The proclamation of the sovereign has been an- 
nounced to you, but I also have this to say to you, 

0 ye people: I watch over the interests and per- 
son of the queen, and possibly some will be say- 
ing, 'Will the Prime Minister be going to the war 
and no longer watch over the interests and person 
of the sovereign?' Let me tell you that when my 
father and mother begat me, it was that I might 
protect and honor this country; so side by side 
will we fight, and I will make this body of mine 
as the rampart of Madagascar. 

"Were we fighting for that which was wrong, 
even though we said we would fight, there would 
be cause for fear; but when, as in our case, it is 
for the right, there is nothing to fear; for should 
one die in that, it would be an honor to die de- 
fending one's fatherland. All of us must die; 
and if we are to die defending our fatherland, 
why, that is the portion which God has allotted 
us. Or, may be, you have not the courage to de- 
fend the inheritance God has given you." 

" God forbid !" said the people. 

"I declare here, in your presence, that I dare 
defend this country. I call you to witness what 

1 say. We will fight side by side. So do not be 
faint-hearted or alarmed because of the prowess 
of the French, for there is God looking and judg- 



2l8 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

ing what is going on. The French are a great 
nation; but shall this make us afraid to maintain 
the right in defence of our own ? God forbid ! 
For until the last man has been cut down they 
shall never be allowed to have this country ! Is 
it not so, O ye people ?" 

" It is so !" said the people. 

' ' And this too is the message of the sovereign : 
' The people belonging to the nation that is fight- 
ing with us have now all gone, and only those 
who are on good terms with us remain. So I tell 
you this that you may all know if n 

We require no clearer indication of the spirit 
of childlike dependence upon God which has 
been growing among the people than the tone of 
this proclamation. There is no fiery denuncia- 
tion of their enemies, no attempt to stir up angry 
feelings or to rekindle the dormant savagery of 
the half-civilized villagers, and no argument is 
used but such as would commend itself to the 
judgment of the most highly-civilized nation in 
the world. There is nothing but the laudable 
desire to defend their own, " that which God has 
given them," from unfounded and unjustifiable 
claims. They have determined, and those who 
know the Malagasy character know full well that 
their determination will not be shaken either by 
the bluster or the cajoling of their enemies. 



THE ULTIMATUM IN ANTANANARIVO. 219 

And, understanding the character of the French 
claim, one can only pray that the "God who is 
looking and judging what is going on" will di- 
rect the course of events into paths of peace, 
righteousness, and prosperity. 

The day following the ' ' Kabary ' 1 an answer 
was sent to the French admiral, couched in the 
following terms: 

" Antananarivo, June 7, 1S83. 

"Sirs: The 1 ultimatum' you sent to the 
Government of the Queen of Madagascar on the 
1st of June, 1883, has been received; and in re- 
ply to it this is announced to you : 

"The Government of the sovereign of Mada- 
gascar is grieved, for it does not see how it can 
carry on negotiations with you in reference to 
other matters unless it has the assurance that you 
acknowledge that Madagascar belongs to its (i. e., 
the Government's) sovereign. Your Government 
recognizes this fully in the treaty made between 
the two kingdoms in 1868. 

"As one among other proofs of this maybe 
instanced the claim for indemnity recently made 
at Marambitsy by the French Government in the 
affair of the dhow 'Touele,' that being within the 
territory now claimed in the 'ultimatum.' 
"(Signed) 

" ANDRIAMANIFY, 
" Acting Secretary for Foreign Affairs." 



220 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



CHAPTER X. 

BOMBARDMENT OF TAMATAVE. 

Meeting of British Subjects at the Consulate at Tamatave. For- 
mation of Vigilance Committee. Natives Hope to Draw Fire 
of French Ships into European Quarter. Liberty to go on 
Board the " Dryad." Watch on Shore. Bombardment. 
French Landing. Town Burned. Houses Looted. Other 
Ports Bombarded. Imprisonment of Mr. Shaw. Of H. B. 
M.'s Consular Clerk. Death of Mr. Pakenham. Arrival of 
French Consul from Zanzibar. Release of Mr. Shaw. The 
" Stella " from Mauritius. French Ministry not Responsible 
for Tamatave Incident. Expression of Regret Spontaneous. 

On Monday, June 4, a deputation from the 
British residents waited 011 Mr. Pakenham at the 
Consulate by appointment, to seek official advice 
with respect to the critical position of affairs in 
Madagascar. At their request an invitation had 
also been sent through the consul to Captain John- 
stone of H. M. S. "Dryad" to meet them and 
assist with his practical and valuable advice the 
objects of the deputation. One of their number 
having been previously appointed president, he 
introduced the deputation, and, according to the 
advice obtained, a standing committee was formed. 
Steps were taken to provide shelter and provis- 
ions for indigent British subjects coming in from 
the country, and to bury all petroleum, rum, etc., 



BOMBARDMENT OF T AM AT AVE. 221 

that might prove dangerous to the general welfare 
of the place in case of fire. 

On June 6 notice was sent to the British sub- 
jects that they were at liberty to go on board the 
"Dryad," if they wished, and that boats would 
be in waiting at the beach to carry them off with 
their personal effects. The French subjects had 
been already ordered to go on board the men-of- 
war lying in the harbor. 

It was currently reported that the natives had 
been advised, when the bombardment commenced, 
to take their soldiers into the foreign part of the 
town, and thus draw the fire of the French upon 
the foreign property, as it was said, u If you do 
that you will embroil the French with the other 
powers, and so while they are quarrelling you 
will be left alone." As president of the commit- 
tee I was asked to go to the governor, partly to 
ascertain if this were true and to endeavor to dis- 
suade the Malagasy from this course, which I 
was fortunately able to do. The people decided 
not to adopt that course, and thus the town was 
saved from ruin, as the admiral had determined 
to "blow the whole place to pieces and respect 
no one's property or flags if the Hovas came down 
into the town." 

Tamatave from that time had the appearance 
of a deserted town, and anything more desolate 



222 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

it is scarcely possible to conceive. Shops were 
closed, and neither native nor foreigner was to be 
seen in the streets. Ail was silent and, but for 
the life in the harbor, dead. Here and there 
from the corners of the streets one would see a 
pig or two, in pure indifference to the altered 
state of affairs, prowling about looking for food in 
the place of that which they had failed to obtain 
as usual from their masters, and not at all discon- 
certed by the strange quiet — the calm that prece- 
ded the storm. Numbers of fowls and ducks 
escaped from their yards and congregated together 
for company were to be met with, only waiting 
to be appropriated by those who could drive them 
into their own premises. 

On Saturday morning our usual prayer-meet- 
ing was held, and as it was felt by all that most 
probably it would be the last time we should be 
able to meet together, seeing how unlikely it was 
that any service could be held on the following 
day, it was unusually well attended. In fact, 
with the exception of the few necessary sentries, 
all the natives in Tamatave were present from 
the governor downwards. Those who engaged 
in prayer were influenced by no feeling of the vin- 
dictive war-spirit; there were no prayers for the 
lives of their enemies and no cries for vengeance 
upon them. Prayers for a righteous vindication, 



BOMBARDMENT OF TAMATAVE. 223 

for guidance, for faith to trust where they could 
not see, and for eventual peace and good-will, 
were the only petitions heard in Tamatave on the 
eve of the bombardment. And although the poor 
fellows knew that in a few hours they would be 
houseless and homeless, driven away by those 
who were trying to take their country from them, 
yet they acknowledged that their Father's hand 
was guiding all things and would make all 
things work together for good to those who love 
him. 

During the day I heard that in the event, 
which was looked for, of the answer to the ulti- 
matum being unfavorable to the French, the Mal- 
agasy intended to retire during the night inland, 
and not attempt to oppose the French while under 
cover of the guns of their vessels. That night 
there was very little sleep for any of us who re- 
mained on shore. The time for the reply to the 
ultimatum to arrive expired at midnight. At 
about ii o'clock p. m. a native messenger brought 
a letter to the French Commissioner, and very 
soon afterwards he went on board the "Flore," 
and there remained. Therefore we knew that 
the answer had arrived, and that it was a refusal 
to grant the absurd demands of France. We 
formed ourselves into a watch, to cooperate in 
case of necessity with the Consular guard from 



224 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

the u Dryad," and waited, anticipating that at 
any moment the bombardment might commence. 

The Consular guard referred to above consist- 
ed of a body of twenty marines, sent by the com- 
mander of H. M.'s ship to insure the safety of 
the person of H. B. M.'s consul and of the 
archives under his charge, as also to be ready in 
case of emergency to render assistance to the Brit- 
ish subjects who remained on shore. The squad 
took up its quarters in an out-house adjoining the 
Consulate, and constant communication was kept 
up between the officer in charge and the sailors 
lying in the two cutters off the landing-place. 
These were kept in watchful readiness to receive 
British subjects remaining on shore, should it be 
necessary for them to accept the refuge offered 
by the man-of-war, in case incendiaries in force 
should simultaneously fire the town at different 
points. 

However, to the agreeable surprise of all, the 
night passed quietly, and at daybreak all was 
quiet. At 6:15 A. m. one of the French vessels, 
the "Nievre," left her moorings and steamed 
round into the south bay, in which she had been 
taking soundings for a day or two previously. 
As soon as she was anchored in position, the 
" Boursaint " fired the signal gun, and the tri- 
color was run up to each masthead and the bom- 



BOMBARDMENT OF TAMATAVE. 227 

bardinent began. Six vessels, the "Flore," the 
"Creuse," u Beau temps- Beaupre," "Nievre," 
4 'Forfait," and the u Boursaint," were engaged 
in throwing shot and shell into and beyond the 
fort for an hour and a half, as quickly as they 
could fire, although no answering shot was fired 
from the shore. The first shell from the "For- 
fait" fell into the native bazaar, and soon a col- 
umn of smoke and flames showed that it was on 
fire. Almost at the same time a shell from the 
"Nievre" burst among some native huts on the 
southwest of the town and fired them. Anta- 
nambao, the native town near my house, fol- 
lowed, and other fires close to Mr. Aitken's 
house (where I was staying, as my house was 
exposed to the cross-fire of the "Flore" and the 
"Nievre"), showed that the natives were ma- 
king an attempt to burn down the whole foreign 
portion of the town. At the same time an ex- 
plosion took place in the custom-house; and pres- 
ently a couple of natives were seen making their 
way out to the back of the town, after having 
lighted the train communicating with a barrel of 
gunpowder, placed there for the destruction of 
the premises around the custom-house. About 
7 o'clock, fortunately, rain began to fall, and the 
fires were rendered harmless to the surrounding 
buildings. At 7:45 firing ceased for an hour, 



228 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

and then reopened more slowly, and continued 
during the remainder of the day. Fresh fires 
broke out during the afternoon and raged through- 
out the night. During the cessation in the morn- 
ing some of us, who had been watching the ex- 
traordinary display of six large men-of-war shell- 
ing the deserted and silent forts and town, went 
out to the neighborhood of my house. But just 
as we arrived abreast of the soldiers' town the 
fire there broke out again, and fearing that the 
" Flore" would reopen fire upon it, suspecting 
the presence of natives, we turned to retrace our 
steps. This we had scarcely determined upon 
when shells from the fleet once more poured into 
the place. At another time in the day an attempt 
was made by some of us on shore to prevent the 
fire in the bazaar from spreading into the foreign 
portion of the town; but while walking along 
behind the houses and in view of the French 
ships, a shell was fired, and burst not more than 
twenty yards in front of us, injuring a part of the 
S. P. G. premises. 

During the afternoon M. Baudais and his vice- 
consul were rowed near to the beach, to ascertain 
from those who had remained on shore the condi- 
tion of the town and if there were many natives 
about. Although they heard that there were none 
to be seen even near the fort, they were not will- 



BOMBARDMENT OF TAMATAVE. 229 

ing to trust themselves on shore, but speedily re- 
turned to their ships, and firing continued. 

Sunday night was an anxious time for us, as 
the town was in flames in different places, and as 
the French had not sufficient confidence to land, 
take possession of what the natives had left for 
them, and protect the property of the Europeans, 
whom they had deprived of their wonted pro- 
tectors from robbery and incendiarism. No guns 
w r ere fired during Sunday night, and every facility 
was thus given to wandering bands of robbers for 
pillaging and burning the town. All the Eng- 
lishmen on shore formed themselves into a watch 
to give the alarm and prevent anything like a 
concerted attack or general conflagration. 

On Monday, as soon as it was light, the boats 
of the fleet were seen stretching in a long line from 
the bows of the " Forfait," on the stern of which 
we had seen the scaling ladders rigged during the 
Sunday afternoon. About 6 o'clock the boats 
began to move towards the shore under the con- 
tinual fire of the " Boursaint, n which sent shells 
and shot into the battery and beyond it, and also 
across the Point Hastie, to the south, into the 
Betsimisaraka town. One company of the French 
landed at the custom-house and made their way 
through the town by the street south of the Rue 
Royale. The remainder landed in the utmost 



23O MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

confusion on the beach opposite the British Con- 
sulate. A more disorderly landing can scarcely 
be imagined; the men all seemed to be talking 
and shouting together, and the officers seemed to 
be chiefly engrossed with the problem of how to 
get through the surf without wetting their boots. 
One company was told off to make directly for 
the fort along the beach, while the remainder 
marched in fours up the main street, dragging 
with them two small brass guns, and provided 
with field telegraph and hospital gear. In little 
less than an hour signal flags were hoisted at the 
flagstaff in the fort; at the same time we could 
see from the roof of the house where we had kept 
watch during the night that a squad of marines 
was on the sand-hills near our house. 

Several of us then went up and found that the 
servants who had taken refuge in the cellar were 
well, though much frightened, three or four shells 
having burst in the garden on Sunday and done 
some slight damage. We went to the top of the 
belvedere and could distinctly see the Hovas leav- 
ing their inland fort and magazine, Manjakandri- 
anombana, about three miles from Tamatave, and 
taking a southerly direction along the ridge of 
hills stretching away to Imahasoa and the river 
Ivondrona. We walked through the town in or- 
der to ascertain the amount of destruction, and 



BOMBARDMENT OF T AM AT AVE. 231 

found that very few, if any, of the natives had 
been killed; at any rate, no bodies were to be 
seen except those of two who had been killed by 
bayonet thrusts, having been suspected of at- 
tempting to fire the town. But a fearful scene 
of destruction was presented, houses even of Eu- 
ropeans pierced by shells and partly blown up; 
others with the roofs broken to pieces; while the 
native houses were either burning or consumed 
during the past day. The various domestic ani- 
mals that had perished were lying about in all 
directions; but scarcely one of the host of dogs 
that used to make night hideous could be seen. 
Near one house we found a couple of kittens, who 
had lost their mother, being nursed and tended 
in a touching way by a pig who had, we pre- 
sumed, lost its litter in the conflagration. Con- 
sidering them as curiosities, we looted the kittens, 
much to the pig's annoyance, and carried them 
home. 

Another curious sight met our eyes when we 
went on board the " Dryad," to let Captain John- 
stone know how matters stood on shore. The 
decks were literally full of British subjects, and 
the greatest credit is due to the commander and 
his officers for the orderly arrangements made for 
the comfort of such a large company in addition 
to their own crew. In fact, from the commeuce- 
14 



232 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

ment of hostilities, the British commander proved 
by his courteous firmness that he was just the 
man required to deal with the brow-beating tactics 
of the French admiral towards the English offi- 
cials, and that, while he was ever ready to accede 
to all the legitimate requests of the French, he 
had no intention of abating one jot of the respect 
that ought to be paid by officers of one power to 
those sailing under the flag of another and neu- 
tral nation. The British residents at Tamatave 
owe a debt of gratitude to Captain Johnstone for 
the timely and clear-headed advice he was able 
to give them, and for the determined and plucky 
way he conducted British affairs placed in his 
hands; while at the same time every effort was 
evidently made by him to act courteously towards 
the French authorities and not wound their ex- 
treme sensitiveness. 

On Monday night, after the first watch had 
passed off quietly, and remembering that the 
French troops, having landed, would be, or ought 
to be, a protection to the town, we relaxed our 
efforts, and discontinued the watch for the re- 
mainder of the night. But in the morning, while 
we were standing on the veranda of the house, 
two of the servants who had been left in my 
house were seen coming down the street, and in- 
formed us by their scared faces before they came 



BOMBARDMENT OF T AM AT AVE. 233 

near that something had happened. When they 
arrived we heard with dismay that the house had 
been entered during the night and goods stolen or 
broken. We went off immediately to ascertain 
the extent of the damage, informing H. B. M.'s 
consul en route of what had occurred. It appears 
that the robbers had broken open the front door, 
and had evidently searched either for papers or 
money, as furniture was broken and cut open, in- 
dicating that a search had been made; but how 
much had been carried off it was impossible to 
say. 

From what we could ascertain, it seems that 
the commander of the fort drew in his pickets at 
night close round the fort, thus leaving a free 
passage for the natives, who were lurking about 
for pillage or for firing the houses, to enter the 
town unopposed. In fact, we heard that a mes- 
sage had been sent to the commander of the 
u Dryad," from the admiral, to say that the lat- 
ter would hold the former responsible for the 
town, because he had sent a guard on shore to 
protect the archives of the British Consulate. It 
seemed as though the French commander would 
not have been sorry if the natives had entered the 
town to pillage and burn it, as every facility was 
given them; and an attempt was made to throw 
the blame upon the English commander. 



234 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

Leaving my house to return into the town, I 
saw a squad of French soldiers seize upon a couple 
of natives and compel them to inarch before them 
towards the fort. Fearing that, in the absence of 
a knowledge of the language, some misunder- 
standing might lead to the men being shot, I of- 
fered to translate for the corporal. This he ac- 
cepted with thanks, and, in their examination, 
the men said they were only stealing from the 
houses of the Hovas, and said this in such a way 
as to give both my companion, a European, and 
myself the impression that they had heard from 
good sources that they would not be punished by 
the French for such acts. 

My servants being now thoroughly frightened, 
I removed them to Mr. Aitken's house, as send- 
ing them away into the country was very much 
like exposing them to certain death. I was the 
more ready to do this as the men had stayed with 
me at my request to assist with the ambulance, if 
such should prove necessary, and, having stayed, 
I felt bound to do the best I could for them. 
Others had made attempts to keep their servants, 
but had failed. 

On Tuesday night the house and bungalow 
were again broken open, and furniture, papers, 
etc. , were scattered all over the compound. My 
landlord had gone during the afternoon to ask 



BOMBARDMENT OF TAMATAVE. 235 

the commander of the fort to put his picket, 
which he had placed near, in my compound, as 
it occupies a commanding situation. I also went 
with him to offer a room for their accommodation 
on consideration of the protection to my remain- 
ing furniture and of the saving of expense and 
trouble of transporting it all into the town. This 
he roughly refused, saying he was not put there 
to protect our property, and should place his 
pickets where he liked. 

Accordingly, on Wednesday, with the help of 
my own men and Mr. Aitken's servants, I com- 
menced to remove what furniture remained to his 
house in the town; but on Wednesday evening 
the commander of the fort sent to Mr. Aitken to 
say that at 8 o'clock on Thursday morning a 
picket of soldiers would be placed in my house. 
At 6:30 that morning another European and my- 
self went together to the house, and found that 
during the night not only had the premises been 
ransacked, goods stolen, and furniture destroyed, 
but the cellar, containing among other stores some 
bottles of claret, and the dispensary, containing a 
great number of medicines, had been entered, and 
the bottles either broken, stolen, or thrown out 
into the garden. We at once collected together 
all we could find and sent them into the town. 
We were just completing this work when the 



236 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

picket arrived, and orders were given to haul 
down our flags. The French flag was hoisted at 
the fort, and Tamatave declared to be in a state 
of siege. Various decrees promulgated by the 
admiral were attached to conspicuous places in 
the town. Among them was one appointing the 
French vice-consul to be mayor of Tamatave; 
another declaring all previously existing consular 
offices to be annulled; another stating that "All 
persons of African or Asiatic race are prohibited 
from remaining in the European quarter from 
5:30 p. m. to 6:30 A. M., unless guaranteed by a 
European with the approval of the authority. 
Permits of residence, stating name and quality of 
the guarantor, will be issued to the parties inter- 
ested by the superior commander whenever the 
guarantee offered appears to him to be satisfac- 
tory.' ' 

On Friday I sent in the names of my servants 
and their wives and of my schoolmistress and her 
mother, spending the day as before in removing 
what furniture I could save, my men working 
heartily, although they had lost their all. 

On Saturday morning, June 16, about 7:30, 
the mayor came to me and said he had received 
my note with the names of my servants, and that 
if I would go to the fort at 8 or 8:30 the passports 
would be given me by the commander; that there 



BOMBARDMENT OF TAMATAVE. 237 

would be no difficulty in my case, and that my 
going was merely a matter of form. On arrival I 
found that the mayor was there before me. He 
took me to the commander and accused me of 
harboring spies. The officer, instead of giving 
me the passports, said that by their names it ap- 
peared my servants were Hovas. I explained 
that I had certainly written their names a la 
Hova, but in fact they were Betsileo, a tribe re- 
sembling the Betsimisaraka, and under subjection 
to the Hovas. I said, "The only Hovas in the 
list are the schoolmistress and her mother, the 
one being too ill and the other too old to leave 
Tamatave before the bombardment." I was then 
asked where they were, and upon my replying 
that I had left them at Mr. Aitken's house, where 
they had slept the past few nights, I was roughly 
told by the commander that he would keep me 
under arrest till they arrived. I asked to be 
allowed to write for them to be sent, and this I 
did, the mayor agreeing to see my note delivered 
to Mr. Aitken. 

The mayor was the instigator of this proceed- 
ing, I believe; and from various statements made 
I think that spies had been for some time past 
employed to watch me, and any excuse was seized 
upon to give a color of reason for my arrest. As 
a writer in "The Planter's Gazette" truly re- 



23S MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

marks, (( It was dangerons to be an Englishman 
or a Protestant in Tamatave." I had very often 
acted as interpreter and translator for Mr. Paken- 
ham, H. B. M.'s consul, who was not conversant 
with the Malagasy language, and although not 
an official translator nor sworn interpreter, I had 
been intrusted with important documents; at the 
same time the Hova Government applied to me 
in similar circumstances; so that the whole corre- 
spondence on both sides sometimes passed through 
my hands. This, it seems, has given rise to the 
suspicion that I was private secretary to the Brit- 
ish consul and adviser to the Hova governor, 
both of which statements are altogether untrue, 
as I have been most careful to refrain from any- 
thing like entanglement in the politics of the 
country, and only as a private friend of the con- 
sul and of the Hova governor did I undertake to 
assist them. But to have been a friend of either 
of these was, to the French officials, sufficient to 
condemn a man. 

Meanwhile, with very little ceremony, I was 
marched off into a tent and placed under a guard 
of four armed soldiers and a corporal, and told I 
w r as not to remove from the tent on pain of being 
shot; and thus I was kept until night in a small, 
hot tent, the door of which was kept closed, al- 
though I had seen that my servants arrived dur- 



BOMBARDMENT OF T AM AT AVE. 239 

ing the early part of the day. The harsh and 
uncalled-for treatment caused me to be in con- 
stant dread lest from any confused or contradic- 
tory statements of my servants more extreme 
measures might be resorted to. 

About 6 o'clock I was placed in the centre of 
a squad of soldiers, told to march with them to 
the landing-place at the other end of the town, to 
hold no communication with any one, and if I 
disobeyed I should be executed. Arrived at the 
beach, I was put into the "Nievre's" boat and 
taken on board, together with Mr. Aitken, his 
two clerks, and my servants. We Europeans 
were confined in separate cabins, and not allowed 
to hold any communication, armed sentries being 
told off to guard us. The following day the other 
Europeans were released without any form of 
trial or examination, but I was still kept in my 
cabin and fed upon a portion of the sailors' ra- 
tions served in a bucket and without knife, fork, 
or any utensils. The food was of the coarsest 
description, a small piece of meat once a day, and 
soup made of beans or peas for the only other 
meal during the day, a piece of bread and a little 
claret accompanying each. It was with the great- 
est difficulty that I could get a little water to 
drink or to wash with. Hence it was not won- 
derful that in a few days I was laid up with an 



240 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

attack of fever. During my illness the doctor 
was not only very attentive, but tried his best to 
alleviate the harshness of rny imprisonment. 

I was allowed to converse with the officers of 
the "Nievre," and I made several unsuccessful 
attempts to discover why I was detained. But 
during a conversation with one of the officers it 
was made very clear that the French thought 
that every English missionary must necessarily 
be a political agent, laboring not only for the 
extension of Christ's kingdom, but also for the 
aggrandizement of England. France has been 
willing to use Jesuit priests for political purposes 
in various parts of the world, and doubtless this 
knowledge gave a color to the erroneous notion 
respecting those who are sent out with instruc- 
tions to " avoid mixing in native politics," and 
who endeavor conscientiously to carry out such a 
wise provision. Now that my imprisonment is 
over, I believe that my being a Protestant, a mem- 
ber of the London Missionary Society, and having 
the confidence of the British subjects in Tama- 
tave as well as of the Hovas, were the real causes 
of my detention, w T hile the charges were invented 
to give a plausible excuse for the high-handed 
action of the French officers. 

Two or three days after I had been placed on 
board the "Nievre," Andrianisa, the consular 



BOMBARDMENT OF TAMATAVE. 24I 

secretary, was brought and treated in the same 
way as myself. When we were transferred to the 
1 1 Flore ' ' we were placed together in one cabin 
for the first evening, so that we could converse. 
He told me he had done nothing, and was ac- 
cused of nothing except of being a Hova. Now 
this, I believe, every one in Tainatave knows to be 
untrue; and it is strange if Mr. Raffray, who 
caused his arrest, was not perfectly cognizant of 
the fact that Andrianisa was a British subject, 
although of Hova parentage on his father's side. 
He was born in Mauritius; his mother was a 
Creole of that place, and he remained in that 
island till after he had reached the age of twenty- 
one years. He had always represented himself 
as a British subject long before these troubles 
came upon Tainatave. Mr. Pakenham declared 
to the officers sent to arrest his secretary in his 
presence that Andrianisa was a British subject. 
But the commander of the fort was not willing to 
accept this verbal statement, and demanded a 
written certificate from Mr. Pakenham, which 
the latter did not feel called upon to give at the 
bidding of a French official. After being kept 
in confinement some weeks, Andrianisa was re- 
leased* without being tried or examined in any 

* In a communication made by M. Waddington to Lord Gran- 
ville, August 13, he asserted that Andrianisa " was immediately 



242 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

way whatever: a clear admission on the part of 
the French authorities that they had no grounds 
on which to detain him, while his family was in 
a destitute condition on shore. This was after the 
death of H. B. M.'s consul. 

The admiral, in a note to one of the Bourbon 
papers, denies any knowledge of these facts, and 
also that any indignity was offered to H. B. M.'s 
consul. But the above are the simple facts of 
the one case; and with regard to the other, I 
heard from a credible witness who was present 
that our consul was ordered to leave the shore 
within twenty-four hours from the time of notice, 
notwithstanding that information was given of 
his serious illness. Had he not died meanwhile, 
there is no doubt he would have been removed, 
and this was to be done because he was said to 
be holding communication with the enemy; a 
proceeding which in the face of the strong cor- 
don of sentries placed round Tamatave, and of 
the fact that Mr. Pakenham had not the confi- 
dence of the natives, was an impossibility. The 
charge was as ridiculous as that made against 
Captain Johnstone, that he signalled to the na- 
tives by night. Admiral Pierre's credulity went 
a long way if he really believed that the " nation 

released," and "that the French forces had shown all the con- 
sideration the circumstances allowed of." 



BOMBARDMENT OF TAMATAVE. 243 

altogether barbarous" had studied and learned 
the naval code of signals. But even this charge 
was sufficient, in the hands of so unscrupulous a 
man, to place Captain Johnstone under the in- 
dignity of a surveillance, and to prevent him 
from holding communication with the shore. 

While I remained in a state of uncertainty on 
board the "Nievre," and while still suffering 
from the effects of the fever, the "Taymouth 
Castle," a steamer of the Cape R. M. S. Com- 
pany, from London, arrived in the harbor, June 
26, having my wife on board. So that I had the 
additional pain of seeing the vessel in, and yet 
not being able to meet my wife, who had left 
Tamatave two years previously in ill health to 
seek change and medical advice in England. I 
knew too with what a terrible shock the news of 
my imprisonment would come upon her just at 
the time she was expecting to meet me. As I 
was not allowed to hold any communication with 
the shore I could discover nothing of her move- 
ments nor how she was bearing it, and when the 
vessel left again I was in perfect ignorance as to 
whether she remained on shore or had left again 
for Mauritius. After the vessel had left letters 
were given me, written by my wife for me, but 
read and kept by the French officers until after 
she had gone, so that I had to bear the misery of 



244 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

learning that as the "Taymouth Castle" steamed 
out close to the "Nievre" she was on board with- 
out my knowing it or making any effort to get a 
distant glimpse of her. 

Since being set at liberty I have heard from 
her how harshly she was treated. She first went 
in a boat to the beach, but was not allowed to 
land, to ask the officer at the custom-house if she 
might not be allowed to see me. The officer told 
her he could not give her permission, but she 
might apply to the admiral. Accordingly she 
went with the second officer of the u Taymouth 
Castle ' ' to the 1 1 Flore. ' ' She was received on 
board by the admiral's secretary, and informed 
him of her wish to see the admiral. This was 
denied her, and she was told that if she had any- 
thing to communicate she must do it through the 
secretary. She accordingly asked permission to 
do one of three things: to come on board the 
" Nievre" for a short time to see me; to come 
and share my imprisonment; or to land, so as to 
be nearer to me than if she went to Mauritius. 
Each request as it was made was denied her, and, 
comfortless and thoroughly cast down, she had to 
leave the "Flore" without any prospect of see- 
ing me, and without the least idea of what I stood 
accused. In passing the "Nievre" to go to the 
"Flore," she had been seen and recognized by 



BOMBARDMENT OF TAMATAVE. 245 

Andrianisa, who was on deck, and he told the 
officers who she was. Hence means were taken 
to prevent my appearing on deck until she had 
repassed ; and when on their return the boat had 
waited at a little distance from the "Nievre," 
and the captain was asked if Mrs. Shaw might 
not see me even from that distance, they were 
ordered off and told not to stay near the ship un- 
less they had received permission for my wife to 
come on board. The secretary of the " Flore' 1 
told my wife that I was only confined to prevent 
my communication with the shore, and that I was 
well treated — both of which statements were de- 
void of the least shadow of truth. But when my 
wife's letters were given me, and I saw the above 
stated as the cause of my imprisonment, I wrote 
to the commander of the fort offering to go to 
Mauritius, binding myself not to communicate 
with Tamatave. This letter was afterwards used 
against me, as my accusers affected to believe that 
I was guilty, and therefore desired to escape. 

My European letters by the mail were detained 
until read and examined by the French officers; 
and after the return mail had left only such as 
w r ere considered not dangerous were given me. 
Letters from England addressed to my wife were 
also opened and read. Even one on Her Majes- 
ty's service, sealed with the official seal of the 



246 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

Colonial Postmaster General in Mauritius, was 
not respected. 

After being confined for seventeen days an 
officer came on board and I was ordered into the 
captain's cabin to be examined for the first time. 
I then found that the charge brought against me 
was totally different from that made by the com- 
mander of the fort when he first arrested me; and 
I was told that I stood accused of having scattered 
about in the vicinity of my house a number of 
bottles of wine and other liquids, which I had 
poisoned with the intention of destroying the 
French picket that I knew was to be placed in 
my house. I not only indignantly denied this, 
but also showed how, by the Europeans who were 
with me at Mr. Aitken's as witnesses, I could 
prove that neither I nor my servants could have 
left the town to go to my house during the night 
of Wednesday to Thursday. A constant watch 
had been kept throughout the night, and hence 
it was impossible that any one could have left 
the house unobserved. After about half-an-hour's 
examination the officer left, and I heard no more 
of my case for some days. I was then ordered to 
pack up what few clothes I had been allowed to 
receive from shore, and prepare to go on board 
the " Flore." 

There my imprisonment was made much more 



BOMBARDMENT OF TAMATAVE. 247 



harsh and the regulations far more stringent. 
Everything seemed to be done to make me feel 
that my confinement was no pleasant situation. 
I was placed in a small cabin on the lower or 
third deck, and told to remain in it. I was not 
to leave it except for an hour a day, when I 
might walk on the upper deck between the gal- 
ley and the gangway, but not beyond either; my 
cabin was to be kept constantly closed, an armed 
sentry to keep guard over me day and night, and 
I was not allowed to speak to any one except the 
sentry who brought my rations. Books were de- 
nied me, and my cabin, lighted by a very small 
port, was so dismal that I could not see to do 
anything after about two o'clock in the after- 
noon. 

In this state of misery and suspense I was kept 
for another nineteen days, hearing nothing of the 
result of my examination. Meanwhile I had 
written to the commander of the fort, under the 
impression that I was detained simply, as the ad- 
miral informed my wife, to prevent my commu- 
nicating with the shore, in which I offered to go 
to Mauritius, and find any security they were will- 
ing to accept; that I would abstain from commu- 
nicating with Tamatave. Getting no answer, I 
then wrote to the admiral in the same terms. To 
this he returned a verbal answer, saying that " the 

Madagascar and Prance. t c 



248 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

affair was not in his hands, but in those of the of- 
ficers on shore; that it would eventually come up 
for his decision, but not till those who had charge 
of the case had each given in their report. " I 
wrote to Captain Johnstone also, asking him to 
make in my name the same offer to the admiral. 
As all letters were thoroughly examined, this was 
detained and never reached him. 

After twenty-two days from my first examina- 
tion another officer sent an order for me to go into 
his cabin and submit to another examination. He 
told me he had been appointed reporter, and was 
allowed not only to examine me, but also to ques- 
tion on oath any persons I might wish to call as 
witnesses. In presence of this officer and a police 
constable I was once more asked a great number 
of questions, which were, with their answers, 
written. Again I was asked if I knew for what 
I was imprisoned. "Yes," I said; "I was told 
first I was imprisoned for harboring spies, and 
afterwards for trying to poison the French troops." 
"No! no!" said the officer; "you are impris- 
oned because you have been imprudent!" As I 
smiled, partly in incredulity at such a charge 
being brought against me after six weeks' impris- 
onment, he went on at my request to explain. 
"Well," he said, "after knowing that your cel- 
lar and dispensary were broken into and pillaged, 



BOMBARDMENT OF TAMATAVE. 249 

you ought to have been more careful to have in- 
formed the officers and marines that there might 
be poisons lying about. ' ' I explained that after 
the watch we kept the night previously, another 
European and I went together into my house on 
the Thursday morning, before any one else, and 
finding some bottles lying about the garden, we 
collected all we could find whole, and sent them 
into the town with other things. And at this 
work we were engaged when the picket arrived. 
I also explained that I had informed the officer in 
charge of the picket that the cellar and dispensary 
had been broken open. I also asked that, if any 
goods of mine were found by the soldiers, they 
would inform me, in order that I might at once 
have them removed. And I concluded that, hav- 
ing given this notice, the remainder of the cau- 
tioning was the officer's duty, and that I never 
expected French sailors would pick up any bottle 
they might find lying about and drink from it. 

It was affirmed against me that some bottles, 
and among them a bottle of laudanum, were 
found in the brushwood outside my garden, but 
near to it. But although I was there all day en- 
gaged in saving some of my property, I was not 
informed of the discovery of those bottles, and 
they were officially broken and a report of the 
same sent to the commander of the fort. It was 



250 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

asserted in my examination that the sudden ill- 
ness of one of the drunken soldiers had been 
ascribed on good authority 1 ' to the effects of opi- 
um;" and on the strength of this had been found- 
ed the charge of poisoning, which was found to 
be just as groundless as the first — that I was hold- 
ing communication with the Hovas. That I sym- 
pathized with them most heartily goes without 
saying; but that I overstepped the bounds of neu- 
trality by a hair's breadth is without founda- 
tion. 

After another eleven days in this small, dark, 
rat-infested cabin, treated worse than a condemned 
felon in England, I was told that, having been 
examined by the reporter, my case had still to go 
through the hands of two other officers, who might 
be an indefinite time before rendering their re- 
ports to the admiral. That not till then could 
the latter decide whether it was necessary I should 
be brought before a court-martial. Hence I might 
remain on board another six months without be- 
ing brought to trial. But I was told that, as 
neither of the subsequent examiners could exam- 
ine me personally, I might, with a fair hope of 
success, write to the admiral, offering to go to 
Mauritius on parole ; in other words, if I would 
give my word of honor to return for the court- 
martial when the admiral sent for me. I only 



BOMBARDMENT OF TAMATAVE. 251 

too gladly complied; but I found this was a mere 
ruse, for the admiral was not on board at the time; 
he had gone to Bourbon, and the letter was only 
to be a means of making me, if possible, crimi- 
nate myself. I was asked to write that ' c appear- 
ances were against me ' ' when I was arrested ; 
but this I declined to do, though at last, as time 
wore on, I made a compromise by substituting, 
"although some circumstances of the case make 
appearances to be against me, I wish again most 
emphatically and solemnly as in the presence of 
God to affirm my entire innocence, " etc. I re- 
ferred to the fact that the bottles were found in 
the garden on the particular morning that the 
picket arrived. 

Having been kept for eight weeks in total 
ignorance of what was transpiring in the outer 
world, not knowing how my wife was bearing 
the hard trial, and having been informed by my 
examiner that I might remain in prison six months 
longer before the court-martial, and that then I 
should only be allowed to have a French counsel, 
it was no wonder that under pressure and in my 
weak state of health I was willing to yield against 
my judgment and write the above. Not only 
was pressure used, but I was induced to write by 
false pretences, inasmuch as the admiral was not 
able to be communicated with, but had left in the 



252 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

u Forfait" a fortnight before I supposed I was 
addressing him on board. 

On August 6 I was told that, although the 
admiral had not answered, which he would not 
do till the last minute, yet it was quite certain I 
should be allowed to go in the way I asked. Ac- 
cordingly arrangements were made for my passage 
by the "Nievre" to Bourbon. On the follow- 
ing evening, about 8 o'clock, a form filled up was 
brought to me, stating that, as there was not suf- 
ficient evidence to warrant my being brought 
before a court-martial, considering my nationality 
and other circumstances outside the case, I was 
set at liberty. I especially inquired if this bore 
reference to my offer on parole d^honneur, and I 
was answered No! that I was altogether free; 
and my servants, who had also been confined on 
the 14 Flore," were free also, if any European on 
shore would offer security for them. 

In Mauritius, Sir John Pope Hennessey and 
Admiral Sir William Hewett had heard with 
some considerable concern of the high-handed 
action of the French at Tamatave and other pla- 
ces on the east and north coasts of Madagascar. 
The former not only felt it necessary to send over 
the "Stella" with instructions to take over to 
the colony all British subjects who might wish to 
leave the island, but he also sent letters to the 



BOMBARDMENT OF TAMATAVE. 253 

admiral making inquiry regarding my imprison- 
ment; to which the admiral replied very cour- 
teously, although he had refused to hold any 
communication with Captain Johnstone on the 
matter. When the English captain protested 
against the action of the admiral, he was told that 
a protest coming from a man of his rank rendered 
it unfit that any further communications should 
be held with him, and he was also prevented from 
landing at Tamatave after he had returned from 
the funeral of Consul Pakenham. It is quite evi- 
dent that a 1 1 grave and painful occurrence, ' ' 
leading the two nations to the verge of war, was 
bridged over by the repudiation by France of her 
representative's action in the harbor of Tamatave. 
Admiral Pierre was recalled, and his death at 
Marseilles materially helped the two Governments 
to come to an understanding. It was, however, 
quite evident, from the despatches of the French 
Minister, that the Government in Paris did not 
in the least sanction the outrageous acts of their 
admiral. In fact, there is reason to believe that 
the latter anticipated such a feeling when in his 
telegrams home he utterly ignored those matters 
which we look upon as serious; for on the appli- 
cation for information on the part of Lord Gran- 
ville, M. Challemel-L,acour says, on July 13, 
"A very short telegram informs us that Admiral 



254 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

Pierre repulsed two general night attacks on the 
26th June and the 5th July. No mention is made 
therein of any difficulties between the admiral 
and the British commander and consul." And 
again, having called upon Iyord Lyons, he said 
" he was at a loss to account for the admiral's not 
having made any allusion to them (the difficul- 
ties with the British authorities). " He stated 
further that "he had sent telegrams to Zanzibar 
and Aden, directing that instructions should be 
forwarded by the quickest means to the admiral 
to send full particulars at once." The same 
statement in effect was made in the Chamber of 
Deputies by M. Challemel-Lacour in reply to a 
question relating to the subject of the admiral's 
actions, which had so astonished him in a man 
whose "prudence equalled his determination." 

But when the French were put in possession 
of all the facts, their expression of regret to the 
British Government was spontaneous, and showed 
that the French Ministry were anxious to act 
consistently "with the friendly feeling and the 
good disposition existing between the two Gov- 
ernments," regarding the conduct of their ad- 
miral towards both H. B. M.'s consul, Captain 
Johnstone, and myself. 



ACCESSION OF RANAVALONA III. 255 



CHAPTER XI. 

ACCESSION OF RANAVALONA III. 

Events at Antananarivo. Committee of Safety. Letter to Lord 
Granville. Missionaries Leaving the Country. Mails In- 
terrupted. Death of Ranavalona II. Coronation of Rana- 
valona III. Her Character. Vice-consul for Antananarivo. 
Consular Agents along the Coast. Queen's Message to her 
Subjects in view of French Advance. Bombardments on the 
East Coast. Position at Tamatave. Native Determination. 

Meanwhile events of importance had been 
transpiring in the capital. Although the depar- 
ture of all French subjects, according to the de- 
cree of the queen, and the statement of the Prime 
Minister to the people that all foreigners who re- 
mained were friends, relieved the British, Nor- 
wegian, and American subjects of any immediate 
cause for fear, yet they felt their position to be 
one of considerable peril. No actual and imme- 
diate danger was to be apprehended from the 
people; but what if the French should carry out 
their threat and march into the interior? Vari- 
ous complications would soon arise. The natives 
openly spoke of destroying the town by fire in 
such a case; and this would involve the departure 
of all inhabitants, foreigners as well as natives. 



25^ MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

No representative of Her Majesty's Government 
resided at Antananarivo, either to advise the 
Government or protect the interests of British 
subjects. Added to this, all communication being 
cut off by the bombardment of Tamatave, no 
mails were delivered, and nothing but flying 
reports of the course of events reached the anx- 
ious white population in the capital. 

As a self-protective measure, a committee of 
the foreign residents was formed shortly after the 
news of the bombardment of Anorontsanga reached 
headquarters. This committee, with Bishop Cor- 
nish as its chairman, undertook to supply H. B. 
M.'s consul at Tamatave with information respect- 
ing events in the capital so long as the road was 
open, and also to become the means of communi- 
cation with Her Majesty's Government, seeking 
advice and representing the trying position in 
which they might be placed. One principle al- 
ways acted upon by the missionaries, especially 
those of the London Missionary Society, has been 
to keep clear of native politics. The wisdom of 
this course of action has again and again exhib- 
ited itself, more especially since the time the queen 
embraced the Christian religion and joined her- 
self in church fellowship to one of the churches 
under the guidance of the London Missionary 
Society. Doubtless the action of the Govern- 




GUARDS AT ENTRANCE OF THE QUEEN'S PALACE. 



ACCESSION OF RAN A V A 1,0 N A III. 259 

ment may at times have been influenced by the 
missionaries, but this has been an indirect influ- 
ence — a teaching of right motives and righteous 
principles, which have evidenced themselves in 
the course pursued by those in authority. It is 
also true that as teachers the missionaries have 
expounded the principles of political economy 
and inculcated the wish for just and equitable 
laws, have condemned wholesale capital punish- 
ment, and shown the duty of a civilized govern- 
ment to its subjects. But this is not u interfering 
in native politics;" it is a course adopted, and 
rightly so too, by every newspaper towards its 
own Government. And the teaching has been 
seen by the people to have been given with no 
personal motives, but only from the philanthrop- 
ic desire to see righteousness and peace, love 
and purity, advancing in the country. Hence 
they have accepted it and acted up to it as far as 
they have been capable, probably rejecting ad- 
vice which has been tendered from other quar- 
ters, not so clearly disinterested. 

In communicating with L,ord Granville on 
August 17, 1883, the committee represent their 
position as one causing little anxiety from the 
natives, "so long as the present Government re- 
tains its power, since even the Jesuit priests and 
other French subjects were safely escorted to the 



260 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

coast after the outbreak of hostilities, and at this 
date, eleven weeks afterwards, their property in 
the capital is as safe as when they left." They, 
however, were feeling the inconvenience of the 
stoppage of all communications, and were appre- 
hensive of the failure of supplies of provisions 
and money. Some of their number too, having 
broken down in health, were, independently of 
the unsettled state of the country, anxious to 
leave; but they were uncertain whether any port 
would be open to them, and whether after travel- 
ling to the coast they might not have to return. 
Besides, for reasons just mentioned, it might be 
out of their power in a few months to pay the 
necessary expenses of the journey to the coast. 
Alarm was also felt at the high-handed action of 
the French authorities in Tamatave in forbidding 
officers of Her Majesty's ships to land, in arrest- 
ing and imprisoning British subjects in the pres- 
ence of British men-of-war, while the captains of 
those vessels were kept in total ignorance of the 
charges under which they were arrested. It was 
natural that they should ask themselves what 
might not happen in the capital, where there is 
not a single representative of the British or any 
other foreign Government, should the French 
eventually reach the interior ? 

The committee, therefore, memorialised the 



ACCESSION OF RANAVALONA III. 261 

Foreign Secretary, begging his lordship (1) to 
take steps for keeping open communication, so 
that they might get their mails, stores, and specie, 
through some port on the east coast; (2) to send a 
British ship to some port also on the east coast by 
which such of their number as wished to leave 
the island might do so in safety ; and (3) to send a 
representative of the British Government, with as 
little delay as possible, to reside at Antananarivo. 

Before the arrival of this memorial in London 
many of the requests made in it had been antici- 
pated. The acting Foreign Secretary of the Lon- 
don Missionary Society had written on July 31 to 
Lord Granville, informing him of the receipt of 
news from Tamatave to the effect that the party 
who left England in the May previously had not 
been allowed to land, that other missionaries who 
were to have embarked there in the same vessel 
had been prevented by the unsettled state of the 
country from reaching Tamatave. It was also in- 
timated that they were reported to have reached 
Ivondrona, where any lengthened residence would 
seriously impair their health; and, therefore, his 
lordship was asked if steps could not be taken by 
the British authorities at Tamatave to communi- 
cate with them and procure for them a safe con- 
duct to the port, with a view to their embarking 
there en route for Mauritius and England. 



262 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

Instructions were accordingly sent to Captain 
Johnstone, of the "Dryad," to use his best en- 
deavors to relieve the party from their unpleasant 
position; and the French Minister telegraphed to 
Zanzibar instructions to the military authorities, 
"directing them to take the necessary steps to 
facilitate, under the circumstances indicated by 
the British Government, the departure from Mad- 
agascar of the English missionaries."* 

Nevertheless, quite half the party returned to 
the capital, being, of course, in total ignorance of 
what was passing in the outside world, and only 
realising their inability to reach Tamatave. The 
Rev. G. Cousins has graphically described the 
troubles, difficulties, and dangers of their journey 
from the capital to Ivondrona, and the attempt 
made by two of their number to reach Tamatave 
on foot. He speaks of the subsequent division of 
the party, one half deciding to return to Antana- 
narivo, while the other, including himself, elect- 
ed to make the long, tedious canoe journey along 
the lagoons to a port in the south. On this jour- 
ney, occupying many days under a scorching sun 
in an unhealthy climate, some of their number 
were repeatedly attacked with fever, and in con- 
stant dread lest, after all the weariness, pain, and 

* Correspondence respecting affairs in Madagascar, No. 1, 
1884, p. 43. 



ACCESSION OF RANAVALONA III. 263 

privation, they might be disappointed on arrival 
to find the ports bombarded and no vessels allowed 
to embark them. However, on reaching Manan- 
jara they felt themselves fortunate in securing a 
passage in a small schooner bound for Mauritius, 
notwithstanding the inconveniences they were 
compelled to put up with on board. ^ 

Mails which had lain for months at Tamatave 
w r ere sent to a port in the south and messengers 
were despatched with them to the capital, so that 
after nearly six months' silence the Europeans 
shut up in the interior obtained news of what was 
passing in the outer world. 

Soon after the commencement of the warlike 
operations an event occurred in the capital which 
had been anticipated not only with sorrow, but 
with a considerable amount of dread, on the part 
of the foreign residents. As long as the existing 
Government was in power all was felt to be well, 
so far as personal security was concerned. But 
what if the Government should be changed? 
The queen was known to be in delicate health, 
and the question was frequently asked, "What 
will be the effect on the people should she die? 
Would it cause, as in previous cases, a revolution 
and a civil war?" Again and again reports 
reached Tamatave from the interior that the 
queen was seriously ill, and occasionally it was 



264 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

reported that she was dead, but that the death, 
for political reasons, was kept quiet. These, 
however, proved to have been false reports, and 
were probably circulated to ascertain the effect of 
such an occurrence upon the coast tribes. 

But on July 13, 1883, the sad event took place, 
after two months' serious illness, borne with all 
the fortitude of the true Christian, and exhibiting 
to the last her firm trust on the Rock of her sal- 
vation. A native who was with her till the last 
says that " in the near approach of death she pos- 
sessed a sound mind, and remembered the Lord 
her God. She lost not her confidence in the fear- 
ful hour; in the thick darkness she saw the great 
light, and found life in the hour of death." Early 
in the morning, about 2 A. m., a severe shock of 
an earthquake shook the city, which being af- 
terwards remembered by the people seemed to 
strangely bear out their belief that some such 
convulsion of nature or some extraordinary phe- 
nomenon occurs immediately before the death of 
the sovereign. At half- past seven the same 
morning the queen quietly passed away, after a 
successful, merciful, and beneficent reign of fifteen 
years. "The sad event was announced about 
mid-day by a sudden and heavy firing of cannon, 
when the large weekly market, which was being 
held at the time, fell into a state of disorder in a 



ACCESSION OF RAX A V A LO X A III. 267 

moment, and crowds upon crowds of people — the 
men with their hats off, and the women in the 
act of dishevelling their hair — rushed to the pal- 
ace to hear the Prime Minister announce the sad 
tidings and proclaim the appointment of her suc- 
cessor, Rauavalona III."* 

Three days afterwards the body was removed 
from the palace in Antananarivo and taken to 
the ancient capital and one of the sacred towns of 
the Hovas, into which no European is allowed to 
enter, about twelve miles to the north. The 
funeral procession was attended by crowds of the 
people, who truly lamented the death of the gent- 
lest of Malagasy women and the most gracious 
of queens. On the following day at midnight 
the remains were deposited in the grave of Rana- 
valona I. , of notorious memory on account of the 
persecution of the Christians. " She was buried 
in the same grave," says the Rev. R. Baron, 
"not because of any special desire having been 
expressed by the queen to that effect, but rather 
because of a dream which she had had some time 
before her death that they were both sleeping in 
the same bed. And so it comes about that Rana- 
valona I., the great persecutor of Christians, and 
Ranavalona II., the devout believer in the gos- 
pel, lie together in one sepulchre. ' ' 

* "Antananarivo Annual," iSS^, p. 8. 
16 



268 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

A thousand bullocks, according to the Mala- 
gasy custom, were killed at the funeral, and the 
beef was eaten by the mourners. But with this 
exception the customs observed at the death of a 
queen were ignored. This was doubtless owing 
to a growing sense of the inutility of such obser- 
vances, to the disturbed state of the country with 
reference to the French action, and also to an 
expressed desire of the queen on her death-bed 
that as little fuss as possible should be made at 
her funeral. 

Ranavalona II. was the niece of the persecu- 
ting queen of the same name, and cousin of Raso- 
herina, her immediate predecessor. She was born 
in 1829, and was early noted among her peers as 
a girl of gentle and tender nature and lacking the 
haughty exclusiveness of her aunt. Very many 
native accounts are recorded of her tender-heart- 
edness, of her help tendered to those in distress, 
and of her endeavors to shield the Christians from 
the severity of Ranavalona I. She was educated 
in one of the London Missionary Society's schools, 
from which she carried away the early germs of 
that love of Christ which have sprung up and 
borne so much fruit in her reign. During the 
persecution it is known that she made several 
attempts to save the Christians; and native re- 
ports say that she was herself a true Christian 



ACCESSION OF RANAVALONA III. 269 



long before she openly received baptism. She is 
said to have frequently attended the devotional 
meetings of those persecuted ones both in the 
capital and in the plain below; and it is asserted 
that she sometimes received into the palace those 
who came to speak with her upon spiritual mat- 
ters, notwithstanding she knew that by so doing 
she was running great risks. For although she 
was a great favorite of the queen, had the latter 
known of the secret meetings, so great was her 
enmity towards the worshippers that steps would 
have been taken to circumscribe her liberty, even 
if she were not banished. " On one occasion she 
entered the house of an old lady very early one 
cold morning to warm herself by the fire; and as 
she was dripping with clew, her aged friend asked 
her where she had been such a night as that. 
'I have been,' she said, 'to a meeting of Chris- 
tians out yonder on the marsh;' to which the old 
woman replied with tears in her eyes, ' The Lord 
prosper you in your seeking after him thus.' "* 

On April 1, 1868, she ascended the throne on 
the death of her cousin; and it speedily became 
known that the first Christian sovereign ruled in 
Madagascar, for the idols reverenced by her pred- 
ecessors were looked upon with no favor by her. 
The idol-keepers or priests trembled for their 

* "Antananarivo Annual," 1883, p. 3. 



270 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

office and their power, and tried to create a diver- 
sion in favor of the ancient worship. But a 
death-blow was given to all their hopes when on 
the coronation day, September 3 — a day ever to 
be remembered in the annals of Christianity in 
Madagascar — it was found that in place of the 
idol a Bible occupied a prominent position near 
the throne. Round the four sides of the canopy 
surmounting it, too, were the four mottoes print- 
ed in large golden letters: " Glory to God in the 
highest," " Peace on earth," "Good-will towards 
men," u God be with us." And the queen in 
her speech to the people, with her hand on the 
Bible, said that she rested her kingdom on God, 
for he had given it. Declaring herself a Chris- 
tian, she trusted her people might also be led to 
see with her; but, said she, u in this matter you 
shall not be compelled, you shall not be hindered, 
for God made you. ' ' 

From that time the queen regularly attended 
worship in one of the churches, and in October a 
meeting, the first of its kind, was held for wor- 
ship inside the palace. In the following year the 
national idols of the Hovas were burned by the 
queen's command, and she and the Prime Min- 
ister were baptized into the Christian faith by the 
present pastor (1885) of the Palace Church, An- 
drianbelo, one of those who were most eminently 



ACCESSION OF RANAVALONA III. 2JI 

faithful and energetic in keeping alive the faith 
of the Christians during the persecution. Four 
months afterwards (the usual probation given to 
all candidates for church fellowship by the Lon- 
don Missionary Society churches) both the queen 
and Prime Minister were received as church mem- 
bers, and ever afterwards proved their sincerity to 
the profession thus made by their consistent, de- 
voted, and upright walk and conversation. 

According to a native writer, who describes 
her conduct and character, she was a most devout 
woman, not only expressing in public her depend- 
ence upon God, but by her constant Gommunion 
with him showing that she was a firm believer in 
the power and efficacy of prayer. It is said that 
she never committed herself to any action, even 
the most simple and commonplace, without first 
asking God's blessing : when she went out, when 
she came in, before and after meals, at the open- 
ing of the Council, on rising and on retiring, be- 
fore the annual feast (the Fandroand); and even 
during her last illness she would not take her 
medicine before a blessing had been asked upon 
it. Her conduct in church, too, always impressed 
me with its quiet, unostentatious devotion; and 
her attention to the reading and preaching of 
God's Word was most marked and her singing of 
the hymns most hearty. 



272 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

That her religion was a real thing, and not a 
cloak put on for political reasons, is also proved 
by her actions. Her care for her people's good 
was most marked. It is said that she contracted 
the small-pox which had so disfigured her face by 
her sympathy for the sufferers taking her into 
dangerous proximity to them. It is known that 
she distributed large sums of money to the poor 
and sick, but to what extent is unknown. How- 
ever, we know that regularly every first Sunday 
in the month, at the observance of the commu- 
nion of the Lord's Supper, she placed in the plate 
£20 for distribution by the church among the 
poor; while, apart from all other gifts, she sent 
^50 or £60 a month to the pastors of the city 
churches, to be used by them for helping any poor 
churches in the villages connected with them, or 
to assist those who were building new ones. A 
school for the sons of the nobles has Ions: been 
held in the palace, and for some years past the 
queen has been supporting a hospital and dispen- 
sary for the benefit of her people, although this 
involves the payment of the salaries of two prop- 
erly qualified doctors from England and the pur- 
chase of the necessary instruments and medicines. 

Her reluctance to punish was also a marked 
feature of her reign. Nothing gave her so much 
pain as the necessity of signing the warrant for 



ACCESSION OF RAN A V A LON A III. 273 



the death of a malefactor; and capital punish- 
ment has during the past ten years been reduced 
to a minimum, death never being inflicted but for 
murder and high treason against the life of the 
queen. Her merciful disposition has also been 
shown in the instructions given to those who 
have had to go as soldiers against tribes in rebel- 
lion against her. The lives of her people have 
been held sacred by her, and her conduct towards 
the seventy French subjects who were living in 
the interior at the time of the outbreak of hostili- 
ties, already referred to on page 205, is a conclu- 
sive proof of the high-toned sense of honor and 
justice that regulated the actions of this eminently 
good and Christian lady. 

Her successor, under the title of Ranavalona 
III., was proclaimed immediately after the death 
of her aunt, but she did not make her public ap- 
pearance till November 22, when she came to her 
coronation on the "Sacred Stone" in the centre 
of the large plain to the west of the capital. This 
plain had been staked off into divisions, with 
roads leading in different directions from the stone 
as the centre, and these roads were kept clear by 
a double line of soldiers facing each other with 
their bayonets fixed. The young men acting as 
Government doctors were placed at the corners 
marked with red and white flags, that they might 



274 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

be easy of access and easily discovered in case of 
accident. How humane solicitude for the well- 
being of others follows upon the heels of a Chris- 
tian civilization ! According to some accounts 
half a million of people assembled soon after five 
o'clock on the morning of the ceremony, when 
cannon from the height of the capital announced 
that the queen would soon leave the palace. 

Representatives from the various classes of 
foreigners were invited to meet the queen be- 
tween seven and nine on the plain of Andohalo, 
in the centre of the city, and to accompany her 
down to the great plain of Imahamasina, where 
all the others were invited to be present. Here, 
at Andohalo, was formed a guard of 400 of the 
elder scholars from the chief city schools, in uni- 
form and carrying Remington rifles with fixed 
bayonets. They were officered by their teachers, 
dressed in distinctive uniforms according to the 
school from which they had come. The lads 
were in high glee, and highly appreciated the 
honor the queen was giving them in having 
them rather than the soldiers for her body-guard. 

When the booming of the cannon announced 
the departure of the queen from the palace, these 
boys formed into a square around the " Sacred 
Stone," on which the sovereigns of Madagascar 
have first to step in proving their right to the 




RANAVALONA III. 



ACCESSION OF RAXAVALOXA III. 2J5 

crown. Presently down came two companies of 
soldiers with banners and bands, the ladies of 
honor, a hundred spearmen in striped jerseys, the 
chief officers in brilliant uniforms, and all on foot 
save the mounted officers bearing flags. They 
have adopted a new flag of scarlet and white joined 
diagonally, with a crown and R. M. embroidered 
on each side. 

The queen, shaded by two large scarlet um- 
brellas and a small pink parasol, was in a very 
handsome palanquin, carried by about twenty 
men. She was dressed in a white brocaded low 
silk dress, adorned with many jewels on her breast, 
white kid boots and gloves, and wore a large 
gold crown, or, as they call it, a hat with seven 
branches, owing to the crest being seven spikes 
of burnished gold. She was followed by a large 
company of singing women, and men beating 
drums. The spearmen fell into line, and as the 
queen approached the stone the boys presented 
arms. The Prime Minister and the chief of the 
ambassadors who recently visited Europe took 
the queen by the hand and led her to the stone, 
her train of richly embroidered velvet being held 
by four of the chief officers. Then came the 
salute; the Prime Minister stepped to the east, 
drew his jewelled sword, gave the word of com- 
mand, and as he on bended knee knelt before 



276 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

her the bands and cannon all round the city 
saluted Her Majesty as the only lawful Queen of 
Madagascar, while a deafening shout was raised 
by the thousands of people collected on the plain. 

The youngest boy of the school (a nephew of 
the queen, and about eleven years old) stepped 
forward and presented the hasina, expressing the 
allegiance of the people. The officer in charge 
of the guard of honor then came and inquired 
after the health of the queen, and the first cere- 
mony was at an end. 

The representatives of the foreigners immedi- 
ately left and hurried down to Imahamasina. 
The roads were lined with crowds of people in 
garments of linen, prints, and calicoes, and as the 
queen passed they chanted some national songs 
and clapped their hands, beating time to the 
chanting. Half way down the hill the Friends' 
school met the queen; but it was much after 
twelve before she reached the plain. As she 
passed the battery at Ambodin, Andohalo, the 
immense crowd on the plain caught sight of the 
scarlet umbrellas and broke out into shouts of the 
wildest enthusiasm. Arrived at the first tri- 
umphal arch, 500 girls from the various town 
schools met her and strewed flowers on the road 
over which she was carried, singing the while. 
As she passed under the second arch leading into 



ACCESSION OF RANAVALONA III. 2/7 

the inner square, the foreigners present — English, 
Norwegians and Americans — greeted her with 
three hearty English cheers. Turning to the 
east of the inner square, where were sitting the 
nobles dressed in scarlet, the queen left her pal- 
anquin and ascended the platform by the east- 
ern steps, and took her seat under a beautiful 
canopy supported by four fluted gilt pillars cov- 
ered with scarlet cloth and surmounted by a gilt 
crown nearly two feet high. At the corners were 
festoons of scarlet, on her right was a table with 
a marble top on which rested a large Bible, and 
at her left was another table with a golden vessel 
of water. On the four sides of the cornice of the 
canopy were the words, "God with us," "Glory 
to God," "Peace on earth," and "Good-will 
towards men. ' ' 

After a salute had been fired, and the Euro- 
peans invited to the platform, from which a good 
view could be obtained, not only of the imposing 
ceremony, but also of the densely-packed crowd 
of people, the queen arose and delivered extem- 
pore the following speech: 

"This is my message to you, O people; God 
has given me the country and the kingdom, and 
I thank him exceedingly. The blessings of An- 
drianampoinimerina (the first king of Imerina) 
and Iyehidama (the first Radama) and Radodon- 



278 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

andrianampoinimerina (the persecuting queen) 
and Rasoherimanjaka (the widow of Radama II.) 
and Ranavalomanjaka (the late queen) have corne 
down to me. 

1 1 You, the people, have assembled here on this 
day of my public appearance, and you have not 
deceived me; and so I thank you; and may the 
blessing of God be on you ! 

' ' This also I say to you : as you have not al- 
tered the words of the five sovereigns, and seeing 
that their memory is dear to you, and you do not 
depart from the charge they left you, I rest in 
confidence, O people. I have a father, I have a 
mother, in having you. May you live, may you 
be prosperous, and may God bless you ! 

"Rest in confidence; for it is I whom God has 
chosen to reign in this island as successor and 
heir of the five. It is I who am your protection, 
the refuge of the poor, and the glory of the rich ; 
and when I say rest in confidence, you should 
really be confident. For my desire from God is 
to benefit you, to make you prosperous, and to 
govern you in righteousness. Is it not so, O my 
people ? 

" Further, I would remind you that Andrian- 
ampoinimerina was lord of the land; Radama put 
forth strenuous efforts to make his kingdom stretch 
to the sea: he left it to his three successors, and 



ACCESSION OF RAXAVALOXA III. 279 

they have left it to me. And should any one dare 
to claim even a hair's breadth, I will show myself 
to be a man and go along with you to protect our 
fatherland. Is it not so, O people ? 

' ' We have treaties with our friends from across 
the sea: observe them strictly, for should any one 
break them I shall account him guilty of crime. 

"I also announce to you that it is Rainilaiari- 
vony who is Prime Minister and Commander-in- 
Chief. 

1 ' I would also tell you, the army, that, as to 
the vows you made with Radama, and which you 
ratified to his three successors, and which are now 
renewed to me, I can accept nothing else, O army. 
Is it not so, O soldiers ? 

u I also tell you that I place my kingdom un- 
der the protection of God; for I know that it is 
that kingdom which is governed in dependence 
upon God that is true and has strength and pro- 
gress. Go forward in wisdom, that the glory of 
this kingdom may increase. Remember that it is 
'righteousness that exalteth a nation,' and that 
1 the fear of God is the beginning of wisdom. ' 

"The laws of my kingdom will be printed 
and issued to all the people. Let each one be- 
ware, for the law is no respecter of persons; it is 
what a person does that condemns him, for both I 
and you must submit to the law. Observe the 



28o MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

laws; for I have no desire to condemn you, and I 
wish no one's life to be taken. Whoever forsakes 
the path of righteousness w T alks in the way of 
darkness. Is it not so, O people?" 

At the conclusion of the speech there were the 
same demonstrations of enthusiasm as at its com- 
mencement. When the queen had resumed her 
seat the chiefs of the people from all parts of the 
island came up in groups to declare their alle- 
giance and present the dollar as Jiasina. The for- 
eigners went down in groups to show their re- 
spect, and, the London Missionary Society and 
Friends first, followed by the Lutherans, the An- 
glicans, and the merchants, severally presented a 
sovereign and made short speeches. At the end 
came Madame Juliet, the descendant of the Bet- 
simisaraka kings, from the neighborhood of Tam- 
atave. She had come from the coast, occupied a 
place of honor on the platform, and she declared 
that not an inch of land should be given to the 
French. She is old, is a Catholic, was educated 
by the sisters of mercy in Bourbon, speaks French 
fluently, and the French have always reckoned 
upon her; but she declares that she knows no 
sovereign but Ranavalona III. , and that she will 
never acknowledge the French, preferring rather 
to die. 

The rain came on while these speeches were 



ACCESSION OK RANAVALONA III. 2S1 

being delivered; but the people were not to be 
disappointed, and kept their places. The heads 
of the people asked the Prime Minister to reply 
to the queen's speech for them all; and this con- 
siderably shortened the proceedings. He replied 
seriatim to the various paragraphs, and as he 
stood with uplifted sword on the platform just in 
front of the queen, and told her that his own body 
and the bodies of all that vast multitude should 
be her wall of defence, the people went frantic. 
Cannons and rifles boomed and cracked; swords, 
shields, and spears were uplifted and clashed; 
hats and handkerchiefs and lambas were waved; 
while hundreds of thousands of throats shouted 
forth a wild and unconditional assent. In con- 
clusion he told the queen, bowing to the mis- 
sionaries, that much of the recent progress was 
owing to the teaching of those whom she saw 
near her. 

The queen then rose and said, "If such is 
your speech, who are the chief, and of you the 
people, I am confident. I have a father, I have 
a mother, in having you. May you live, and 
may God bless you ! Be wise, O ye people, that 
you may be at peace. n 

When silence had been restored the queen left 
the platform and entered a small carriage drawn 
by a white pony. The latter was dispensed with 



282 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

and the officers drew her all round the road, be- 
tween the eight inner and the eight outer divi- 
sions, through the mass of the people. All along 
she was greeted with the wildest enthusiasm. 
After her return to the platform a final salute was 
fired, and she returned to the palace by half-past 
four. If ever queen had a royal welcome from 
her people, she had that day. All along the way 
back the women and girls chanted their songs 
and clapped their hands for joy. 

On arrival at the palace a short religious ser- 
vice of thanksgiving was held in the church, at 
which only natives were present. 

Thus ended, without mishap, accident, or out- 
rage, one of the most memorable days Madagas- 
car has seen. 

Two or three days subsequently were devoted 
to feasting and drinking the health of the queen 
and Prime Minister, but only in lemonade, of 
which there was an abundant supply, while wine 
and spirits had no place at this royal feast. It is 
curious to note that at the coronation of Radama 
II., the French protege, not only was the king 
intoxicated, but many of his guests and patrons 
disappeared under the table before the meal was 
over. Different counsels prevail now, and, as 
the queen's speech shows, an evident desire for 
real progress animates the rulers and the chiefs 



ACCESSION OF RANAVALONA III. 283 

of the people. May they be left to develop in the 
future as rapidly as they have during the past 
twenty years! must be the prayer of all true- 
hearted friends of Christianity and civilization. 

The queen's popularity has by no means di- 
minished up to the present time. She is a thor- 
oughly good and earnest Christian woman, one 
whom we can confidently trust to use every legiti- 
mate effort for the extension of education and 
morality, purity, and a higher social, domestic, 
and national integrity. 

On December 3, 1883, Captain Johnstone of 
the " Dryad," who had, since Consul Paken- 
ham's death, been acting as British Consul for 
Madagascar, handed over the archives of the Con- 
sulate to Consul Graves at Zanzibar. Mr. Graves, 
a man of considerable experience, having repre- 
sented Her Majesty's Government both in South 
Africa and Samoa, was then on his way to Tama- 
tave, which was from that time to become his 
headquarters. He was accompanied by Mr. Pick- 
ersgill, who had been appointed as vice-consul, to 
reside in Antananarivo to watch over the inter- 
ests of British subjects there, and become under 
Mr. Graves official adviser to the court of the 
young queen. 

He entered the city on January 8, 1884, amid 
rejoicing and under a salute from the cannon of 

Madagascar anrl F;arKe. I *7 



284 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

the battery. The Europeans turned out en masse 
to escort him to the palace, where he had an in- 
terview with the queen and delivered his creden- 
tials. A suitable letter of thanks from the Queen 
to Her Majesty Queen Victoria was despatched, 
and the Union Jack was for the first time hoisted 
in Antananarivo over a British Vice-Consulate. 
The Committee of Safety ceased to exist, regular 
mails were established to the coast under the 
anthority of the vice-consul, a court of justice 
(which has already had some cases to engage its 
attention) sat for the first time for the hearing of 
cases in which British subjects were involved; 
and under the judicious care and advice of Her 
Majesty's representative the British and Norwe- 
gian subjects feel perfectly secure from any out- 
rage on the part of the natives, w T ho might have 
been supposed to bear an ill feeling against all 
foreigners because of the action of one European 
power. 

Vice-consuls have been also appointed in sev- 
eral of the ports north and south of Tamatave, 
and the energetic and prompt way in which H. B. 
M.'s consul has inaugurated his official connec- 
tion with Madagascar speaks well for the future 
comfort and security of British subjects and Brit- 
ish interests. 

An English man-of-war, the " Tourmaline,' ' 



ACCESSION OF RANAVALONA III. 285 

has taken the place of the "Dryad," and contin- 
ues to made periodic visits to the various points 
at which British subjects have been known to 
live, and which have been without exception 
bombarded by the French squadron, some of them 
two or three times. As Captain Boyle, the com- 
mander, says in his despatch to Sir W. Hewett, 
"An occasional visit during these times, when 
law is apt to be in abeyance, brings home to gov- 
ernor and governed alike that the distinction be- 
tween enemy and neutral must be observed, and 
that a general disregard of treaty rights is no 
part of a state of war. ' 1 

A little anxiety was felt in June, 1884, for the 
safety of British subjects in Antananarivo, both 
because it had been reported to Consul Graves 
that an advance on the capital was anticipated 
by the French, and also because the negotiations 
between Admiral Miot, who replaced Admiral 
Galiber in May, and the Malagasy plenipotentia- 
ries had been broken off, after which the admiral 
informed Consul Graves that he intended "to 
drive the Hovas out of their camp in front of the 
town." However, the Christian spirit and grate- 
ful solicitude for the safety of the English is 
shown by the queen's words, as reported to Lord 
Granville by Mr. Pickersgill. After calling upon 
all her subjects to prepare themselves for war in 



286 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



defence of their fatherland, she says, " The nego- 
tiations with the French have been broken off ; 
the way they behave to us is unendurable, and 
they threaten to destroy us so that we shall never 
exist as a nation again. But let there be no com- 
motion, for our strength in this affair lies in dis- 
cipline. And with regard to the Europeans now 
resident here in my country and kingdom, let 
every care be taken of them and their property, 
for they are relatives and friends and in no way 
companions of those who are fighting against 
us." 

One of the first acts of Admiral Miot was to 
rebombard various ports on the east coast and 
institute a blockade of several, notwithstanding 
that, as he was informed by Consul Graves, the 
" entire trade of these- places being in the hands 
of British subjects, they would be the only suffer- 
ers from the measure. n According to this pro- 
gramme, an English vessel, the " Ore*noque, n 
loading in Mahanoro, was compelled to leave 
after only five hours' notice, with but half her 
cargo. The Hova position near Tamatave was 
also attacked two or three times, but in each case 
unsuccessfully. The Hova soldiers are behaving 
in a cool, courageous, soldier-like fashion; and 
under the command and discipline of Colonel 
Willoughby, acting as commander-in-chief under 



ACCESSION OF RANAVALONA ILL 287 

the Hova queen, to whom he lias volunteered his 
services, the men are winning encomiums from 
all who understand the true bearing of the facts. 
There seems very little doubt that the French in 
these reconnaissances, notwithstanding the re- 
ports of the admiral to the contrary, have been 
heavy losers. The Hova spies have been most 
successful in approaching close to the French 
lines and obtaining valuable information; and 
their scouts have achieved, according to some 
accounts, some wonderful triumphs, by creeping 
up unseen to the close proximity of bathing par- 
ties or pontoon-building companies, and then 
rushing out upon them with the usual savage yell 
of the Malagasy warriors, at which the French 
officers and soldiers have decamped, leaving 
mules, clothes, and apparatus in the hands of the 
Hovas. But these accounts are too highly col- 
ored to be of much value. 

Nevertheless one or two significant facts are 
forced upon the notice. For twenty months Tam- 
atave has been declared to be a portion of the 
great French Republic, during the whole of which 
time it has been besieged by a tribe whom the 
French choose to despise as ''barbarians," and 
yet whom they have failed to dislodge. Ports, 
such as Fort Dauphin, Mahanoro, Fenoarivo, etc., 
have again and again been bombarded, wealth 



288 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

squandered in powder and shells, and yet these 
towns are still in the hands of the Hovas. Saka- 
lava and Tanosy have been persuaded to enlist 
on the side of the invaders, and then left to the 
tender mercies of the Hovas, who have recon- 
quered them where they have not voluntarily 
come forward and submitted. Necessity has called 
forth the developing faculty of the Hovas, who 
have succeeded in making steel shells for their 
long-range Whitworth guns, and even in cast- 
ing some serviceable cannon. Gold, silver, lead, 
and iron are being extensively worked, gold-dust 
having become quite a common article of com- 
merce in the interior. Gunpowder has for very 
many years been manufactured in the Govern- 
ment stores near the capital; and they are expert 
in producing cartridges for rifles. 

The war — if it is worthy of the name — has 
been the means of calling out a great deal of in- 
nate power of resource on the part of the Mala- 
gasy; but it is matter for sincere regret that the 
energy of the people should thus be turned from 
the development of legitimate trade, commerce, 
civilization, and Christianity, which were advan- 
cing with such rapid strides under the genial in- 
fluence of peace and the gospel. 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 289 



CHAPTER XII. 

PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE OF THE 
MALAGASY. 

What Interest has England in Madagascar ? Wealth of the Island. 
Importance to Mauritius. Exports and Imports. Slavery 
Still Existing, but Slave-trade Abolished. Condition of Slaves 
in the Country. Social and Political Advance made during 
past Twenty Years. Laws Codified. Executive Government 
Remodelled. Justice Impartially Administered. Registrars 
Appointed. All Improvement and Advance the Result of 
English Sympathy and Philanthropy. The Religious Growth 
of the People. Toleration. Persecution. Enlightened En- 
couragement of Christianity. Memorial Churches. College. 
Extension of Evangelistic Work to Other Districts. Social 
Advance. Improved Services in the Churches. Native Preach- 
ers. Evangelists. English Opposed to French Missionary 
Work. Norwegian Missionary Society. London Missionary 
Society. The Friends' Foreign Missionary Association. Soci- 
ety for the Propagation of the Gospel. Educational Work by 
Protestants, by Catholics, by the Government. Table of Sta- 
tistics. Literature. 

IT may be asked, "What interest lias Eng- 
land in Madagascar, farther than the interest of 
curiosity in watching the development and pro- 
gress of a dark-skinned race of islanders from bar- 
barism to civilization, and from heathenism to 
Christianity?" This is certainly an interest al- 
ways excited in the breast of every enlightened 
Englishman, who is ever on the side of advance- 



29O MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

ment, and is always generously helpful to all strug- 
gling after its attainment. 

But there are other than sentimental reasons 
why Englishmen look with anxiety upon the 
present check given to the Malagasy in their 
national advance. We remember that English 
money, arms, and ammunition w T ere freely paid 
to Radama I. in 1818 and subsequently, in order 
that he might carry out his policy (which might 
be called the English policy also) of consolida- 
ting the various tribes of the island under one cen- 
tral governor. In this he was not only assisted 
substantially, as stated, but he was acknowledged 
and styled the ( c King of Madagascar, ' ' both by our 
own Government and by the French. Again and 
again England has rendered assistance to the 
Hova sovereign for this end; and even expensive 
expeditions have been sent to the Malagasy capi- 
tal, ostensibly to cement the friendly relations be- 
tween the two Governments and to give encour- 
agement to the island queen, in which, though 
probably never stated, the impression has been 
given to the Malagasy officers of Government 
that the English w r ere still willing to help them 
in making the authority of the queen solid and 
firm throughout the island. 

Commercially, Madagascar is of great import- 
ance to Englishmen. Not only is the demand 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 291 

for English iron and cotton goods, glass, and 
crockery becoming each year greater and more 
remunerative but, as has been shown, the land 
can produce very many products in great and con- 
stant demand in this country. There is in Mad- 
agascar an unknown wealth of mineral produc- 
tions, which is but waiting the establishment of 
confidence with Europeans on the part of the na- 
tive Government so that mining operations might 
be undertaken, and a fair outlay of English capi- 
tal more than fully repay the capitalist. 

Then, again, one of our small but flourishing 
colonies — the Mauritius — depends to a very large 
extent upon Madagascar for its food supply, espe- 
cially for its beef, mutton, poultry, and pork. 
This supply it has received regularly and easily 
from the native traders on the coast; but if the 
island is secured to the French, or the French ob- 
tain the mastery of the ports, many difficulties and 
complications are sure to arise sooner or later be- 
tween the colonial traders and the French officers. 
It is also curious to note the piteous regret of the 
French subjects in Tamatave and Mahanoro that 
they ever, by word or act, incited the French 
Government to undertake the present expedition. 
The fifty-three 1 ■ children of France ' ' who signed 
the petition to the president, telling him that if 
the Republic could not help them against the 



292 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

savage hordes of Madagascar, there was nothing 
for them to do but to wrap themselves in the col- 
ors of La belle France and die in defence of the just 
rights of her outraged citizens, are now thorough- 
ly disgusted with themselves for ever having been 
such fools as to have helped to drive the Hovas, 
and with them the trade, away from the coast. 

But that which is a subject of annoyance to 
the French settlers, or colonists as they were 
pleased to call themselves in the petition referred 
to above, is a matter of vastly greater regret to 
other nationalities. The trade of Madagascar is 
in the hands of Americans, English, Germans, 
French, and Italians, and the proportional annual 
value of the imports and exports of each of those 
nations is in the order they are named. The value 
of the American commerce with the island is 
about equal to the value of the transactions in the 
hands of the English and French put together. 
Their imports are gray sheeting and shirting, ker- 
osene oil, and tinned goods; while the exports 
embrace chiefly hides, india-rubber, wax, and 
gum. The English trade is about five times the 
value of that of the French, who are surpassed 
considerably by the Germans, although the latter 
are represented by but one or two firms. It is also 
a mistake to take for granted the impression the 
French colonists of Bourbon try to give — that 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 293 

French subjects are very numerous in Madagas- 
car. It is well known that the British subjects 
in the island far outnumber them, and the propor- 
tion of British to French settled there is said to 
be as five to one. 

But direct British interests are, notwithstand- 
ing all this, far too small commercially to account 
for the anxiety felt in England for the fate of 
the great African island. Neither is there any 
feeling of jealousy on our part underlying the 
deep sympathy felt for the people. The French 
press would have the world believe that Eng- 
lish jealousy of the progressive colonial policy of 
France is the only reason for the sympathy ex- 
pressed for the Malagasy. The anxiety of Eng- 
land is not against French aggrandizement, but 
she is moved partly by that strong feeling which 
hates to see either the powerful struck after he is 
down, or the weak bullied, thrashed, or annihila- 
ted. But it seems impossible on the part of the 
French, especially those in the colonies of Bour- 
bon, Nosi-be, and St. Mary, to believe that Eng- 
lish feeling for the Malagasy can be disinterested, 
and that there is not more than simply pity and 
compassion for those whose advancement we have 
watched with something resembling a fatherly 
interest. 

It is not too much to say that no nation, w r ith 



294 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



perhaps the exception of the Japanese, has made 
so much progress and has shown so much vigor 
for development in civilization and Christianity 
as the Malagasy, especially the Hovas, during the 
past twenty years. It is true, English philan- 
thropy, coupled with the sterling good sense of 
the first great king of the Hovas, Radama L, in- 
troduced various arts and manufactures into the 
country in 1820, but on account of the overween- 
ing bigotry of Radama's widow, who succeeded 
him, not much progress was made. At the same 
time it was no encouragement to an artisan to 
make himself proficient in his art when he knew 
that his skill would only render him liable to be 
constantly employed for the queen or nobles with- 
out the faintest hope of any remuneration. In- 
stead of any stimulus being given to progress, it 
was rather retarded by the selfish policy of the 
Government. 

But since her death, and especially since the 
late queen, Ranavalona II., ascended the throne, 
giant strides have been made in social, political, 
and religious progress. The arts of civilization 
have been encouraged by those in authority. 
The people are well housed, well clothed, and 
well fed. The houses are better built, of better 
material, better arranged, and furnished with 
well-made native furniture. Ornamentation of a 



PRESENT CIVII, AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 295 

civilized type has taken the place of the crude 
and often gaudy attempts of twenty years ago; 
and the silversmith and goldsmith find plenty of 
employment. Carpenters, stonemasons, black- 
smiths, bootmakers, and tailors have also learned 
to turn out articles which would be no discredit 
to workmen in this country, while the best build- 
ings in the capital would be no disgrace to the 
finest city in the world. The queen's palace, 
with its four massive towers, the palatial resi- 
dence of the Prime Minister, and the graceful 
spires of the stone memorial churches attract the 
attention of the most indifferent traveller, and 
call forth the admiration of all interested in the 
social advance of the world. 

It is often remarked that a country possessing 
no roads better than sheep-tracks cannot be occu- 
pied by any but a barbarous people, as the forma- 
tion of roads is one of the first signs of advance- 
ment, and a ready means of communication the 
first requirement of civilization. But in this con- 
nection it has to be remembered that not only do 
the Government and people possess an expeditious 
means of conveyance for news, despatches, etc., 
but their conservatism has always rendered them 
jealous of the interference of foreigners, and their 
patriotism has caused them to dread any great or 
sudden influx of those from the outside world who 



296 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

might become a source of dispute with other na- 
tions, or might even become so numerous as to 
wrest the Government from the hands of the 
ruling powers. The native runners can carry a 
message from the capital to Tamatave, a distance 
of about 220 miles, in two and a half days; and 
although it seems cumbersome to Englishmen, 
burdens of some fifty to eighty pounds' weight can 
be transported on men's shoulders by the same 
route in six or eight days. Hence, seeing that 
the people possess in their own capital and around 
it all the necessaries of a life far removed from 
barbarism, and are able to communicate rapidly 
with distant parts of the country, and depend to 
no material extent on the imports from abroad, is 
it surprising that they have not expended money 
and labor upon road-making, which they knew 
would render their position in the centre of the 
island far less impregnable ? 

It may be said that this is a short-sighted pol- 
icy, and, applying the rules of political economy 
to their case, that it is a shutting out of consider- 
able wealth from the country. But it must be 
admitted that the first efforts of a Government 
ought to be directed to the strengthening of its 
position as ruler, law-maker, and judge. This 
the Hovas have been doing for the past few de- 
cades, in the face of violent opposition from the 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 297 

tribes in the country, and at times against the 
machinations of a foreign power that has been 
ready to make hollow treaties of protection with 
banished and outlawed rebel chiefs. Who that 
seriously thinks of the many efforts made by the 
French to gain a footing in the island, and their 
high-handed policy with the central Government, 
can wonder if the people elect to place no more 
facilities in their way to the capital, and prefer 
their position of comparative comfort to a life of 
greater wealth and luxury at the expense of the 
probable loss of political existence? 

Another blot on the fair page of social progress 
in Madagascar, and which is sometimes pointed 
at by detractors, is the system of slavery still in 
vogue. But considerable misapprehension exists 
relative to the position of the Malagasy slave to- 
wards his master. In what is now said there is 
no wish to palliate the error or to give the idea 
that slavery is not an unmixed evil. However 
mild it may be in any country, it saps the energy 
and cripples the enterprise of the nation. But no 
form of it now exists in the country except a do- 
mestic slavery, the slaves being the descendants 
of those taken in their civil wars. 

By a treaty with England both Radama I. and 
Ranavalona I. abolished the export of slaves to 
Bourbon and Zanzibar ; and the fearful scenes 



29$ MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

witnessed by early travellers to the capital, and 
detailed by Mr. Ellis and others, are now matters 
of the past. In 1877, by an edict of the late 
queen, all the imported slaves and descendants of 
those brought from Mozambique and elsewhere 
were liberated. Option was given them of either 
remaining in the country as subjects of the queen 
or of leaving the island for their homes. As a 
matter of fact I believe all remained, and have 
never been treated but as the faithful people of 
the sovereign. Their liberation was real, and 
not, as was stated at the time, merely a ruse to 
obtain the good opinion of England. 

Although the time has not yet come when the 
Government feels that all slavery may be safely 
abolished, yet the new code of laws greatly re- 
stricts the powers of the masters; and there is 
evidence that the system will of itself crumble 
away under the levelling influence of Christianity 
and as the universal brotherhood in Christ be- 
comes more clearly understood by the people. As 
instances of the laws circumscribing the powers 
of masters over slaves may be mentioned the 40th 
in the Code, which enacts that, "Slaves in the 
district of Imerina cannot be sold into the coast 
districts; any person found disobeying this law 
will forfeit the slave sold, which slave shall re- 
vert to the crown, and one- third of the value be 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 299 

paid to the person who shall denounce such of- 
fence. " All internal slave-trade, in the ordinary 
sense of the term, is stopped by the 45th clause, 
which says, 1 1 Traffic and speculation in slaves is 
forbidden, and the owner alone has the right to 
dispose of his slaves. Any person found buying 
and selling slaves for a speculation will be fined 
ten oxen and £2. In default of payment the of- 
fender will be condemned to chains for a period 
corresponding to one day for every sixpence un- 
paid." And again, in No. 46, " It is understood 
that every person who buys a slave does so with 
the intention of retaining him in his household: 
if the purchase be made with the object of resell- 
ing, the buyer will be fined ten oxen and £2 for 
unlawful speculation in human beings;" and No. 
47, u In all sales of slaves, both buyer and seller 
must notify the Government authorities for the 
purpose of registration. In default of registration 
the sale is void. A registration fee of one shil- 
ling must be paid by each party." 

It will be seen from the above that the system 
of slavery is an institution certainly recognized by 
the Government, but one which the queen and 
Prime Minister are anxious to see gradually los- 
ing its power in the country. That the time will 
come when the Christianity of the people will 

lead them to see the unrighteousness of holding 
18 



300 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

slaves, no one intimately acquainted with the na- 
tive character doubts for one minute; for we have 
known one and another slave -owning church 
member free his or her slave from a sense of the 
incongruity of Christian profession and this prac- 
tice. While in the public ordinances of religious 
worship no difference is made between freemen 
and slaves, who sit side by side in our churches, 
yet all know that, amid the general freedom of 
speech allowed and practised by the missionary, 
there is the one tabooed subject of slavery upon 
which it is ever dangerous to enter. One and an- 
other who have unburdened their consciences in 
a sermon or address have met with uproar or dis- 
turbance; and it is generally believed to be wiser 
to allow the gospel leaven to quietly work to the 
pulling down of this vexatious and degrading in- 
stitution. And that it is so is well known by res- 
idents. Mr. Clark, writing to the " Madagascar 
Times " on the subject of a recent disturbance 
caused by the speech of a missionary in one of 
the city churches, says, "Some of us know that 
slavery here is an evil eating into the very vitals 
of the Malagasy Christians; it is the cancer which 
is deadening the Christian life of many of the best 
Christians. Some of them confess this to us in 
private; but although they talk of and glory in 
their martyrs of the persecution days, none of 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 301 



tliein are willing to be the first martyr in this 
question. No; they still try to persuade them- 
selves and think that slavery and Christianity 
can continue to exist side by side, that they can 
have the one without giving up the other. And 
so they go on without being willing to take a 
single step to promote the ultimate abolition, 
either by making a law that after a certain num- 
ber of years every child born shall be free, or by 
fixing a price at which any slave shall be able to 
redeem himself.' ' 

Great hardships sometimes are suffered by the 
slaves, who are always liable and often have to 
submit to be sold away from their families; and 
theoretically all that belongs to a slave is his 
master's. But in reality this is only acted on in 
part, as a general rule the slave being free to 
make what engagements he pleases, paying to 
his master a portion of the wages he earns. 
Slaves are to be found in different parts of the 
country working for Europeans and receiving 
wages as free men, whose masters appear to take 
no further care of them than to make periodical 
inquiries as to their whereabouts, which general- 
ly means that a sum of money, large or small, 
according to the loyalty of the slave, is forwarded 
by him to his master. 

The political advance made during the past 



302 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

twenty years is shown by an examination of the 
code of laws referred to above, which contains 
three hundred and five statutes. To each of these 
is attached the punishment to be inflicted in case 
of disobedience; and these penalties are character- 
ized by a leniency scarcely to be anticipated from 
a nation so recently risen from barbarism. In no 
case is death inflicted except for such crimes as 
are considered capital in England, murder and 
treason. Laws regulating the conscription for ser- 
vice in the army for the first time made the army 
popular in the island and brought forward many 
volunteers. A young man found that it was no 
longer a maxim that, " once a soldier, always a 
soldier, ' ' but that after five years' service he was 
again free. An important set of laws relating to 
the schools was promulgated. Attendance at 
school was made compulsory, and teachers were 
given a political standing. The manufacture and 
sale of intoxicating liquors in the interior of the 
country have been prohibited. The effect of 
these laws has been felt more or less throughout 
the country, and they have had a decidedly bene- 
ficial effect. 

Again, the executive Government has been 
remodelled. Although the supreme power rests 
nominally in the hands of the Queen, and really 
in those of the Prime Minister — a man of keen, 




MALAGASY CRIMINAL IN CHAINS 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 305 

shrewd intelligence, far beyond the next best 
man in the country — yet it has been wisely deemed 
expedient to relegate some of his powers to subor- 
dinates. Taking the English Government as 
their model, the administration has been divided 
into eight departments, each with a Secretary of 
State at its head, who is responsible to the Prime 
Minister for the carrying out of the laws relating 
to that department. The Prime Minister, while 
"educating" these secretaries in the conduct of 
their office, is meanwhile keeping the power of 
veto and supervision in his own hands. If he is 
ever able to secure a staff of men at all to be com- 
pared with himself, there will be in Madagascar 
a most powerful central Government. 

Justice is most impartially administered; when 
bribery is discovered it is severely punished, 
and the desire to have righteous judgments exe- 
cuted is a powerful feeling with the Prime Minis- 
ter. When the temptations are particularly strong 
he has been known to constitute himself chief 
judge on a trial, and work hour after hour through- 
out the day, in order that justice might be ad- 
ministered with impartial hand. 

Registration of births, deaths, and marriages, 
sales of property and slaves, have been estab- 
lished and carried out by a number of men in 
each large village, called 11 Friends of the vil- 



306 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

lage. ' ' These are not only the registrars, but the 
men responsible for the peace and order of the 
village, and in most cases the only representative 
of the central Government. They are the guar- 
dians of the civil rights of the people, and the only 
easy means of communication between the com- 
mon people and the Government. They thus 
occupy a very important and responsible posi- 
tion, and are intrusted with all matters relating 
to the political and social order of their respec- 
tive villages and districts. There are over 6,500 
of these officers in Imerina, with 198 head sta- 
tions. There is no Government officer in Eng- 
land whose position answers in every respect to 
that held by these SakaizamboJiitra. They seem 
to combine in a modified sense the duties of all 
civic officers, from those of the mayor down to 
those of the common constable. They have no 
power, however, to settle any matter of impor- 
tance, but have to report everything to the Prime 
Minister for final settlement. 

The book of regulations with which they are 
supplied, and which has been circulated far and 
wide in the country, contains instructions with 
regard to divorce, polygamy, registration of births, 
deaths, and marriages, the annual returns of the 
residents in each village, all acts of oppression 
and causes of social disturbance, the sale or rent- 



PRESENT CIVIL AND REUGIOUS STATE. 307 

ing of land or houses, the registration of property, 
stealing, loans, false weights and measures, the 
cleaning of the roads and public thoroughfares of 
the villages, the non-separation of young slave chil- 
dren from their parents, and also general instruc- 
tions with respect to the observance of the Lord's 
day, the attendance of children at school, and the 
proper regard to be paid to places of worship. 
For the work involved in the discharge of many of 
those duties the "Sakaizambohitra" receive small 
fees,* varying from twopence to two shillings. 

Many of these men being old soldiers, and 
merely selected because of their general trust- 
worthiness, and not on account of any special 
ability or judicial probity, were unable to read or 
write. This difficulty, however, was met by the 
appointment of some of the best scholars in the 
schools to accompany the functionaries as clerks, 
as readers and writers. Although officers under 
the Government receive no stipend, yet the honor 
of being a Government clerk made these offices 
popular; and as only those were appointed who 
had passed the higher examinations in the schools, 
an impetus was thus given to education. 

A like result was secured to the highest edu- 
cational establishment in the island by the selec- 
tion of ten of the best educated of the students in 

*" Antananarivo Annual," No. IV. p. 119. 



3 o8 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



the London Missionary Society's College to hold 
high offices in the newly-formed departments of 
the executive. 

It is not far-fetched to say that all the forego- 
ing improvements and the progress named have 
been either directly or indirectly the result of Eng- 
lish sympathy and philanthropy. Englishmen, 
seeing a nation anxious to rise and giving indica- 
tions of a capability to effect this purpose, have 
come forward readily to lend a helping hand to 
the weak and struggling, and have done it too 
from pure disinterestedness. 

But not only have Englishmen shown a deep 
interest in the commercial development of Mada- 
gascar as a market for English goods and a means 
of supplying the home market with the valuable 
products of the island; and not only has the British 
nation done much to strengthen the hands of the 
Hova Government, furnishing the means for cen- 
tralizing its authority and widening its influence, 
but both the interest taken in, the advance made, 
and the money devoted to that object have for 
years centred in the moral and spiritual growth 
of the people. 

It was not till 1821 that Christianity was real- 
ly effectively introduced among the Hovas; and 
the history of its development has been one of the 
greatest marvels of the Christian church. The 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 31I 

trials and hindrances of these early pioneers of 
civilization and Christianity do not here require 
to be entered upon. Mr. Ellis has fully described 
these matters in his various works on Madagas- 
car. However, the language was reduced to wri- 
ting, the Bible translated, a few scholars induced 
to attend the schools, a printing-press set up, and 
a few converts gathered in. Interrupted and con- 
stantly harassed, troubled with the difficulties of 
their work and the opposition of the idol priests, 
the handful of English missionaries labored 011 
for twenty years. Then succeeded one of the 
fiercest persecutions for Christ's sake that the 
world has of late years seen. 

Ranavalona I., who has been compared by 
some to the worst of the Roman emperors, to 
Nero or Caligula, and by others called the Mala- 
gasy Catharine II., whom she resembled in her 
vices without having any of the redeeming qual- 
ities of that empress, commenced a religious cru- 
sade against Christianity. All kinds of inhuman 
cruelties were practised upon the converts, and 
many of those of the highest rank suffered death 
or imprisonment for their determination to serve 
the true God. Some were burned, others buried 
alive, others scalded to death, some speared, and 
others cast from the rock on which the capital is 
built and dashed to pieces in the valley below. 



312 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



The missionaries were driven from the land, and, 
according to one writer, the city of Antananarivo 
became like a city blighted, which no one could 
approach or leave but under pain of death. No 
stranger was allowed to seek residence in the cap- 
ital except by special authority from the queen, 
who accorded that favor to but five or six Euro- 
peans. The silence of death reigned in "the 
city of a thousand villages," which was not dis- 
turbed but by the cries of the victims who were 
precipitated from the Tarpeian rock. 

But notwithstanding the terrible trial, the 
honesty of the people's convictions was shown in 
the fact that, in spite of the number of nobles, of 
women and children even, who suffered for con- 
science' sake, when the country was reopened for 
the return of missionaries in 1861 it was discov- 
ered that the numbers of Christians had, instead of 
diminishing, increased nearly thirty-fold. From 
that date till the present steady, rapid progress has 
been made; and the fiery trial through which the 
church had passed seemed to have imparted a vigor 
which has exhibited itself in its subsequent history. 

Radama II., who succeeded the persecuting 
queen, was neutral in his conduct towards Chris- 
tianity, but very decidedly favored Europeans. 
Christians were allowed to worship openly simply 
because the king ignored them, and they were 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 313 

happy in again welcoming their spiritual in- 
structors, whom Radama was ready to welcome 
with other foreigners into his capital. This last- 
ed but for a few months; and the king's immoral- 
ity and disingenuousness hurried him into a pre- 
mature grave. Liberty of conscience, but nothing 
further, was granted by his successor, Rasoherina. 
The Christians met with no opposition but from 
their idolatrous fellow-countrymen, and even that 
was not openly indulged in by them. The upper 
classes of young nobles were becoming eager for 
instruction, and with the enlightenment a knowl- 
edge of spiritual things entered their minds and 
hearts, so that in nearly every family of position 
the younger members were professed adherents 
to the new faith, while a kind of indifference to 
their idols was creeping into the life of the older 
members of these families. A spirit of change 
was in the air, and the country was ripe for the 
radical subversion of popular beliefs which took 
place soon after the queen's death. This hap- 
pened in April, 1868, and she was succeeded by 
Ranavalona II., the late lamented queen, the 
meek "friend of the people." Once more was 
religious liberty proclaimed; but by very clear 
indications it was shown to the people that the 
power of idolatry was on the wane. Reference 
has already been made to the absence of the idol 



314 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

at the coronation ceremony, and to the very deci- 
dedly Christian spirit manifested by the mottoes 
emblazoned on the canopy over the queen at her 
first appearance in public, heralding forth new 
sentiments for such an occasion, and giving un- 
mistakable signs that all heathenish rites were 
set aside, and that the heads of the people recog- 
nized the growing power of the gospel, even if it 
might not be taken as an indication of the faith 
of the new Government. 

But in the following year, as we have already 
noted, a still more decided step in advance was 
made by the queen coining forward and publicly 
professing her adhesion to the religion for which 
her aunt persecuted her subjects. She and the 
Prime Minister were baptized, and public worship 
was for the first time conducted within the pal- 
ace inclosure. Soon after this the queen caused 
the idols of which she was supposed to be the 
keeper and patron to be burned. This, performed 
publicly, against all opposition of the priests, was 
followed by the wholesale destruction of the house- 
hold gods or fetishes in the possession of the peo- 
ple in the capital and around it. 

Then began another testing time for the in- 
fant church in the island, but of quite a different 
nature from that during Ranavalona L's reign. 
Now the people, voluntarily released from all 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 315 

connection with their ancient idolatry, flocked by 
thousands into the churches, demanding instruc- 
tion and admission to church communion, and 
threatening to swamp the church by their over- 
whelming numbers. Had not God given the' 
grace of firmness and a desire for purity to the 
church members, the result would have been most 
disastrous for the well-being of the Christian com- 
munity. The missionaries spent their whole time 
in teaching and preaching. Services were held 
throughout the day and every day. The whole 
business of the people seemed to be the acquisi- 
tion of knowledge relating to Christianity. In 
fact, as Mr. Sibree says, "almost the whole pop- 
ulation of Imerina professed themselves Chris- 
tians." New churches were built both in the 
city and in every considerable village, and the 
work so rapidly increased that the society in Eng- 
land which had taken in hand the introduction of 
the gospel into the island was constrained to put 
forth every effort to meet the pressing demand for 
men and money. 

So great was the enthusiasm and satisfaction 
felt in England that in a couple of years after the 
destruction of the idols the number of English 
missionaries at work in the capital and around 
it had increased fourfold. The Friends, seeing 
the need there was for efficient aid in the educa- 



316 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

tional department, also joined heartily with the 
members of the London Missionary Society to 
assist in the great undertaking. The Friends' 
Foreign Missionary Association have from that 
time to the present most heartily cooperated with 
the missionaries of the London Missionary Soci- 
ety ; and the union has been for the mutual 
strengthening of each other's plans and efforts. 
So far as the natives are concerned, no distinction 
is made between those who are joined with the 
Friends in the work and those connected with the 
London Missionary Society. In fact, it was soon 
discovered by the former that their hands were to 
a certain extent tied by the endeavor they made 
to confine themselves to the work of education, 
and so by a mutual arrangement they took under 
their wing one of the city churches with its dis- 
trict which had hitherto been in the charge of a 
missionary of the London Missionary Society. 

Subscriptions were readily raised in this coun- 
try to erect memorial churches to those martyrs 
who had suffered in the capital, and, under the 
efficient superintendence of English architects 
and builders, some fine stone churches now grace 
the different quarters of the city, from Ambohip- 
otsy in the south, with its tall, elegant spire, to 
Faravohitra in the north, the substantial build- 
ing erected by the children of England, and 




AMBATONAKANGA CHURCH. 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 319 



called still the " Children's Memorial Church. " 
Schools were connected with each of these 
churches, and a Normal School for the training 
of teachers to supply the pressing want was also 
formed. The Friends' school partook also of that 
character, as many intelligent and worthy young 
men trained in that school are now laboring as 
schoolmasters in the country. Since its forma- 
tion the London Missionary Society's Normal 
School has prepared and sent out students, who 
have been carrying on the work of education in 
the various districts connected with the churches 
in the capital. Some trained schoolmasters have 
also been supplied to new districts, thus relieving 
the missionaries of the necessity of training their 
own teachers before the work could be efficiently 
carried on. 

But a higher and special training was required 
by those whose lives were to be devoted to the 
preaching of the gospel; and in Madagascar the 
fact that where it is possible the natives should 
be trained to take this work upon them has al- 
ways been kept in mind by those who have di- 
rected the work. That a time will come when 
the English missionary should be withdrawn has 
always been pointed out to the Malagasy as an 
additional incentive to his fitting himself to fill 
the English teacher's place. No difficulty has 



320 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

been experienced in obtaining plenty of volun- 
teers for this work, but a long, laborious, and 
self-abnegating preparation was required. To 
supply this a theological college was commenced 
in 1869, with the view of supplying each mission- 
ary with an efficient assistant. A small building 
was secured in the centre of the capital, and 
under the superintendence of such earnest and 
devoted men as the Revs. R. Toy and G. Cous- 
ins a number of well-qualified evangelists were 
sent out to be a powerful item in the progressive 
work. Some of these early students are even 
now the most influential men, both in the native 
pastorate and among the counsellors of the Gov- 
ernment. One is pastor of the church within the 
palace inclosure, or the "Palace Church," as it 
is frequently called; another is the most accom- 
plished orator in the capital, and a third the pres- 
ent Governor of Tamatave. 

As time went on the theological college was 
extended into a general college in order to meet 
the requirements of the upper class youths who, 
while desirous of securing a higher education, 
were not proposing to devote themselves to the 
work of the ministry. A more commodious 
building was required, and English liberality 
enabled the mission to erect a splendidly-propor- 
tioned edifice, containing all the requirements of 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 321 

a first-class educational establishment, with con- 
veniences for small or large classes, and a mag- 
nificent lecture-hall. Under the same roof are 
two dwelling-houses for the tutors, the whole 
building being one of the most conspicuous orna- 
ments in that part of the capital. 

That this institution is worthy of its name is 
seen from the fact that instruction is given by 
two English resident tutors and two native assist- 
ants in Theology, Exegesis, Scripture History, 
Church History, Hermeneutics, Homiletics, As- 
tronomy, Physical and General Geography, Alge- 
bra, Arithmetic, History of England, Greece, 
Rome, etc., Logic, Grammar, English. While 
classes are held regularly for the study of these 
subjects, occasional lectures are given by different 
members of the London Missionary Society and 
the Friends' mission on various interesting topics, 
embracing Natural History, Physiology, Political 
and Social problems, Biography, and Philoso- 
phy. 

In 1870 this work of Christianizing was ex- 
tended beyond the central province of Imerina to 
the Betsileo, among whom a successful work has 
been carried on. Schools and churches have 
sprung up all over the province; a Normal School 
has done good work in providing teachers; evan- 
gelists have been trained and located in various 

Madagascar ana France. ▼ q 



333 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

centres, a Young Men's Christian Association has 
been providing for the higher wants of the young 
men, and a Home Missionary Society has fur- 
nished men and equipped them for carrying on 
aggressive work farther south. 

The same has been done for a province in the 
north, the Sihanaka, where since 1875 vast strides 
in moral and spiritual progress have been made, 
and the social condition of the inhabitants has 
been vastly improved by the settlement of Euro- 
pean missionaries among them. In all these dis- 
tricts superstition has been losing its hold upon 
the people; polygamy, if not absolutely abolished, 
has at any rate become very rare; and cleanly, 
wholesome habits have been taking the place of 
the old filth and discomfort. Divination and sor- 
cery are almost unheard of, and the people may, 
as a whole, be said to be all nominally Chris- 
tian. 

A complete change for : .e better has, during 
the past few years, come over these people. A 
desire for improvement is evinced, and a spirit of 
progress has taken possession of them. Their 
houses are no longer the filthy little hovels of one 
room only, which was made to answer every pur- 
pose ; their churches they have endeavored to 
make, both in outward appearance and in inter- 
nal ornament, worthy of the worship to be con- 



PRESENT CIVIL, AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 2> 2 5 

ducted in thein; aud their clothing is no longer 
the small, greasy piece of matting, or rofia cloth, 
but in this too they have striven to imitate the 
Europeans. So that on Sunday, in one of the 
better-built churches, a stranger would not only 
see nothing to offend his taste, but he would find 
as much order and decorum among the well- 
dressed, clean worshippers as he would find at 
home — not perhaps in outward form of worship, 
as the people as a rule do not change their po- 
sition after they come in till they leave the 
church except bowing the head in prayer — but in 
the quiet, attentive devotion. Even this, how- 
ever, is improving with other things, and many 
of the newer churches are furnished with seats, 
and then the people rise to sing, as in this coun- 
try; but this cannot be said to be anything like 
universal. 

Not only has the general demeanor of the 
worshippers thus improved, but every part of the 
church services has been undenjoinq: a like change. 
The psalmody has become more and more con- 
gregational, not being left to a small body of sing- 
ers to "perform" most elaborate and difficultly- 
learned pieces of music, but all endeavoring to 
join in praising God. Very many of our best 
hymns are translated into the native language, 
and have become favorites with the people. But 



326 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

those which have as a whole taken the fancy of 
the Malagasy Christians most are the translations 
of the "Sacred Songs" of Sankey, sung to the 
same tunes. There is a ring about them which 
has caught the ear and imagination of the people, 
and they seem never to tire of singing them. By 
the help of the Tonic sol-fa, which very many of 
the young people have learned, they have been 
supplied with a large selection of tunes, which 
they sing in parts most effectively. 

In the same way the preaching by the natives 
has been improved. This is doubtless to be ac- 
cepted as one of the indirect benefits derived from 
the college. Mr. Cousins, speaking of the sub- 
ject, says, "Malagasy preachers have still much 
to learn, and in spiritual insight, high tone, and 
moral force are sadly deficient; but in matter, 
breadth of thought, arrangement, style, and de- 
livery there are many acceptable and efficient 
preachers. In these respects there no longer ex- 
ists the great difference between the European 
and the native that formerly was so striking. To 
the college this is in no slight measure due." 

This, however, only applies to the better class 
of trained preachers and pastors, those who have 
passed through a regular course of instruction. 
There are a great number who have but a limited 
knowledge of the subjects treated of in the Bible, 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 327 

which, however, they profess to expound. There 
are over four thousand preachers in Madagascar; * 
but though many of them are not worthy of the 
name, yet it is an indication of the bent of the 
mind of the people; and if the desire to preach 
and extend Christ's kingdom is recognized, fos- 
tered, and trained, these men, who perhaps most 
nearly correspond with the local preachers among 
the Wesleyans, will become an immense power 
in the nation, and notably in the church life of 
the Christians. And even now who can estimate 
the value of the few words earnestly spoken in 
the many dark places into which these Malagasy 
preachers itinerate, where, but for their message 
of salvation, the voice of the gospel would seldom 
be heard? Engaged in trading or Government 
service during the week, they endeavor to seek 
the spiritual good of their fellow-countrymen on 
the Sabbath. They are a great support to the 
missionary and native pastors, and had it not 
been for the assistance they have rendered it 
would have been impossible to carry on the work 
that has been accomplished. * 

From the trained men have been selected the 
evangelists and native missionaries since 1873, 
when the first batch of students left the college; 
and the number of these valuable workers has 

* Rev. C. Jukes in " Madagascar: Ten Years' Review," p. 139. 



328 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

been increased from year to year, as the young 
men have finished their course of study. Some 
are sent to distant places on the northeast, south- 
east, and southwest, while others occupy impor- 
tant centres, under the direct control of a mission- 
ary superintending the district in which the town 
is situated. In their spheres they do a work very 
similar to that carried on by the missionary in his 
station — holding Bible classes for all, preachers' 
classes, teaching in the schools, forming boarding- 
schools, singing and sewing classes, visiting the 
sick, as well as preaching on the Sabbath. By 
these means the gospel has spread in a marvel- 
lously rapid way over those parts of the island 
into which the missionaries have penetrated and 
settled; the people have been raised in social posi- 
tion, education has taken a firm hold, and, by the 
blessing of God, the same result will follow ear- 
nest endeavor in other parts of the island. 

To a very great extent this improvement, the 
statistics of which we give below, is due to the 
help rendered by English Christians, who have 
spent not less than ^23,000 a year for the past 
five or six years, and a considerable proportion of 
that sum every year since 1870. For, although 
to the French Jesuits is due the honor of having 
commenced missionary work in Madagascar, their 
missionaries were stationed only on islands off the 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 329 

coast and at the posts formed by the French in 
their abortive attempts to gain possession of the 
island in the eighteenth century, and they aban- 
doned the work when their Government with- 
drew from the coast. And since 1862, when a 
mission was formed in Antananarivo and Tama- 
tave, to be augmented by those in the Betsileo, 
although they have had a large number of priests, 
lay brothers, and sisters of mercy at work at vari- 
ous times, yet they have never laid a firm hold 
upon the people. It seems strange that, with 
their love of the gorgeous, the Malagasy have 
not been particularly attracted by the ritual of the 
Roman-catholics. Doubtless this is in part owing 
to the detestation in which their nationality is 
held, as also to the firm conviction which all the 
Malagasy have that the Bible is the foundation of 
all Christianity, and they are not inclined to fol- 
low or believe any form of worship which cannot 
be shown to be taught by that Book. Hence 
even Jesuit priests are compelled to read the Bible 
in their services and use what devices they may 
to convince their adherents that their form of 
worship is taught therein. As this is not an easy 
matter, notwithstanding the prevarication and 
untrue statements employed, no firm hold has 
been obtained by them upon the adult population. 
Hence their wily influence has been principally 



33° • MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

brought to bear upon the young, whom they have 
cajoled and bribed into consenting to have them- 
selves enrolled as pupils of the priests, knowing 
full well that, according to the native law, no 
pupil can leave one school to join another of a 
different denomination. Perfect liberty has been 
granted by the Government to all its subjects to 
worship how or where they pleased; and every 
parent has been absolutely free to select the school 
to which he would send his children to be taught; 
but having once entered the name as a pupil of 
one society, the child cannot be withdrawn except 
under very exceptional circumstances and by ap- 
peal to the Government. 

A good work has been done by the Norwe- 
gians. Three of their missionaries arrived in the 
capital in 1867, and by an arrangement with the 
London Missionary Society commenced work in 
the unoccupied and heathen district of Vakinan- 
karatra, between Imerina and the Betsileo. They 
were welcomed heartily by the missionaries as 
fellow-workers, and those friendly relations have 
been maintained. After working for many years 
in their own district with very marked success, 
they felt they labored under a great disadvantage 
in not having a representative church in the 
capital, and accordingly in 1875 a prominently- 
placed, well-built church was opened in Antana- 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 331 

narivo. To this was attached a theological sem- 
inary containing an average of twenty students, 
whose course of training resembles that obtained 
in the London Missionary Society's College, with 
Greek and Norwegian taught to the cleverest of 
the students. An asylum for girls was opened in 
1872 and one for boys in 1873, the former having 
about sixty and the latter thirty pupils, where, 
by their long residence in a Christian family, a 
training is given which places these young peo- 
ple at a much higher moral and religious eleva- 
tion than any other kind of education could pos- 
sibly accomplish. 

Mr. Dahle, in 1880, says of their work, " Be- 
ing by principle and experience very cautious in 
admitting people into our churches, we have only 
been able to receive a small number into church 
membership. The total number of our church 
members is therefore only about 1,400, and the 
average number of people who congregate in our 
churches on Sundays is about 12,000. Our na- 
tive agents (teachers and preachers) are about 150 
to 200." Beside this mission in the interior, the 
Norwegians are the only men who have labored 
on the west coast, where for some nine or ten 
years they have had one or two missionaries sta- 
tioned. But owing to various causes — the un- 
healthiness of the climate and the unsettled state 



332 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

of the country — they have not been cheered with 
many direct evidences of success. 

The work done by Englishmen in evangeliza- 
tion and civilization has been conducted by three 
or four societies. The London Missionary Soci- 
ety, whose work has been in part described, has 
had the honor of leading the van. Recommen- 
cing work in 1862, under the leadership and su- 
perintendence of Mr. Ellis, than whom no one 
has done more for Madagascar, the missionaries 
quickly found their way to the confidence and 
respect of the people. The queen, Prime Minis- 
ter, and chief nobles have always declared them- 
selves adherents of this society, and are members 
of churches founded under its auspices and ac- 
cording to its teaching. The number of mission- 
aries belonging to the London Missionary Society 
has gradually increased from the half a dozen in 
1862 to twenty-nine in 1885, including the ladies 
devoted to the teaching of the girls in the capital 
and at Fianarantsoa. The number of adherents 
has increased in a far greater proportion. In 
1862 there were about 7,000, but now there are 
over 300,000, while in 1880 there were reported 
to be 4,134 preachers. 

Working in thorough and hearty cooperation 
w T ith the London Missionary Society is the 
Friends' Foreign Missionary Association, the first 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 333 

of whose missionaries arrived in Antananarivo in 
1867; and so close has been the union between 
the two societies that in the eyes of the natives 
both are "as brethren joined together in one com- 
mon work. ' ' By this close union each has been 
benefited; one has stimulated the other with ad- 
vice and example, and the work has been done 
the better for the united sympathy and action. 
The Friends came into the field with the avowed 
intention "of doinor nothing to unsettle the minds 
of the native Christians on any of the minor points 
of Christian doctrine on which their own views 
might differ from those of the missionaries already 
at work in the island; while they felt such full 
unity of sentiment with them in all that was fun- 
damental that a clear field of labor appeared be- 
fore them, in which, while being on an indepen- 
dent footing, they could work by the side of and 
with those already in the field for the one great 
end of bringing the knowledge of salvation to this 
dark land. And so, in regard to church govern- 
ment and organization, they had no difficulty in 
accepting what they found already in vogue."* 
In 1 861 the Friends agreed, with the consent of 
the London Missionary Society, to take over one 
church in the capital, Ambohitantely, with its 

* Report of Friends' Committee. "Madagascar: Ten Years' 
Review," p. 265. 



334 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

district, but to work it "in union with the other 
churches in Antananarivo, bound by whatever 
arrangement the churches generally have entered 
into or may hereafter enter into." That is to 
say, this church was still connected with the 
Congregational Union. 

As nearly as possible the Friends have worked 
along the same lines followed by the London Mis- 
sionary Society, in the matter of church govern- 
ment allowing the native Christians to adopt such 
measures as seemed most in accordance with their 
mode of thought, so long as the plans were Scrip- 
tural. Hence the form of church government has 
developed into a kind of modified Congregational- 
ism, having a large element of Presbyterianism, 
Episcopalianism, Wesleyanism, and Quakerism 
infused into it. This has been found to work 
well, without in the least hampering the workers, 
and, it is believed, to the great advantage of the 
Christianity of the country. The Friends have 
also heartily fostered the principle of self-help so 
strongly advocated by the London Missionary So- 
ciety's missionaries, with a view to some of their 
adherents becoming missionaries in connection 
with the Native Home Missionary Society. The 
district thus worked upon by the Friends is a tract 
of country wedge-shaped, having its apex in the 
capital, and spreading out to the southwest, con- 



PRESENT CIVIL, AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 335 

taining a population estimated at 200,000. It 
was the district which was the last of those con- 
nected with the city churches to cotne under the 
influence of the gospel, being only fourteen years 
ago inhabited by robbers, who obtained a liveli- 
hood by men-stealing and cattle-lifting, who were 
idolaters, and among whom were no schools. 

However, under the able superintendence of 
such men as Mr. Sewell, the character of the 
district was soon changed; chapels and schools 
sprang up and were carefully tended, until now 
there are over 120 churches, with an aggregate 
attendance on Sabbaths of over 19,000 persons, 
nearly 4,000 of whom are church members. 

The other missionary society spending English 
money in Madagascar is the Society for the Prop- 
agation of the Gospel. In 1862 an agreement was 
made between Bishop Ryan, in Mauritius, and 
Mr. Ellis, as representing the London Missionary 
Society, that, inasmuch as the latter was firmly 
established in the central province, that should be 
considered its special sphere, and that the Church 
of England missionaries should confine themselves 
to the coast. This was so arranged in order that 
the minds of the people might not be disturbed 
by the appearance of two different sets of Protes- 
tant teachers, each with their own peculiar doc- 
trines and forms of church government and rit- 



336 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

ual. Accordingly two members of trie Church 
Missionary Society settled on the coast, one, in 
1864, at Vohimaro, the other, in 1866, at Ando- 
voranto, and a member of the Society for the 
Propagation of the Gospel was placed at Tama- 
tave in 1864. All worked well until the latter 
society endeavored to extend their mission by se- 
curing a bishop for Madagascar, with the inten- 
tion of placing him at Antananarivo with a staff 
of clergy, in opposition to the above agreement. 
On the application to the Archbishop of Canter- 
bury for license to consecrate a bishop, his lord- 
ship declined, for, as he very truly said, u the 
advent of a bishop in Madagascar would be cal- 
culated to produce schism in the Anglican com- 
munity, and therefore have an injurious effect on 
the conversion of the heathen of that country. n 

After the appointment had gone begging for 
some time it was offered to the Rev. R. Kestell- 
Cornish, of the High Church party, and, at the 
request of the Archbishop of Canterbury, the 
Scottish bishops consecrated him in February, 
1874, as Bishop for Madagascar — a bishop with- 
out a diocese, cathedral, or clergy, and consecra- 
ted for the purpose of endeavoring to build up a 
Ritualistic Anglican Church upon the founda- 
tions already laboriously laid by the London Mis- 
sionary Society. The Church Missionary Soci- 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 2>37 

ety, feeling that they could not countenance such, 
to say the least, ungenerous conduct, withdrew 
from the country rather than remain and appear 
to be indifferent to the breaking of an express 
agreement under which they had been success- 
fully laboring for seven or eight years. 

The work of the Society for the Propagation 
of the Gospel in the capital began in 1872. A 
church was commenced, and a few village stations 
have been opened, mostly in villages in which 
there is already a church belonging to one of the 
other Protestant societies, or in close proximity to 
one. Schools were formed and a hospital opened. 
But the general impression given even by their 
own men is that they have been disappointed at 
the results. 

Nevertheless, a great deal of English money 
has been spent by them in erecting churches, 
schools, and mission-houses, in the former doing 
more for the natives at the present time in pro- 
portion than either of the other English societies, 
who have acted upon the principle of encoura- 
ging the people to build their own churches and 
schools, and simply helping them with a donation 
to purchase those fittings not to be found in the 
country, such as glass, locks, hinges, etc. 

Elementary education has by every Protestant 
society been looked upon as of the utmost impor- 



33$ MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

tance to the well-being of the mission, and stren- 
uous efforts have been made to render this depart- 
ment thoroughly efficient. The Government too 
have readily recognised the value of education, 
and have again and again, during the past twenty 
years, made spasmodic efforts to improve the 
school system. Messages have been once and 
again sent to governors at a distance to command 
the people to send their children to school, "be- 
cause the queen did not wish to have fools, but 
wise men, as her subjects." But after a little 
fussy stir in the district all was once more forgot- 
ten. Occasionally names would be written of all 
the children in a governor's district who were at 
school, and an estimate was obtained of those still 
remaining away, and a threat was held over the 
heads of the latter that they would be taken for 
soldiers. Then for a short time a marked in- 
crease in the attendance would be noticed. 

Meanwhile the Roman-catholic priests, in their 
desire to check the education which would of ne- 
cessity in course of time undermine their ascend- 
ency, adopted a policy I have seen carried out in 
one district, and which I have heard has been 
tried in others. In order to prevent children wan- 
dering from school to school, the Government, 
while permitting the children to choose the school 
to which they would go, interdicted them from 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 339 

leaving it. Accordingly the priests gave it out, 
for the benefit of those ignorant parents who for 
various causes were glad of an excuse for not send- 
ing their children to school, that if they would 
but give in the names of their children to them 
and would come and worship with them on Sun- 
days, they should be excused from sending their 
children during the week. The consequence was 
that dozens of names of children appeared in the 
registers of the priests' schools who not only never 
attended school, but who were encouraged thus to 
hoodwink the Government authorities behind the 
shield of the priests in consideration of attendance 
at mass. 

In one part of the country, the Betsileo, this 
dishonest dealing led to serious disturbances with 
the native authorities, and the priests chose to 
represent to the French consul that they were 
being persecuted as Frenchmen. 

But in 1881 the educational system was put 
upon a new and firmer basis. One of the eight 
Secretaries of State was an intelligent officer in- 
trusted with this department, and a rapid improve- 
ment of all kinds of elementary schools was the 
result of his administration. All children over 7 
and under 14 years of age were to attend school 
regularly. To effect this, the names of all chil- 
dren between those ages were written in the Gov- 
20 



340 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

ernment books and the school to which they pre- 
ferred to go. Agents were appointed in every 
centre to see that the children actually attended 
instruction every day the schools were open, un- 
less illness or some other sufficient cause pre- 
vented. Teachers' and monitors' names w T ere 
also registered, and no removal could take place 
without information being sent to headquarters. 
Certain fines were to be inflicted upon the teach- 
ers if they knowingly permitted the infringement 
of the laws by their scholars. 

Although the Government has thus taken the 
school attendance in hand, and the scholars may 
in a sense be said to be Government pupils, yet, 
as a matter of fact, the missionary in whose schools 
the chilren are taught has the fullest control over 
all arrangements, examinations, holidays, and the 
like. As Mr. Clark points out, " Theoretically, 
the connection of the missionary with the schools 
is anomalous; practically, there is no difficulty 
whatever. We are permitted to visit these schools 
and provide school - books ; we are permitted to 
examine the schools; but if we do this we must 
inform — they do not say ask leave of— the head of 
the department in town. If we were disposed to 
be captious we might find cause of complaint in 
all this, but it is not worth while; and so for the 
present we go on our way, doing the best we can 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 341 



under the permission so graciously given us, and 
thankful that we can thus influence for good those , 
thousands of the rising generation in Central 
Madagascar. ' ' * 

Prom a schedule issued by the Government, 
we find that after the completed registration there 
are 1,167 schools and 150,906 scholars, divided 
among the various societies thus: 

SCHOOLS. SCHOLARS. 

London Missionary Society and Friends' Foreign 

Missionary Association 818 105,516 

Norwegian Missionary Society 117 27,909 

French Jesuit Mission 191 14,960 

Society for the Propagation of the Gospel ... 41 2,521 

Notwithstanding the outbreak of hostilities 
with the French, the queen has issued most ex- 
plicit orders that the work of education must not 
flag. In the absence of the priests many of the 
Roman-catholic scholars are attending the schools 
of the other missions; but no opposition is offered 
to the native Catholics in their attendance at their 
own places of worship on the Sabbath. 

The spread of education has also created a 
desire for literature, and the want is being sup- 
plied as rapidly as five mission printing establish- 
ments in constant work can meet the demand. 
School-books by the hundreds of thousands have 
been issued for the use of scholars, while the 

* "Antananarivo Annual," No. VI. p. 99. 



342 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

magazines and books are bought eagerly by the 
young men. The native "Good Words" has a 
monthly sale of about 3,000, and is growing in 
favor and circulation. The 1 1 Children' s Friend, ' 1 
illustrated with engravings that have appeared in 
the English paper of the same name, is very pop- 
ular among our school children; and a paper with 
the plates of the " British Workman," and called 
"Vary Tondrahantantely " (rice mixed with 
honey), is read in many households, the large 
first-page picture being subsequently utilized as a 
wall-decoration. That the rising generation are 
becoming more and more thoughtful is shown by 
the ready and large sale secured by such books as 
a "Treatise on Logic, Astronomy, Physical Ge- 
ography," and a quarterly magazine called the 
" Mpanolo-tsaina" (the Thought or Counsel Giv- 
er). The preachers and Bible students find their 
wants are met by the various Commentaries, a 
"Bible Dictionary," an "Introduction to the 
Old and New Testaments," "Pilgrim's Prog- 
ress," the "Patriarchs," the "Companions of 
Our Lord," "Fifty-two Outlines of Sermons," 
and many other books of a like nature. 

The Religious Tract Society and the British 
and Foreign Bible Society have each assisted in 
this work. By grants of paper, etc., from the 
former, books can be sold in the country at a 



PRESENT CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS STATE. 343 

price to cover the printing, etc, and by the help 
of the latter, Bibles and Testaments to the num- 
ber of 132,000 in nine and a half years have been 
sold for the cost of carriage, etc. , from England. 

The above facts and figures tell their own tale 
of substantial progress by the ruling race in the 
island. We have seen that this influence is grad- 
ually extending over the whole country, and, 
judging by the past, we dare entertain well- 
grounded hopes that the progress in the future 
will be even more marked and more rapid, if the 
nation is allowed to develop under the auspices 
of enlightened Protestantism. And inasmuch as 
it has been shown that a very great deal of this 
material, social, political, and Christian progress 
has been accomplished by the aid of Englishmen 
and English money, we contend that England 
has some right to feel a deep interest and intense 
sympathy for those who have repaid her care by 
rising from heathenism to Christianity and from 
barbarism to civilization. 



344 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 

Theories to Account for Specialized Character of the Fauna. Mr. 
A. Wallace's Theory. Remains of an Ancient and Extinct 
Fauna. Comparatively Small Amount of Animal Life in the 
Forests. Lemurs. Aye-aye. Pintsala Fosa. Genetts. Ich- 
neumon. Wild Cats. Centetes. Bats. Domestic Animals. 
Horses. Sheep. Pigs. Reptiles. Chameleons and Lizards. 
Snakes. Frogs. Tortoises. iEpyornis. Eagles. Falcons. 
Hawks. Crows. Weaver-finches. Fody. Parrots. Aqua- 
tic birds. Lepidoptera. Spiders. Bees. Ants. Coleoptera. 
Fresh-water Shrimps. Toho. Zompona. Sharks. 

No part of the world has proved so interesting 
to the zoologist or such a paradise to the botanist 
as the island of Madagascar. The former has for 
long past been puzzled in his endeavors to ac- 
count for the peculiar species of animal life repre- 
sented, so different from those found in the ad- 
joining continent, while apparently more closely 
connected with the families found in India and 
the Malay peninsula and islands. Various theo- 
ries, more or less far-fetched, have been started to 
account for this by the many eminent zoologists 
who have given much thought and study to the 
endeavor to reduce the varied and peculiar facts 
to something like an orderly system and give a 
reasonable justification for their position. Per- 



the; fauna of Madagascar. 345 

haps the theory which has held the longest place 
in the acceptance of the scientific world has been 
the one started by. Dr. Sclater, the secretary of 
the Zoological Society of London. He accounted 
for the similarity between the Malagasy fauna 
and that of the southeast of Asia by supposing 
that a continent had existed uniting the two, but 
had since become submerged. And many natu- 
ralists have spoken of his Lemuria as though it 
w T as an established fact, requiring no further proof 
or discussion. It is difficult to understand this, 
in the face of the results of the nautical expedi- 
tions for scientific purposes, which go to prove 
that, notwithstanding the existence of the L,acca- 
dive and Maldive islands, Mauritius and Bour- 
bon, there is no internal evidence in the Indian 
Ocean to give any color to the theory. The bed 
of the Indian Ocean is known to be of extreme 
depth except around the islands; while there is 
abundance of evidence to warrant the supposition 
that Madagascar may have been connected with 
Africa physically. Numbers of islands dot the sea 
on the west, and the Mozambique Channel is re- 
markably shallow. 

The last and greatest writer on this subject, 
Mr. A. Wallace, is the only one who has advanced 
a theory which appears to be supported by the facts 
of geology and physical geography. His idea is 



346 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

that Madagascar was never connected with Asia 
by a submerged continent, which he not only 
proves conclusively could have had no existence, 
but he shows also that had such a land connected 
the two continents of Asia and Africa, it would 
have prevented the survival of those problems of 
zoology for which the theory was supposed to 
account. As he says, "The alleged continental 
extensions, had they existed, would have left no 
such fact to be explained. ' ' Then, again, there are 
abundant evidences to show that Madagascar was 
at a remote period smaller than it is at present. 
Fossils found by the Rev. J. Richardson in the 
southwest, considerably inland, belong to the 
Secondary period. But at the same time Mada- 
gascar is surrounded by a coral reef extending 
almost continuously for over 400 miles along the 
cast coast, and in broken patches along the north 
and west coasts. This, according to the theory of 
Mr. Darwin and other eminent scientific men, is a 
sure sign that the land is sinking and was at some 
former period larger than it is at present. These 
facts — of the increase of the island at one period, 
its partial subsidence at another, taken into con- 
junction with a probable connection with Africa 
by an isthmus across the Mozambique Channel — 
give some idea of the difficulty as well as the 
interest attaching to the special fauna and flora of 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 



347 



the island. To again quote from Wallace, "The 
problem presented by these ancient islands is of- 
ten complicated by the changes which they them- 
selves have undergone since the period of their 
separation. A partial subsidence will have led 
to the extinction of some of the types that were 
originally preserved, and may leave the ancient 
fauna in a very fragmentary state; while subse- 
quent elevations may have brought it so near to 
the continent that some immigration even of 
mammalia may have taken place. If these ele- 
vations and subsidences occurred several times 
over, though never to such an extent as again to 
unite the island to the continent, it is evident 
that a very complex result might be produced; 
for besides the relics of the ancient fauna, we 
might have successive immigrations from sur- 
rounding lands, reaching down to the era of exist- 
ing species.' 1 

At one time it was thought, notwithstanding 
the mythical tales told in the works of early wri- 
ters in Madagascar, relating the existence of enor- 
mous birds, tigers, elephants, etc., that none of 
the large mammalia so common in Africa had 
ever lived in the island. But beside the bones 
and eggs of the enormous iEpyornis found in the 
southwest by many travellers and collectors, M. 
Grandidier describes the fossil remains of a hip- 



348 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

popotamus whicli he discovered in the southern 
part of the island. A few years since the inde- 
fatigable German traveller, Dr. Hildebrandt, un- 
earthed several skeletons, more or less perfect, in 
a semi-fossil state, from the limestone beds in the 
northern part of the Vakinankaratra district, about 
60 or 80 miles south of the capital. From those 
I had the opportunity of examining, the animal 
appears to have been about four feet high and 
seven or eight feet long, the head being eighteen 
inches from snout to juncture with the neck. 
This animal is now, as far as we know, extinct 
in Madagascar, but it doubtless points to the ori- 
gin of the ancient native names of the island, 
' ' Nosbi-dambo, ' ' or Island of Boars, and they were 
at one time probably very numerous. 

Mr. Wallace accounts for the peculiarly spe- 
cialised character of the fauna and flora of Mad- 
agascar by first showing that many of these forms 
were in remote periods of almost world-wide dis- 
tribution, as proved by their fossil remains in the 
Tertiary formations. Then he submits as a theory 
that the ancient islands, such as Madagascar, long 
since entirely isolated, are just the spot in which 
the ancient forms would u survive," because not 
pressed upon by other and more energetic forms 
and species, which have in course of time oblite- 
rated them from the continents. This is certainly 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 349 

a far more feasible and acceptable way of account- 
ing for the hitherto unexplained phenomena than 
the cumbrous and far-fetched supposition of a 
submerged continent, and certainly more in ac- 
cordance with the o-eologfical facts. 

One fact which strikes every traveller in Mad- 
agascar is the lack of animal life. Passing 
through the forest scarcely a creature is to be seen. 
It is only by waiting, watching, and searching 
that the patient collector is rewarded. Of the few 
families of mammalia found, the most peculiar, 
as well as the most abundant and widely diffused 
throughout the island, is the Lemuridse. These 
include some six genera and thirty-three species: 
that is to say, very nearly half the number of the 
known species of the island. Some of these le- 
murs are of large size, standing (in the hind hands) 
three feet six, or four feet, such as the Indris 
and the Black Lemur of the Betsileo ; while others, 
such as the Microcebus Smithii, are not more 
than four inches from snout to root of tail. They, 
generally speaking, inhabit the forest region, 
wdiere their piercing cries or long, mournful wails 
can be heard for miles in the otherwise quiet and 
apparently lifeless solitude. As the various species 
are unlike in appearance and size, so they are un- 
like in habits. Some are diurnal, others noctur- 
nal, of every shade of color, from the purest white 



350 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

to the intensest black. Some feed entirely upon 
fruits and berries; others enjoy, if they do not 
wholly subsist on, insects, spiders, beetles, and 
moths. Some have long bushy tails; others 
smooth round ones; others have no tails at all. 
Some have long claws; others have smooth, soft, 
flat hands. Some are gentle, easily trained, and 
used as pets by the people; while others are sav- 
age, repulsive, and very difficult indeed to tame. 

Of those which have come more directly under 
my observations, having been kept in confine- 
ment and their habits noted, the following may 
be described, as showing the very various and 
distinct character of the animals belonging to the 
L,emuridae. 

One of the prettiest as well as the gentlest is 
the ring- tailed lemur (L. catta, L.). As far as 
my experience goes, these are only found in the 
south and southwestern borders of the Betsileo. 
This province is about 150 miles in length by 50 
or 60 in width, and is situated on the central table- 
land, about 100 to 250 miles south of the capital. 
A forest extends along the whole eastern side of 
this province, fringing the table-land and cover- 
ing all the slopes down into the lowland border- 
ing the sea; but nowhere in these forests have 
the ring-tailed lemurs been found, although H. 
Schlegel says, "This species inhabits the forest in 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 351 

the southeast of Madagascar, and has never been 
observed in any other part of the island."* Their 
habitat is among the rocks, over which they 
easily travel, but where it is impossible for the 
people, though bare-footed, to follow. An ex- 
amination of their hands shows that they are pre- 
eminently adapted for this kind of locomotion. 
The palms are long, smooth, level, and leather- 
like, and enable the animals to find a firm foot- 
ing on the slippery, wet rocks, very much on the 
same principle as that which assists the fly to 
walk up a pane of glass. The thumbs on the 
hinder hands are very much smaller in propor- 
tion than in the lemurs inhabiting the forests, and 
which depend upon their grasping power for 
their means of progression. These spring from 
tree to tree, and rarely, if ever, touch the ground, 
except in search of water. 

Hence the ring-tailed lemurs are an excep- 
tion to the general habits of the Lemuridae, 
in that they are not arboreal. There are very 
few trees near their district, and those which do 
grow are very stunted and bushy. 

These lemurs are provided with two long ca- 
nine teeth or fangs in the upper jaw, those of the 
male being considerably longer than those of the 
female. These they use to tear away the outer 

* " Recherches sur la Faune de Madagascar." 



352 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

coating of the fruit of the prickly pear, which is 
full of fine spines, and constitutes their chief arti- 
cle of winter food, and which grows abundantly 
in the crevices and around the foot of the rocks. 
Their summer food consists of different kinds of 
wild figs and bananas. Their fangs are doubtless 
used as weapons of self-defence, although when 
fighting I have noticed that they depend a great 
deal upon their hands, with which they strike 
and scratch. I have seen the male put a dog lar- 
ger than itself to the rout in this way. 

In captivity they will eat almost any kind of 
fruit, but do not like meat in any form. Mr. Ba- 
ron, however, says they are very fond of spiders. 
By a little care they can be induced to feed upon 
cooked rice, upon which they thrive. In their 
natural state they do not drink, as is proved not 
only from the native accounts, but also by the 
fact that for the first month or two after being 
caught, and while living on bananas, they do not 
drink. It is curious that all those living on the 
west, including the two species of white lemurs, 
appear to subsist without water, while all those 
on the east invariably drink at their meals. 

Another interesting species is the broad-nosed 
lemur (Hapalemur simus, Gray). It lives in the 
higher level forests on the eastern side of the Bet- 
sileo, among the bamboos, on which it appears in 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 353 

great measure to subsist. Its teeth are different 
from those of any other kind of lemur with which 
I am acquainted. It has the few sharp outwardly 
inclined teeth in the lower jaw in the front, in 
common with all lemurs, and which they use as 
scrapers, and not to bite with. Beside these, near- 
ly all its teeth are serrated cutting-teeth, and are 
arranged, not in opposition, but so as mutually 
to intersect. In this respect it is admirably ac- 
commodated to suit the country in which it lives, 
as with the greatest facility it can bite off the 
young shoots of the bamboo, and mince up a 
whole handful of grass-blades and stalks at once, 
each bite cutting clean, like a pair of scissors. 
Like very many grass-eating animals, it seems 
to feed all day long. For several months I had 
one fastened on the lawn, and it scarcely ceased 
gathering the grass within its reach and eating it 
from morning till evening. It is also unlike 
other lemurs in its dislike of fruit. I have tempted 
it with very many kinds of berries and fruits 
growing in the forest, but it would not touch any 
of them. It is very fond of cooked meat and also 
of sugar-cane. It is furnished with a remarkably 
broad pad on each of the hinder thumbs, by means 
of which it is enabled to grasp firmly even the 
smoothest surfaces. Unlike most other lemurs, 
its head is round, although the female has a 



354 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

somewhat more pointed snout than the male. 
Its cry is peculiar, at times resembling the quack 
of the duck, at other times loud and piercing. 
Its tail is long, but not bushy. It uses it as the 
Iyemur catta does, to curl round its neck for 
warmth. 

In 1878 I brought to England a specimen of 
the brown-mouse lemur, probably the Cheiroga- 
leus milii, which is still living in the Zoologi- 
cal Society's Gardens in Regent's Park. It was 
caught in 1877 in the northeast of the Betsileo. 
It is nocturnal in its habits, and its food consists 
of fruit, and possibly honey, of which there is 
abundance in that part of the forest. The speci- 
men is full-grown, about 7 or 8 inches long, and has 
a pointed snout, very prominent eyes, large ears, 
and a round, rat-like tail, which is not prehensile. 
It is of a brownish-gray color, approaching to 
white on the under parts. Its four legs are almost 
equal in length, thus rendering it difficult for this 
lemur to leap any considerable distance, as the 
majority of species can. It runs on all fours, 
but sits up to eat, holding its food in the fore- 
hands. I fancy that in the winter months, in its 
natural state, it hibernates, because, in the begin- 
ning of the winter, after several nights' good exer- 
cise, during which time it had the opportunity 
of eating as much banana as it chose to take, I 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 355 

was astonished one evening, on opening the box, 
to find it still asleep and quite cold to the touch. 
At first I thought it was dead; but by holding it 
near the fire and rubbing it, it gradually awoke, 
and when thoroughly warmed appeared none the 
worse in health. This happened two or three 
times, and without any apparent cause, as there 
was no ill-health, nor was the weather particular- 
ly cold. From this fact, and from the unnatural 
development of fat every year, even in captivity, 
I presume, had it been in its native forest, it 
would, under the circumstances, have slept through 
the winter. It makes a nest of leaves or dry grass 
by carefully scooping a hollow large enough to 
contain itself, and then, after getting in, cover- 
ing itself with the loose leaves or grass. The na- 
tives say that it buries itself in hollow trees dur- 
ing the winter. 

It appears to be a very uncommon animal even 
in Madagascar, as this is the only specimen I 
have been able to obtain, although I kept a man 
in the forest for two months seeking for one after 
I had obtained the one I have described. Of 
course the fact of their sleeping all day and only 
feeding at night adds to the difficulty of catching 
them. 

Another species of nocturnal lemur, interest- 
ing from its diminutive size, is the Microcebus 

Madagascar ami France. 0 T 



356 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

Smithii, already referred to. These live in the 
tops of the highest trees, invariably choosing 
the smallest branches, where they collect a quan- 
tity of dried leaves, and make what from below 
looks like a bird's nest. Their food consists of 
fruit, insects, and honey. Moths and butterflies 
they devour with great avidity. 

They are extremely shy and wild. Although 
I have had between thirty and forty caged at 
different times, I have never succeeded in ta- 
ming one. They are also very quarrelsome, and 
fight fiercely, uttering a most piercing, pentrating 
sound, somewhat resembling a very shrill whis- 
tle. 

The teeth are very minute, but exceedingly 
sharp, and when they bite they hold so tenacious- 
ly that it requires a good shake and knock to 
make them let go. They are very strong in their 
hind legs and hands. I have often seen them 
swing themselves down from their perch, holding 
by the hind hands, grasp their food in the fore 
hands, and then gradually draw themselves back 
again. In this they are assisted by their tails 
only as a balance, and not as an additional grasp- 
ing member. Their eyes are large and brilliant, 
their ears large, and their hands beautifully per- 
fect, with ordinary-sized nails on each finger, ex- 
cept the second of the hind hands, which is fur- 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 357 

nislied with a long scratching claw. They bring 
forth two and sometimes three at a birth. 

Some of the inhabitants in Madagascar eat 
the lemur's flesh; but, with the exception of one 
commonly known as the babacota (or babacoot), 
the meat is very coarse and strong. 

Closely allied to the lemurs is another quad- 
rumanous animal belonging to a family of which 
it is the only representative, and which is pecu- 
liar to Madagascar. This curious animal, the 
Aye-aye (Cheiromys Madagascariensis), has evi- 
dently received its popular name from the ex- 
clamations of the people who first saw it. They 
would upon first sight of anything so peculiar 
naturally utter the usual Malagasy exclamation 
of surprise, 1 'Hay! Hay!" And at the present 
time among the people it is called the Haihay. 

The Rev. R. Baron, however, supposes the 
name to be onomatopcetic, "the creature's call 
being, Haihay! Haihay!" But though I have 
kept them many months in captivity, the only 
cry I have heard from them resembles the bark 
or snapping yelp of a dog. It is found in the 
forests west and north of Tamatave. Being a 
nocturnal animal, it is very difficult to get any 
reliable information concerning its habits in a 
wild state, and native reports are altogether con- 
tradictory with respect to these matters. Even 



358 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

with reference to its natural food no satisfactory ex- 
planation can be obtained from the people. Many 
assert positively that it lives on honey; but one I 
had in captivity for several months would not eat 
honey in any form, either strained or in the comb, 
or mixed with various things I thought it might 
have a fancy for. Others say it lives on fruits 
and leaves; others, that birds and eggs are its 
natural food. I fancy, from what I saw of one of 
my captives, that the latter conjectures are nearer 
the truth ; for after a few days, during which it 
would eat nothing, and it was thought that the 
proper food had not been offered (but it was in 
reality pining or sulking), it took several fruits 
which I was able to procure for it. It liked ba- 
nanas; but it made sorry efforts at eating them, 
its teeth being so placed that its mouth was fre- 
quently clogged with them. The small fruits 
of various native shrubs it also devoured, as also 
rice boiled in milk and sweetened with sugar; 
but meat, larvae, moths, beetles, and eggs it would 
not touch. I noticed that when I came near its 
cage with a light, it almost invariably started, and 
went for a little distance in chase of the shadows 
cast by the pieces of banana attached to the wire- 
work in front of its cage; and I think that if I 
could have procured some small birds it would 
have, if not devoured them, at any rate killed 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 



359 



them for their blood, as some lemurs are known 
to do. * It drank water occasionally, but in such 
a way as to make it highly probable that it does 
not drink from streams or pools in the ordinary 
way. It did not hold its food in its hands, as the 
lemurs which I have had in captivity have done, 
but merely used its hands to steady it on the bot- 
tom of the cage. But whenever it had eaten, al- 
though it did not always clean its hands, it in- 
variably drew each of its long claws through its 
mouth, as though in its natural state these had 
taken a chief part in procuring the food. 

In some accounts, given by different writers, 
the Aye-aye is said to be easily tamed and to be 
inoffensive. For instance, Sonnerat, who kept two 
in captivity, described it as "timid, inoffensive, 
and slow in its movements, in these respects re- 
sembling the lories." In each of these qualities, 
except the " timidity, " I have found, both from 
native accounts and from the specimens I have 
kept, that exactly the reverse is the case. As 
might be imagined in a nocturnal animal, its 

* In proof of this, I need only instance one fact seen by sever- 
al persons. A vessel under Captain Larsen was sailing along the 
coast between Tamatave and Imahanoro, when, after a stormy 
morning, two land birds, which had apparently been driven from 
shore and were exhausted, settled in the afternoon on one of the 
yards. A tame lemur (Lemur albifrons) on board saw the birds 
alight, and crept up to them, seizing and killing them immedi- 
ately, but, after sucking the blood, let them fall upon the deck. 



360 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

movements in the daytime are slow and uncer- 
tain; and it may be said to be " inoffensive " 
then. 

When it bit at the wire netting in the front of 
its cage, I noticed that each of the pairs of inci- 
sors in either jaw could separate sufficiently to ad- 
mit the thick wire even down to the gum, the tips 
of the teeth then standing a considerable distance 
apart, leading to the supposition that by some ar- 
rangement of the sockets of the teeth they could 
be moved so far without breaking off. This would 
facilitate the animal in tearing off the bark of 
trees in search for the larvae which some assert 
to be its chief food. The Aye-aye brings forth 
but one at a birth. It makes its nest in the 
hollows of trees, and sometimes in the upper 
branches among the dense foliage. This con- 
sists of leaves, grass, and twigs, and is about two 
feet in width. 

It is no wonder that in connection with so 
curious an animal a number of superstitious be- 
liefs should be current among the Betsimisaraka, 
in whose country the Aye-aye is principally found. 
In reference to its name, one account says that 
the first discoverers took it from one part of the 
island to another, the inhabitants of which had 
never seen it, and in their surprise they exclaimed, 
"Hay! Hay! " Another tale is that many years 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 361 

ago some Betsimisaraka had occasion to open an 
old tomb, in which had been buried one of their 
ancestors. No sooner was the tomb opened than 
this animal, into which the said ancestor had de- 
veloped, sprang out, and hence the exclamation 
of surprise that has attached itself as a name to 
this creature. Many of the Betsimisaraka still 
believe that the Aye-aye is the embodiment of 
their forefathers, and hence will not touch it, 
much less do it an injury. It is said that when 
one is discovered dead in the forest, these people 
make a tomb for it and bury it with all the for- 
mality of a funeral. They think that if they at- 
tempt to catch it they will surely die in conse- 
quence, and when I have said to them, "But 
there is So-and-so, who has brought several to 
Tamatave, and nothing has happened to him, n 
the answer has been, u Yes, but he has its charm !" 
(that is, the charm which counteracts the evil 
consequences of the act). The superstition extends 
even to the nest which the animal makes for it- 
self. If a man receives from another or picks up 
accidentally the portion on which the head of the 
Aye-aye has rested, it is sure to bring good for- 
tune; while the receiving of that part on which 
its feet rested is followed by bad luck or death. 
This has passed into a proverb among the Bet- 
simisaraka. 



362 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

The above are the only species of quadruma- 
nous animals found in the island. The apes and 
monkeys so common in the neighboring conti- 
nent are altogether unrepresented, while the only 
approach to representatives of the above in Africa 
are the Galagos, on the east and south centre, and 
the Potto and Augwantibo, found on the west 
coast. 

There are but few carnivorous animals in Mad- 
agascar, and those of small size and very timid. 
The largest is the Pintsala, said to have been 
much more common than at present. Now it is 
only found in the western forests, where it is oc- 
casionally trapped by the Sakalava and Western 
Ibara. The only one I have seen alive was about 
the size of a full-grown pointer, of a dun color, 
low on the shoulders and high on the haunches. 
It has a long smooth tail, short snout, keen eyes, 
and powerful legs. This specimen was kept in 
an iron cage, from which it once or twice managed 
to escape, when it exhibited its ferocity and 
strength on the unfortunate dog and pigs in the 
yard, some of which it speedily killed. The na- 
tives are terribly afraid of it, doubtless not only 
because it steals their fowls, goats, and sheep, but 
also from a superstitious dread of an animal with 
which a number of legends and fables are con- 
nected. It belongs to the genus Cryptoprocta, is 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 363 

a plantigrade animal, with five toes on each foot, 
and furnished with retractile claws. 

The Fosa, an animal belonging to the family 
Viverridse, is another well-known carnivorous 
animal. It is somewhat smaller than the above, 
has a bushy tail, and is sometimes called the Mad- 
agascar fox. It is of a brownish-gray color, spot- 
ted with tufts of darker-colored hair. There are 
two species, and they are to be met with in wide- 
ly separated districts, but always in forest coun- 
try, where they feed upon poultry and wild fowl. 

In the forests of the southeast I have frequently 
secured an animal belonging to the same family, 
which, although not a true civet, is closely allied. 
It is doubtless a genett, and approaches very near 
to Genetta aner. It inhabits the low lands, and 
feeds upon lizards, rats, mice, voatsiva, etc. It 
is prettily marked, is said to be untameable, and 
is very strong-smelling. 

Another carnivorous animal caught in the 
same district is a species of ichneumon, of a 
brown color, with very thick skin, long sharp 
claws, thick though not bushy tail, and having a 
long sharp snout. It is very quick in its move- 
ments, lives upon snakes, lizards, and birds. The 
Tanala people say that it is a great enemy to their 
poultry, and is often trapped near the hen-roosts. 
There is no doubt too that, as in other parts 



364 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

of the world, this animal feeds upon crocodiles* 
eggs, and is supplied with some of its food in 
Madagascar from this source. This is the same 
creature which in Egypt is misnamed Pharaoh's 
rat. 

There is some difference of opinion among 
naturalists regarding the existence of the wildcat 
as an indigenous animal in Madagascar. Those 
that have come under my notice differ in the form 
of the tail from those we look upon as types of this 
genus. Most probably the animals spoken of by 
the natives as Kary are either the descendants of 
the domestic cat run wild, or else belong to one 
or other of the varieties of genetts. 

Belonging to the family Talpidse we have 
one genus peculiar to Madagascar, the Centetes, 
of which there are nine species in the island. 
Some inhabit the prairies and forest borders on 
the upper table-land, others the bushy parts of 
the coast. The latter are much larger than the 
former, and are considered a very dainty dish when 
properly prepared, both by the natives and the 
French Creoles, who liken the flavor to that of a 
tender sucking-pig. Their food consists of beetles 
chiefly, but frogs also are devoured by them. Two 
or three species are wholly nocturnal. The larger 
varieties are a dun-brown color, covered over the 
back with spines, but with soft hair and of a 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 365 

lighter color on the under parts. When attacked, 
they roll themselves up hedgehog- fashion, but only 
one or two varieties succeed in rolling themselves 
into a complete ball. Round Tamatave they are 
very plentiful, and I have frequently found them in 
the house. They are occasionally kept and fattened 
by the natives for sale in the market, and a good- 
sized Trandraka, measuring ten or twelve inches 
in length, will fetch a good price. 

Several species of Cheiroptera are found, ran- 
ging from the small mouse-like creature which 
so frequently flies in at the open window after 
sundown, to the large vampire, or flying fox, in- 
habiting some of the islands on the east coast 
and one or two wooded districts in the interior. 
But none are said to be peculiar to Madagascar, 
all conforming to the characteristics of the genera 
found in many other parts of the world. 

Of the domestic animals, it is now generally 
admitted that none are indigenous to Madagascar. 
Horses are plentiful in the interior, where they 
are used by the chief military and civil officers 
for riding, but they are descendants of those 
brought from the Cape and Arabia. The bullock, 
resembling Bos indicus, although met with in 
large herds in the northwest forests, has doubt- 
less been introduced. The same may be said of 
the fat-tailed hairy sheep, which is never found 



366 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

wild, the goat, pig, and dog. There is a wild boar 
inhabiting the eastern forests, the Potamochoerus, 
which bears a striking resemblance to the river- 
hog of Southern Africa. It is stated that the 
Portuguese in one of their early voyages let loose 
a large herd of swine on the island ; but this will 
not account for the existence here of the only un- 
gulata which appears indigenous to Madagascar. 
Mr. Wallace accounts for it by assuming that the 
known extraordinary powers of swimming pos- 
sessed by this river-hog have enabled it to immi- 
grate "at a later period than in the case of the 
other mammalia. ' ' The specimens I have seen 
have all been high on the shoulders, with plenty 
of reddish-brown hair and bristles, a very long 
snout, having a peculiar protuberance about half 
way between the eyes and the nostrils. The flesh 
is hard, but not very rank in flavor. The natives 
catch them in pits, carefully concealed by rushes, 
on which is lightly sprinkled earth and a little 
rice as bait. The bottom of the pit is provided 
with hard spiked sticks, on which the animal 
falls, and is killed or disabled. 

Madagascar may be said to be the home of 
some species of reptiles. There are at present 
between fifty and sixty species of chameleons 
known to science, out of which number between 
twenty and thirty are peculiar to Madagascar. 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 367 

These are of every variety of color, and many of 
most peculiar shape. Some have excrescences un- 
der the lower jaw, others triangular prominences 
over the eyes. Some have the muzzle elongated 
like a horn; others have this divided into two 
such horns. Some have a kind of flexible pro- 
boscis; others have the head flattened and ex- 
tended on each side. Some have a rugged and 
high dorsal crest; others have but a low crest, ceas- 
ing altogether about half way between the head 
and tail. Some are very large, sixteen or seven- 
teen inches long; while others measure only five 
inches when full grown. 

Except the chameleon, all the Lacertidae are 
small, but many of them most brilliantly col- 
ored and beautifully marked. All are perfectly 
harmless, and the gecko is most useful. It in- 
habits the houses, and is the destroyer of the cen- 
tipedes, spiders, and moths. It can run along the 
ceilings and over the window-panes with the 
greatest ease, seldom losing its footing or falling. 
It is provided with little sucker-like expansions 
on each toe, from beneath which it has the power 
of pressing out the air, and thus enabling it to 
walk downwards without danger. 

There is a great variety of snakes in the island, 
of every color and size, from the small whip-snakes 
to the large pythons, measuring nine or ten feet 



368 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

in length, and as thick round as a man's leg. 
Many kill their prey by entangling it in their folds 
and squeezing it to death, but some seize their 
prey with their teeth and so kill it. None, I be- 
lieve, are fatally venomous, and none that I have 
seen and examined have any long fangs, hol- 
low, and provided with a poison pouch below 
them, as with the Australian and African snakes. 
Nevertheless there are some which, according to 
native accounts, inflict painful wounds with their 
teeth. The bite of one found on the east coast, 
and called by the people Mantagory, causes great 
pain and swelling: but, although greatly feared 
by the natives, there is no tradition of any one 
having been killed by a snake. 

Living in the crevices of rocks in the interior 
is one species of Orphidse, called by the natives 
the Dona, beautifully marked with an irregu- 
lar yellow stripe on each side of the body, dark 
bluish-black on the back, and a light gray on the 
under parts. It is about five feet long when full 
grown. It feeds upon frogs and lizards, and is 
said by the people to occasionally attack and de- 
vour fowls and ducks. 

This snake is looked upon by the heathen of 
the Betsileo with great superstitious reverence, as 
the impersonation of their dead ancestors, whose 
souls upon the death of the body have passed into 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 369 

these creatures. When one is discovered by the 
people, the chiefs of the various tribes around as- 
semble near it and proceed to ascertain whose 
ancestor is here embodied. This is done by a series 
of questions that can be answered by Yes! or No! 
The animal is attentively watched meanwhile, 
and when the motion of its head is supposed to 
indicate the affirmative to the question, "Are you 
the ancestor of such-and-such a chief?" it then 
becomes the duty of that chief to conduct the 
proper ceremonies. A bullock is killed, and some 
of the blood is given to the creature as a kind of 
offering, to propitiate it and secure its good offices 
for the future; and it is then enticed or gently 
induced to wriggle itself into the centre of a clean 
white "lamba" that is brought and spread before 
it. When it is in the "lamba," four men take 
the corners and carry it, amid cries from the peo- 
ple of the chiefs village and the incantations of 
the priests, towards the river or stream at the foot 
of the village. After various forms prescribed by 
the diviners, the animal is placed in the water, 
and the people return home to finish the day in 
riotous feasting. 

It is no uncommon thing, in the south-central 
part of the island, to find in the lowest chamber 
of the ant-hills one of the light-colored snakes that 
abound on the prairie-land. Whether the crea- 



370 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

ture creeps in at the entrance, and makes its way 
into the warm and dry spot to sleep off the effects 
of its last meal, or whether it is a nursling of the 
ants, has at present not been satisfactorily proved. 
I can only witness to having discovered them in 
such a place; but it would be difficult without 
keeping constant watch to ascertain whether the 
snake has free ingress and egress from what the 
natives say is its prison. The tradition of the 
people is that the ants keep the snake as a cap- 
tive, providing it with plenty of food, until it is 
fat and in good condition, when they kill and eat 
it. There is however, a great difference of opin- 
ion as to how the snake first gets there. Some 
think that it is carried there when quite small; 
others that these sagacious ants make regular 
snake- traps in the lower part of their nests, which 
are two or three feet high, from which, though 
easy to enter, it is impossible for the snakes to 
escape. When it is remembered that the ants 
take care of and feed the aphides for the sake of 
the sweet honey-like exudation from their bodies, 
one is led to give some credence to a statement so 
universally accepted by the natives. 

Frogs of many species are found in the differ- 
ent parts of the island, varying in size from the 
great bullfrog, which by its horrible croak makes 
night hideous in the swampy lowlands, to the 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 371 

beautifully -colored and elegantly -shaped tree- 
frogs found in all the forest lands, supplying 
abundance of food for the snakes and birds, who 
greatly depend on them for their subsistence. 
The latter are of every variety of color, and ap- 
pear to mimic the prevailing color and shade of 
green of the tree or leaves upon which it lives. 
In this way it is to a certain extent protected 
from the observation of its enemies at the same 
time that it is enabled to approach the insects 
upon which it lives with comparative ease. 

M. Grandidier discovered the half-fossilized re- 
mains of two species of tortoises of gigantic size, 
identical with those found in the desolate Alda- 
bra group of islands in latitude 8° south; and al- 
though usually accepted as an extinct animal in 
Madagascar, it is reported by the natives to still 
live in the forest land on the west. One was kept 
in a garden in Tamatave two years ago, which 
was said to have been brought from the west 
coast, measuring over four feet in length, with- 
out the head and neck, and somewhat broader. 
This was smaller than those from the Aldabra, 
in the Zoological Gardens, one of which was 
nearly six feet broad, weighed over eight hundred 
pounds, and was able, it is said, to carry a couple 
of tons on its back. 

Numberless small tortoises are found in all 
22 



372 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

parts of the island, among them the Pyxis, or 
geometric tortoise, which is frequently kept by 
the natives as a kind of domestic pet. It is very 
beautifully and regularly marked. 

A curious feature of the avi-fauna of Madagas- 
car is its peculiarly distinctive character, for, not- 
withstanding the apparent evidence of a connec- 
tion at a very remote period of the island with 
Africa geographically, yet Mr. Wallace has iden- 
tified but twelve species represented in the adja- 
cent continents, and those "belong to the power- 
ful-winged or wide-ranging forms. ' ' Mr. Baker, 
in his paper read before the British Association 
in York, 1881, goes farther, and says that "up- 
wards of one hundred species of land birds have 
been determined scientifically, and of these not 
more than half a dozen are known elsewhere.' 1 
There are at present 112 species and 219 varieties, 
belonging to 88 genera, of which 33 are peculiar 
to Madagascar, while over 50 species are endemic, 
but belonging to African and Asiatic genera. 

The bones of an enormous bird, supposed to 
have lived in the island less than 200 years ago, 
were found by M. Grandidier in the southern part 
of the island. He formed a skeleton from the 
materials at hand, and by deductions therefrom 
we get the representation of a bird considerably 
larger, but of the height of an ostrich. This is 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 373 

doubtless, the rukh, referred to by Marco Polo in 
the account of his voyages. Grave doubts have 
long been cast upon that traveller's veracity re- 
garding this matter; and his gigantic bird had 
been classed with the Arabian roc as equally of 
imaginative origin. Other remains have since 
been found, and Prof. Owen supposes the iEpyor- 
nis to have been a struthious or terrestrial bird 
of the same genus as the Dinornis of New Zea- 
land. Many travellers have worked hard to dis- 
cover a complete skeleton, but hitherto nothing 
has been found but a few bones and the eggs. 
Many of the latter are more or less broken ; some 
when discovered were being used as water-pitchers 
by the natives; but some have been found entire. 
One that I saw in the possession of a merchant in 
Bourbon was without the least flaw and sixteen 
inches in length. Whatever may have been the 
actual size and appearance of the iEpyornis, its 
eggs are most gigantic. 

It is no wonder, with such facts to help them, 
old and superstitious voyagers should be willing 
to credit tales like that of Marco Polo's rukh. 
"It is said that in those other islands to the 
south, which the ships are unable to visit because 
the strong current prevents their return, is found 
the bird gryphon, which appears there at certain 
seasons. The description given of it is, however, 



374 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

entirely different from what our stones and pic- 
tures make it. For persons who had been there 
and seen it told Messer Marco Polo that it was for 
all the world like an eagle, but one indeed of enor- 
mous size, so big, in fact, that its wings covered 
an extent of thirty paces, and its quills were 
twelve paces long and thick in proportion. And 
it is so strong that it will seize an elephant in its 
talons and carry him high into the air, and drop 
him so that he is smashed to pieces. Having 
so killed him, the bird gryphon swoops down 
upon him and eats him at leisure. The people 
of those isles call the bird rue; and it has no other 
name. So I wot not if this be the real gryphon, 
or if there be another manner of bird as great. 
But this I can tell you for certain, that they are 
not half lion and half bird, as our stories do re- 
late; but enormous though they be, they are fash- 
ioned just like an eagle. n * 

Tales very similar to the above are told by 
the Hindoos, Persians, and Arabs, and are evi- 
dently all manufactured from the same source. 
Fra Mauro also gives the account of an Indian 
junk being drifted in 1420 to a coast on which 
was found " the egg of a certain bird called 
Chrocho, which egg was as big as a butt. And 

* " The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian." London, 1871. 
Edited and annotated by Col. H. Yule, C. B. 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 37^ 

the bigness of the bird is such that between the 
extremities of the wings it is said to be sixty 
paces. They say, too, that it carries away an 
elephant or other great animal with the greatest 
ease, and does great injury to the inhabitants of 
the country and is most rapid in its flight." 

It must not be supposed from the above that, 
although the stories are inadmissible because of 
their extravagance, they still furnish an indirect 
evidence of the existence of elephants in Mad- 
agascar. No proof to support such a supposition 
has yet been found. 

Of the birds now found in the island, it must 
suffice to mention but a few of the most strikingly 
peculiar. The Raptores, although numerous, are 
not composed of many species. An eagle (Hali- 
etes vociferoides) is called by the Sakalava the 
hanka, and is found only in the northern portion 
of the island, while numerous species of hawks 
are found in widely different districts. One of 
these, the Falco minor, called by the Hovas the 
voromahery, or the strong bird, has been adopted 
as the crest of the Hova Government. An enor- 
mous effigy of the voromahery is placed in the 
centre of the roof of the principal palace and over 
the gateway to the royal precincts in Antanana- 
rivo. The commonest carnivorous bird in the 
interior of the country is the papango (Milvus 



376 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

iEgyptius, Gm.), a kite much hated by the peo- 
ple because of its depredations upon the poultry 
yard. It frequently carries of! chickens, fowls, 
ducks, and when very hungry does not hesitate 
to attack, and attempt to carry off, small dogs. 
They are very tenacious of life, and have been 
known to fly considerable distances after being 
mortally wounded. They occupy the same roost- 
ing-place night after night on the highest branch- 
es of the trees. There are two varieties. 

A small and very active sparrow-hawk, the 
Tinnunculus Newtonii (Gurn), is also very numer- 
ous in the centre and east of the island, and its 
peculiar hovering motion, while apparently sus- 
pended in mid-air seeking its prey, has given the 
name of one of the figures in the native dance, 
when the hands are employed to represent the 
quick, nervous motion of the bird's wings. It 
builds its nest in the roofs of houses, and it is 
frequently seen perched on the highest points 
of the spires of the churches and other elevated 
spots, from which it makes a swoop upon any 
luckless lizard or snake that may unsuspiciously 
expose itself. 

Unlike the English crow, the Malagasy rep- 
resentative of the species is not so perfectly 
black as to give point to a proverb. The Cor- 
vus scapulatus has a band of white round its 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 377 

neck and a bib on its breast, in this resembling 
the chaplain crow. It is found in all parts of 
the island, making its nest in high trees or in 
crevices of rocks on the mountain-sides. Mr. 
Baron says that it is "sometimes kept by the 
people as a pet bird. Occasionally it is taught 
to keep fowls away from the rice which is put 
out on mats to dry in the sun. ' ' 

Among the Passeres are none very remarkable 
for musical capabilities, although one or two ex- 
hibit a certain amount of variety in their note. 
The railovy of the Hovas, the Dicrurus forficatus 
of naturalists, a blue blackbird of the size of the 
English blackbird, but having a tuft of feathers 
standing erect from the junction of the upper 
mandible with the skin, is a very fair singer. It 
is called in some parts of the country the "prince 
of birds," because it is said to imitate or possess 
the notes of all the other birds put together. It 
inhabits the forest, but is not unfrequently found 
in rarely- visited spots on the table-land far from 
the forest district. 

The fody of the Hovas is a very conspicuous 
object, in the pairing and breeding season, near 
all the inhabited regions. It has given its name 
to a distinct genus (Foudia Madagascariensis), and 
is the typical bird of the genus. In the breeding 
season the male is of a brilliant scarlet, except the 



37^ MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

wings and tail, which retain the sober dun color. 
The female, doubtless in order that she may re- 
main less conspicuous to her enemies, continues 
her sombre dress throughout the year. The male 
also gradually loses all his gaudiness as the cooler 
weather comes on, and until the breeding season 
returns there is very little to distinguish him from 
his mate. The male has a song nearly as mu- 
sical as our robin. The fody is a terrible pest 
to the natives in harvest-time, and boys with 
slings and rattles have to be employed to prevent 
the rice being devoured by the flocks of these 
birds, which congregate near the ripening grain 
and devour considerable quantities, unless pre- 
vented by the people. It is one of the birds kept 
in captivity by the natives, who make cages for 
them from thin strips of bamboo. But they 
neither breed nor live long in confinement, and 
the practice is generally discountenanced by the 
more humane. 

Another of the weaver-finches, resembling the 
above in shape though not in color, is, as its 
name proves, recognized by the people as belong- 
ing to the same species. They call it Fody saina, 
doubtless because of the clever way it builds its 
nest, hanging it from the end of a small supple 
branch, weaving grass and fibres into a compact, 
hollow, retort-shaped dwelling. These are con- 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 379 

spicuous objects in the southeastern forests, be- 
cause they are usually so placed that they hang 
below the mass of the foliage, by a strong fibre at- 
tached to the crown (comparing it to a retort) ; the 
bird enters by the lower end, climbing up inside. 
The eggs are laid and the young hatched in the 
globe of the retort, and are thus rendered inaccessi- 
ble to the depredations of other birds or of lizards, 
snakes, lemurs, etc. The male is yellow with a 
jet-black beak. It is the Hyphantornis pensilis 
of the naturalists, and sometimes called the wea- 
ver-bird, as its nest displays so much more skill 
in its construction than any of the other weaver- 
finches, beside presenting a very much larger wo- 
ven surface. 

The commonest parrot in the island is a black 
one (Coracopsis nigra, L.)« It is found in great 
numbers in all the forests, especially in those on 
the west of the table-land. The people tame it, 
and, after slitting its tongue, teach it to say a few 
words; but it is not an adept scholar, and I have 
never heard one which could do more than pro- 
nounce very indifferently isolated words. Very 
different in size, as also in plumage, is the little 
green and dove-colored paroquet which frequents 
in large flocks the rice-fields near the coast and 
sometimes appears on the upland plains. It is a 
species of the love bird (Psittacula canna) and is 



380 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



caught and kept by the natives in cages. They 
live chiefly on rice, and are great enemies to the 
growers, for they do not appear singly, as is the 
case with the fody, but in large flocks several 
hundreds strong. 

The aquatic birds are very numerous in Mad- 
agascar and several different genera are repre- 
sented. These we can but touch upon, mention- 
ing only a few. In travelling in the Betsileo and 
along the east coast, I have often been struck 
with the variety of bird-life near the lakes and 
rivers — some on the water, others hovering over 
it waiting for their prey, some wading in the 
shallows, or stalking along from one lily leaf to 
another, assisted by their large and wide-spread- 
ing feet. There are the large moskovy ducks 
(Sarcidiornis Africana) frequenting the inland 
marshes of the central and south central provin- 
ces, with the duck (Anas Melleri) and little grebe 
(Podiceps minor) on almost every rushy stream, 
furnishing abundant sport for the sportsman and 
good food for his bearers. The wild ducks are 
not in the least fishy in flavor, but rich and 
gamey, proving quite an addition to the not re- 
markably varied character of the dishes procura- 
ble in the island. There is also a beautiful water- 
hen, with black plumage but scarlet head, which 
enjoys the home of the above, although not their 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 381 

distinction at the table of the foreigner. It is 
called the otrika* by the people. There are three 
or four kinds of ibis found in the island, the crested 
variety being peculiar to the country. It is found 
in the northeast, and is there fairly abundant. It 
is scarlet on the body, with long legs, yellow beak 
and claws. The so-called sacred ibis of Egypt is 
found in large flocks. A white egret is a very 
common gregarious bird, living near the rice- 
fields, about which it walks in search of food, or it 
follows closely after the herds of cattle, which 
attract the insects that to a great extent consti- 
tute its food. This is the Ardea bubulcus, and 
is fiequently accompanied by the Platalea tenui- 
rostris, which in the distance very much resem- 
bles it in plumage and shape of body; and it is 
not until a nearer view can be obtained or the 
beak is turned towards the observer that the spoon- 
shaped bill is seen which so clearly distinguishes 
it from its companions. The takatra (Scopus 
umbretta) is another bird very widely diffused 
throughout the highlands, but rarely, if ever, seen 
near the coast. It is a brown-crested stork, around 
which, doubtless from its homely appearance, its 
strange cry and ragged, untidy nest, have col- 
lected many superstitions. One says that those 
who destroy its nest become lepers. Another says 

* Canirallus griseifrons (Gray). 



382 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

that if the bird takes the hair of any person from 
whose head it has just been cut, and uses it as 
material in making its nest, such person becomes 
at once bald. It used also to be regarded as an 
evil omen for this bird to cross a person's path, and 
if it crossed the path before the idols, these were 
obliged to return to their houses.* The nest is a 
very inaccessible one, built for the most part on 
an overhanging rock or in the fork of a large tree, 
with the entrance hole in the side, most difficult 
of approach. 

Guinea-fowl, snipe, teal, and quails are abun- 
dant in some districts at a distance from human 
habitation, and resemble in a great measure their 
namesakes in England. 

The avi-fauna of Madagascar is remarkable as 
showing so little affinity to that of the peculiar 
type met with in tropical Africa. As Mr. Wal- 
lace points out, the glossy starlings, the plantain- 
eaters, ox-peckers, barbets, honey-guides, horn- 
bills, and bustards are entirely wanting in Mada- 
gascar, while many of the species found are pecu- 
liar to the island. 

The insect life of the island is prolific, special- 
ized, and often very beautiful. Among the Lep- 
idoptera are some magnificent specimens of gor- 
geous coloring and variety of form. The most 

* Rev. R. Baron in "Antananarivo Annual," No. 5, p. 55. 



THK FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 383 

remarkable is one that has frequently been de- 
scribed, the Urania riphaeus; that is found princi- 
pally in the upper part of the eastern forest belt; 
its darling mixture of blue, green, gold, and red 
renders it a conspicuous object as it flies lazily 
across one's path. Very many of the butterflies 
are more remarkable for their peculiar shape than 
for their beauty of coloring, imitating the dead 
leaves to such a nicety as to deceive the casual 
observer. They close their wings against each 
other, and one fancies he can see the midrib and 
veining of a dried leaf standing up from the dead 
branch, in color dark brown slightly mottled with 
black, while the upper side of the wing presents 
a bright and gaudy coloring. In the interior the 
butterfly called by the natives the lime-tree butter- 
fly, a large yellow and black variety, is a very 
common object as it flutters about through the 
lime and lemon trees seeking suitable spots to 
deposit its eggs. In some places in the forest the 
small streams seem to be literally alive with but- 
terfly and moth life. There are also several very 
large nocturnal moths. One found on the east 
coast is six or seven inches across the spread of 
the wings, of a light pinkish drab color, with little 
square transparent spots on each wing. One found 
on the west coast measures eight and a half inches 
from shoulder to point of tail and eight inches 



384 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

across the upper wings. "But its most extraor- 
dinary characteristic is the formation of the long, 
delicate tail-like appendages to the hind wings, 
which have extremely narrow shafts and are en- 
larged at the ends; their points have two spiral 
twists or folds, graceful in appearance. • There are 
four distinct eye-like spots near the centre of each 
wing which are of light buff tinged with lemon- 
yellow. The buff-colored body is two and a quar- 
ter inches long. It is proposed to be called Tro- 
psea Madagascariensis. ' ' * 

Among the spiders are some very curious spe- 
cimens of insect life. The largest, the Hala-be of 
the people and Epura Madagascariensis of the 
naturalists, is one of the largest known. It is 
black, with four or five yellow bands on its back, 
and in size more resembles a young crab than the 
usual inhabitant of an aerial nest acting as guard- 
house to a web, the main fibres of which are as 
strong as pack-thread. The natives, in their su- 
perstitious dread of anything so ugly and large, 
have endowed it with powers which it is doubtful 
if it possesses. They assert that it is poisonous, 
and that those bitten by it are immediately seized 
with an intense nervous excitement that often 
ends in death. This, however, must be accepted 
with caution, notwithstanding that M. Leguevel, 

* " Proceedings of Zoological Society," 1873, p. 336. 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 385 

in his " Voyage a Madagascar," speaks of a young 
slave who accompanied him being bitten by one 
of these spiders, and undergoing a nervous tor- 
ture ending in death the next day. It is not un- 
likely that the slave was suffering from the fever 
of the country, and, even if he were bitten, it was 
the former that caused his death, and not the 
venom from the insect. He says that the slave 
was seized by a nervous trembling, which so in- 
creased upon him as to require two men to hold 
him and place him in the bath which the native 
doctor prescribed; that his tongue was dry and 
his eyes inflamed, and it was with difficulty that 
he could be induced to swallow a few mouthfuls 
of the infusion of an aromatic plant. After his 
bath he was placed on a mat; but the skin re- 
mained dry and hot, notwithstanding the tem- 
perature of the bath. Faintness gave place to 
syncope, the extremities became cold, and a con- 
vulsive twitching showed that the end was ap- 
proaching. The next day he died. All familiar 
with the symptoms of the fever, as it attacks some 
individuals, will recognize here the usual course 
of that disease when in its malignant form. There 
is, however, a small black spider with red under 
parts, called the Hala-mena-vody by the Mal- 
agasy, or Latrodicus menavodi by Vinson, which 
certainly has the power of inflicting a very pain- 



386 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

ful wound, and although not fatal, its bite produces 
serious effects upon the system. There are a large 
variety of trap-door spiders in all parts of the 
country, and several hunting-spiders, which have 
wonderfully mimicked the prevailing color of the 
rocks upon which they live. These depend for 
their food upon their own agility, and are pro- 
vided with strong, supple legs, to enable them to 
run with great rapidity and spring considerable 
distances while in pursuit of their prey. But 
another genus makes a most ingenious trap for 
ants and wood-lice by throwing up the loose sand 
in which it lives so as to form a cup-like hollow. 
At the bottom of this it lies concealed, waiting 
for any luckless ant that may fall into the trap, 
from which it seldom escapes, because the sides 
of the hollow are composed of such loose sand that 
no foothold can be found, and the disturbance 
caused only helps to attract the enemy and con- 
fuse the victim. These cups are about three 
inches in diameter at the top and one and a half 
inches deep, and are made by the insect work- 
ing in a small circle just under the surface 
and throwing up the sand from the centre with 
a twitch of the tail, which is half the length of 
the body. So strong is it that with very little 
difficulty it can throw out any substance twice 
or thrice its own weight to a distance ten or 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 387 



twelve times its own length. These nests are 
always made under cover where the sand is light 
and dry, and it is astonishing how quickly these 
insects will repair or re-make an injured or de- 
molished trap. I have kept some in confinement, 
supplying them with food from time to time, and 
their diligence and perseverance might point as 
good a moral as those qualities in the ants which 
they prey upon. Another curious insect associated 
with sand life on the low-lying plains around the 
coast is a sand-fly, about the size of a wasp, which 
alights on the dry sand, and almost before the 
spectator has had time to concentrate his vision 
upon the spot it has burrowed for itself a hole 
deep enough to bury itself, by using its legs to 
scoop up the sand into a little ball against its 
body, and then carrying it out backwards and 
depositing it at a little distance from the hole. In 
a marvellously short time it has made a home for 
its eggs and supplied a store of food for the larvae 
when hatched. 

Of building or architectural insects there are 
several species of bees, one of which is a source 
of wealth to the Tanala (the inhabitants of the 
forest), who make rough hives for their use and 
then stupefy the bees and secure the honey and 
wax. The latter is an article of considerable im- 
portance in commerce, great quantities being ex- 

Madagascar aud France. n -? 



388 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

ported from Tamatave. Wasps abound in all 
parts, and the mason-fly, the pest of the houses 
on the coast, disfigures every ceiling and corner 
with her unsightly though cleverly-made recep- 
tacle for her progeny and their early food, in the 
shape of spiders, stupefied and inclosed in the 
earthen cells with the eggs. The ant-hills cover 
the plains, in some districts rising to the height 
of two, three, or even four feet, with only a 
few yards between them. A deserted ant-hill is 
often used by travellers for a stove, by cutting off 
the top and scooping out the inside, thus making a 
kind of clay furnace. The ants' nests in the forest 
are conspicuous objects, being attached to the up- 
per parts of the trunks of trees like great excres- 
cences, and having a well-made, water-tight tun- 
nel connecting them with the ground. They are 
evidently constructed for security, as their whitish 
color would render them particularly liable to the 
depredations of the birds which live upon such 
food. I have frequently broken in upon this tun- 
nel, to find that it is in constant requisition by 
travellers up and down. A rupture of the con- 
struction is a first care of the busy inhabitants of 
the nest above, who immediately set about repair- 
ing any such defect by carrying mud up the inside 
and cleverly filling in once more their covered 
way 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 389 

Among the Coleoptera are some very curious 
in their forms, and others "remarkable for their 
wide-spread affinities." The longicorns, stag-bee- 
tles, burying-beetles, rosechafers, locusts, etc. , are 
all found in abundance and in every part of the 
island. A beetle with a long proboscis, which it 
uses for boring into the bark of the trees in search 
of the juice, is one of the curious forms of insect 
life in the eastern forests. Another, almost iden- 
tical in appearance with a dried piece of twig as 
it stands on a branch with its legs drawn up, 
hiding its head between the foremost, is found on 
the upper plateau. The Cicadse, varying in length 
from half an inch to two inches, make the 
woods and forests on the east and southeast re- 
sound with their piercing, scraping sound. Some 
are gorgeous in bright and shining metallic-look- 
ing wings, while others so closely imitate the 
color and veining of the leaves or bark upon 
which they feed that it requires sharp eyes to de- 
tect them as they lie quiescent while the enemy, 
in the form of a collector, passes. Others, again, 
protect themselves by a constant emission of an 
offensive odor, which they are able to intensify 
upon being touched or attacked. There is an 
immense variety of burying and scavenger beetles, 
and several that burrow underground. One of 
the latter, black, about one and a half inches long, 



390 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

and with a long horn (in the male) like that of the 
rhinoceros, is a great enemy to young cocoanut- 
trees and other plants with a bulbous root. 

Of the fish very little is yet known scientifi- 
cally. There is the usual variety of fresh-water 
fish, most of which are edible, although some are 
not held in very great esteem. The goldfish is 
plentiful in the rice-fields in Imerina, but it is an 
introduction to the island. A few were taken by 
one of the French residents in the capital as a 
present to the queen, who had them placed in the 
lake at the foot of the hill on which the city 
stands, and they were so prolific that soon the lake 
was well stocked. During the rainy season this 
lake often overflows into the rice-plains around. 
The fish have thus obtained access to the larger 
area, and have increased so rapidly that now the 
goldfish is the commonest and cheapest fish sold 
in the Antananarivo market. Its flesh, however, 
is by no means well flavored, and only the poorest 
of the people buy and eat them. Eels are caught 
in abundance, being of large size in many of the 
rivers and lakes, and are highly esteemed by the 
people, who are willing to pay a higher price for 
these than for any other fish of equal weight. 
The toho and shrimps are caught by the women 
in most of the marshes, rice-fields, and small 
streams by dredging with fine net-like baskets. 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 391 

They are dried in the sun, packed into mats, and 
sent to the various markets, where some of these 
dried u prey from the waters'' always form one 
article of sale or barter. The fony is a fish much 
esteemed, the flesh of which is firm and sweet, 
and is usually eaten as a stew by the natives. 

Two kinds of crayfish are caught in the rivers, 
one with thin round claws, the other with claws re- 
sembling a lobster's; the former inhabiting rocky 
river-beds, and the latter muddy marsh-lands and 
the edges of larger rivers. Both are very good 
eating, and are relished by natives and Euro- 
peans. A fresh- water crab is also found in the 
small rapid streams passing through the marshes, 
but not in anything like the abundance of the 
crayfish. With the exception of the above, none 
of the fresh- water shell-fish are used as food. 

In the lagoons and on the reefs of the east 
coast a large number of various fishes are found. 
The one most in demand is called the zompona, a 
fish resembling a salmon in shape and habits, but 
entirely different in color and flavor. It spawns up 
the rivers, and is caught in the lagoons or river 
mouths on its way down to the sea. Many fine- 
flavored fish are caught by lines or spears on or 
near the reefs at Tamatave and in the shallows 
along the northeast coast. The harbors often 
present a very lively appearance at night when 



392 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

the canoes go out, each provided with its torches 
and lanterns. The light attracts the fish, which 
are speared as they play round the bow of the 
canoes with a kind of many-pronged dart, to the 
haft of which a cord is attached. Oysters, lobsters, 
crayfish, crabs, mussels, and clams are found along 
the coast, and find a ready sale in the market at 
Tamatave. The octopus is also highly esteemed 
as an article of diet both by the Creoles and the 
natives, but is not held in much favor by the 
Europeans, who are generally too much disgusted 
with the appearance of the fish, as exhibited for 
sale with its long flabby arms and ugly head-body, 
to care to make any closer acquaintance with it. 

The sharks, which abound on the east coast, 
and make such extensive depredations upon the 
cattle in course of shipment on board the vessels 
waiting to transport them to Mauritius and Bour- 
bon, are occasionally captured by the people. 
Notwithstanding the terror in which they hold 
them, the young men occasionally go on a shark- 
hunting expedition. Having discovered one, they 
dive under it, and before it has the time to turn 
upon its back, use the long sharp knife they carry 
to such good purpose that before it has realized 
its danger it is secured. It is affirmed among the 
Malagasy that some of their people can go into 
the water, on discovering a shark, and w T ith noth- 



THE FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR. 393 

ing in hand but a piece of stick about a foot in 
length, armed with an iron point at each end, can 
accomplish its destruction. Watching till one 
of the monsters, with its two or three rows of 
teeth, is just about to attack him with its wide- 
extended jaws, the native with his iron-pointed 
stick seizes his opportunity, and with a coolness 
they certainly do not exhibit on shore inserts his 
hand and arm into the mouth of the creature, and 
transfixes its jaws by implanting the stick cross- 
wise in its mouth. The more the shark tries by 
snapping to disengage the weapon, the more 
deeply it enters, and in savage and painful fury 
it seeks the bottom. But while plunging in mad- 
dened terror and pain it fails to obtain relief, and 
is at last completely exhausted. In a day or two 
its body is washed ashore, and the inhabitants 
secure and divide its carcase for food. I have 
never seen this feat performed, and am a little 
doubtful of its reality, but I give it as given to 
me. Whenever a shark or porpoise is secured, its 
flesh is cut into joints and sold in the market, as 
any other commodity, and the people seem eager 
to obtain a portion of the unsavory and highly- 
scented flesh of the tiger of the sea. 



394 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

THE FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 

The Flora. Much Remains Unarranged. Flowering Plants. Affin- 
ity with Flora of Mountains in Central Africa. Man-eating 
Tree. Travellers' Tree. Rofia Palm. Other Palms. Cocoa- 
nut. Filaos. Mangroves. Atafana. Bamboos. Reeds and 
Rushes. Creepers. Pandanus Sanga. Orchids. Timber 
Trees. Food-providing Flora. Manioc. Arrowroot. Pota- 
toes. Yams. Rice. Rice-Cultivation; as an Article of Com- 
merce. Coffees. Spices. Sugar-cane. Rum. Sugar-mills. 
Fruits. One or Two Curiosities of Plant-life. 

The flora of the island is scarcely less special- 
ized and remarkable than the fauna. From the 
time that Mr. Ellis first called attention to the 
interesting subject of the botany of Madagascar 
down to the present day, the botanist and plant- 
collector have found a paradise in the unexplored, 
fertile, and luxuriant forest land of the mountain- 
ous slopes of the central plateau. To the eye of 
the mere traveller or the searcher after beauty 
this tract presents spots of unrivalled grandeur 
and loveliness. The artist is bewildered in his 
endeavor to decide upon the scenes most worthy 
of his attempt to represent them on his canvas, 
and the photographer would require an unlimited 
supply of dry plates if he aimed at obtaining a 
negative of one-half of the pretty nooks, grand 



THE FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 395 

cascades, and bold, towering rocks and mountains. 
Here are magnificent giant trees of hard, dark- 
colored, durable building wood, that have stood 
the storms of ages, laced together with enormous 
far-spreading lians and creepers, forming a mass 
of wood and foliage through which the sunlight 
never passes. Below is a mass of brushwood and 
undergrowth completely barring the traveller un- 
provided with axe or knife, while under foot is a 
soft velvety grass richly bespangled with wild 
flowers of every color and hue. 

Very much remains to be discovered and ar- 
ranged with reference to the flora of the island, 
but still, thanks to the indefatigable energy of 
such botanists as Hildebrandt and Crossley, the 
Rev. R. Baron and others, a great deal of recent 
information has been collected respecting the veg- 
etable productions. The number of flowering 
plants of which we have definite information and 
descriptions now amounts to between 2,000 and 
3,000, and every parcel coming from one of the 
hitherto unexplored districts contains a large 
number of new varieties or species. So that Mr. 
Baker, F. R. S., says he ''should not be at all 
surprised if the number of flowering plants in- 
habiting the island should ultimately be raised to 
4,000 or 5,ooo. n 

Out of the fifty-five orders of Thalamiflorae 



396 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

there have been thirty-seven discovered in Mada- 
gascar, while fifty-three are found in tropical 
Africa. " One of the most striking and sugges- 
tive characters of the flora of the intertropical 
zone of the world, taken as a whole, is the large 
extent to which it is everywhere made up of spe- 
cies representing large genera which do not show 
any special preference for one of the great conti- 
nents, or for the New World or the Old World, as 
compared with each other. The area embraced 
by the intertropical zone is about twenty millions 
of square miles, out of fifty millions for the whole 
world; and there are many genera that contain 
300, 400, or 500 species that are largely repre- 
sented in America, Asia, and Africa."* Such, 
for instance, as the Cyperus, the Ferns, Ficus, 
Piper, Croton, Loranthus, Psychotria, and many 
others are widely distributed throughout the world, 
and are nearly all represented in Madagascar. 

Among the flowering plants indigenous to 
Mauritius about 150 are found in Madagascar; 
but these are of so cosmopolitan a character that 
many are not only found in tropical Africa, but ex- 
tend to tropical America. The greater number of 
these cosmopolitan plants are those bearing seeds 
very easily dispersed and carried long distances. 

* J. G. Baker, F. R. S., in Paper read at the Meeting of the 
British Association of York, 1881. 



THE FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 397 

They are, generally speaking, such as grow in 
waste ground, on the seashore, in swamps, and a 
few in the shadier retreats of the forests. But it 
has been noted, by those who have made the sub- 
ject a special study, that there is a far greater 
resemblance and a closer affinity between those 
species of the wide-spread flora represented in 
Madagascar and Africa than between those in 
Madagascar and tropical or Southeastern Asia. 
There are certainly a few instances of species oc- 
curring in Madagascar which follow the Asiatic 
type, and which are not found in Africa, but 
these bear an infinitesimal proportion to the whole 
of the flora. Mr. Baker also finds that there is a 
very distinct affinity between the flora of the ta- 
ble-land of Madagascar and that of the mountain 
ranges in Central Africa and Cape Colony. Hence 
it would appear that whereas, in the remote past, 
the general characters of the fauna and flora of 
Madagascar and Africa were identical or very 
similar, the ancient isolation of the island from 
the mainland has enabled it to retain many of its 
forms of animal life which have been pushed out 
of existence in Africa. The vegetable life has, as 
is natural to suppose, maintained many of its an- 
cient characteristics in both localities. The law 
of natural selection, operating powerfully in the 
one case, is almost unknown in the other. 



398 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

Many of the curiosities of vegetable life are 
found in the island, and the romance of the early 
travellers has added many extraordinary forms, 
unknown except in the imagination of the writers. 
Such is the man-eating tree, which was said to be 
able to entangle in its fibrous, tendril-like leaves 
human beings, whom it crushed to death and de- 
voured. No such plant exists, but it is doubtless 
the romancers' magnified description of the insec- 
tivorous plants, which are not uncommon. 

Among the trees, that which is both peculiar 
to the island and a marked feature in the land- 
scape is the so-called travellers 7 tree, Ravenala 
Madagascariensis. This, with its wide-spread- 
ing distichous leaves, towering above the sur- 
rounding vegetation, looks like an enormous fan 
as the long flat leaves are swayed backwards and 
forwards by the wind. Its popular name has 
been given from the sentimental idea that, be- 
cause from the midrib of each leaf can be obtained 
a certain quantity of clear, limpid fluid, it has 
been created to supply the weary traveller with 
the much-needed water to quench his thirst while 
passing from one spring to another across an arid 
waste. Unfortunately for the sentiment, the tree 
only grows in the vicinity of water, and the leaf is 
never punctured except from curiosity or wanton- 
ness, and certainly neither because the traveller 



THE FLORA OK MADAGASCAR. 40 1 

can find no other water nor can be so capricious 
as to prefer the disagreeable, vegetable-flavored 
liquid stored in the reservoir of the travellers' 
tree leaf. If the uses of the tree are to be taken 
as a foundation for its name, this might more ap- 
propriately be termed the household-tree, for in 
the forest region and on the lower plains, where 
it flourishes, its leaves supply the people with 
thatch and even walls occasionally for their 
houses, with dishes for their rice and sweet pota- 
toes, while by carefully folding smaller portions, 
a spoon to convey the rice and gravy to the mouth 
is readily constructed. Its woody trunk is utilized 
for posts and even for flooring. 

Another conspicuous tree in the forest valleys 
and on the coast plain is the rofia palm, from 
which the natives obtain the rafters of their houses 
and poles for carrying by simply stripping the 
midribs of the leaves and drying them in the sun. 
But the most valuable part of this tree is the 
fibre, which is obtained by stripping the bark 
from the incipient and still folded leaf. This is 
strong and durable, capable of great subdivision 
and of taking dyes. It is accordingly made into 
cloth by the people, both for home consumption, 
in the form of lambas striped with various colors 
and fringed at the ends, and for export, in the 
shape of the strong, coarse rabannas used so ex- 



402 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

tensively in Mauritius and Bourbon for packing 
sugar and coffee. A great quantity of the fibre 
is packed under hydraulic pressure into bales at 
Tamatave, and sent in the raw state to Europe, 
to be used for horticultural purposes and for man- 
ufacture into rope. There seems to be little doubt 
that a valuable paper might be made from it if 
reduced to pulp; but until the means of commu- 
nication in the interior of the island are greatly 
improved, and greater facilities introduced for 
transporting the fibre to the port, the price will 
exclude it from this use to any large extent. It 
is called in England ruffia grass, doubtless from 
its resemblance to the blades of grass torn from 
the stalk. It is the Sagus ruffia of the botanist. 

Other palms, equally graceful, though not so 
numerous, are scattered throughout the forest, pre- 
senting a pleasing contrast to the heavy branch- 
es and dark-green leaves of the large timber trees. 
Such are the sago palm, the fan palm (Borassus 
flabeliformis). Several palms whose names I do 
not know I have frequently met with on the forest 
tracts both on the east and south; one, a kind of 
cane or bamboo-like palm, is very plentiful in the 
higher parts of the eastern forest, the stem not 
being so large as many of the bamboos. The 
anivona, which Mr. Sibree considers a species of 
areca, is also common on the east of the table-land. 



THE FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 403 

The cocoanut palm, which fills such an im- 
portant place in the economy of the Polynesians, 
does not flourish in Madagascar. There are no 
plantations of it, and, as far as my experience 
goes, it is not found in any spot which has not 
been the known habitation, at some period or 
another, of a foreigner. It is true that the native 
name, voanhio or voanio, is identical in sound 
with the name given to the tree by the Samoans, 
and possibly by other islanders of the Pacific; and 
this would tend to show that the palm is indige- 
nous, yet still the fact of its comparative scarcity 
points to an introduction, as not particularly val- 
ued by the people of the country, who have not 
cared to plant it for themselves, but have left 
this for the few foreigners who have settled in 
different spots on the coast. 

Besides the cocoanut palm, two or three other 
conspicuous trees find a home only near the shore. 
There is the beautifully graceful fir-like filao (Cas- 
uarina equiseti-folia) lining the beach in some 
places, and with its dark-green wire-like leaves 
presenting a pleasing contrast to the large fleshy- 
leaved plants so common in the tropical regions 
on the coast. Its wood is valuable for house- 
building, being tough and durable, and not sub- 
ject to attacks of the white ants. 

The voavotaka, generally believed to be a 



404 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

species of strychnos, and called Strychnos spinosa, 
is another plant very common along the eastern 
seaboard. It never attains any great size, but 
has more the appearance of a large, irregularly- 
grown shrub than a tree. The fruit is peculiar, 
globular in form, about the size of a large orange, 
with a smooth, hard shell an eighth of an inch in 
thickness. When cracked and opened, it is found 
to contain a whitey-brown pulp filled with hard 
brown seeds the size of a haricot bean. This 
pulp is edible, of an acrid but not unpleasant 
taste. It produces violent headache if too freely 
indulged in. Mr. Baron asserts* that this is not 
the true Nux vomica, nor even a true strychnos 
(according to Bentham and Hooker's definition of 
the genus), but a brehmia, of which there is but 
one species. It is, however, nearly related to 
the Nux vomica. It is found in tropical Africa, 
Natal, and Seychelles as well as in Madagascar. 

Along the coast between Foule Point and the 
head of the Antongil Bay are several mangrove 
swamps. Close by the sea, their roots interlaced in 
the most tortuous fashion, rendering locomotion 
difficult, these trees nourish amid the most loath- 
some-smelling mud it has been my misfortune to 
travel through, while from above they send down 
suckers with root mouths at the ends to form other 
roots and trunks upon reaching the mud below. 

* "Antananarivo Annual," No. VI. p. 121. 



THE FLORA OK MADAGASCAR. 405 

The atafana, a tree bearing a species of edi- 
ble almond, also abounds on the coast and is a 
conspicuous object, owing to its peculiar growth. 
The trunk grows quite perpendicularly, and sends 
out its branches at regular intervals. These 
spread out to a considerable distance (thirty or 
forty feet) horizontally, and with their large 
leaves afford an agreeable shade from the in- 
tensely bright and hot sun. 

Perhaps the most graceful plant in the eastern 
forest is the bamboo, with its long, pale-green, 
feathery tops festooning the valleys with its 
trembling clusters of grass-like leaves, overtop- 
ping the bushes and contrasting vividly but agree- 
ably with the darker foliage around; and as it is 
one of the most beautiful of plants, with its long, 
slender, smooth stems, so it is one of the most 
useful. It is applied to all kinds of purposes by 
the people. They make their tobacco-boxes of 
the smaller stems, polished and sometimes en- 
graved. Of the larger stems, poles for carrying 
burdens on the shoulders are constructed, while 
others are used for fetching water from the wells 
and for storing it in the house. Bottles for hold- 
ing salt, honey, rice, etc., are made by simply 
cutting a length from above a joint and allow- 
ing the joint to form the bottom of the bottle. A 
smaller kind, about the thickness of the thumb, 
24 



406 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE). 

but with very long joints, is used for the manu- 
facture of the two kinds of native flutes, and a 
kind of harp, described on page 57, is made from 
the larger varieties. In many parts of the coun- 
try bamboo is split and hammered flat, and plait- 
ed like rude basket-work, to form the walls of 
houses, the large sheets of plaited bamboo being 
kept in their places by solid pieces of the same 
plant, to which they are tied. The floors of the 
forest-houses are made by tying a great number of 
bamboos to the joists, and in some districts of the 
island rafts for crossing the rivers are made by 
lashing a great number of the largest bamboos 
together. 

In many parts, both in the forest and on the 
upper plateau, are large tracts covered with a 
hard tall reed, through which it is difficult in the 
extreme to pass, both because of the luxuriance 
with which it grows, and also because the short 
pointed leaves are hard and sharp as needles, 
punishing the half-naked bearers at every step 
they take. This bararata (Phragmites communis, 
Trin.) serves on the table-land many of the pur- 
poses of the bamboo in the lower plains. It 
forms the sides of many of the houses in locali- 
ties in which the zozoro (Cyperus aequalis, Vahl.), 
the three-cornered rush, does not grow; and also 
the laths attached to the rafters of the houses, to 



THE FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 407 

which the thatch, either grass, straw, or the he- 
rana (Cyperus latifolius, Thouars), is tied. The 
two rushes mentioned above grow very plentiful- 
ly by the river-sides and in the marshy ground 
of the upper table-land. The preparing them for 
the market employs a large number of people in 
the country districts around the capital. The 
former is dried and cut into equal lengths, after 
which they are joined side by side by being 
pressed upon three long pointed strips of bamboo, 
which hold the rushes together, and permit of 
their being used as doors, sides of houses, etc. 
The latter is simply made into handfuls and tied 
with rofia or the bark of a forest tree (an Astrapeia) 
to the bararata. 

As already mentioned, one of the marked fea- 
tures of the Malagasy forest scenery is the num- 
ber and variety of the lianas and creepers stretch- 
ing from tree to tree, hanging in long loops and 
festoons. The most valuable of these is the Vahea 
Madagascariensis, called by the natives fingotra, 
from which a part of the india-rubber is obtained. 
Unfortunately, _the usual way of obtaining the 
juice is by the total destruction of the plant. 
Formerly it was severed near the root, and the 
juice which descended from the upper part was 
collected. But this involved considerable loss, 
as the highest parts, often hanging in long loops 



408 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

on the summits of the trees, retained the sap, 
which was desiccated in course of time and was 
of no use. Now, however, scarcity of the liana 
has taught prudence, and the plant is drawn down 
from the trees, cut into convenient lengths, and 
each piece suspended over a wooden vessel till 
the juice has drained out, when it is congealed by 
the addition of the juice of lemons or of a little 
sulphuric acid. In this state it is sent to Tama- 
tave and other parts, where it has lately realized 
from forty to sixty dollars the hundredweight. 

The pandanus, of which there are several va- 
rieties, is a distinct feature in the landscape of the 
eastern plain. With its large fleshy leaves, armed 
in most cases with sharp prickly edges, rising in 
screw-like fashion from the edges of the rivers 
and lagoons, into which it throws its roots from 
a considerable height up its trunk, it is not only 
a conspicuous object, but of immense use to the 
people. Its leaves make very good waterproof 
coverings for parcels of perishable articles, such 
as sugar, flour, calico, books, etc., while being 
carried on the bearers' shoulders to the capital. 
Shelters for the benighted traveller are often and 
very speedily made by placing a number of these 
leaves lengthwise upon a few sticks placed in the 
shape of a roof. The leaves of one kind, very 
common south of Tamatave, are divided into 



THE FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 409 

strips of convenient width and plaited into the 
coarse mats and bags exported to Mauritius and 
Bourbon for packing sugar. 

To the north of Tamatave is a very curious 
tree, growing near the sea by the river-sides, 
called sanga by the natives, from the fact that, 
although very tall, it has no foliage except at the 
summit, resembling a top-knot — the meaning of 
the native name. Mr. Baron, who saw them in 
1882, speaks of them as a species of weinman- 
uia. 

The home of these curious trees is also the 
home of one of the most beautiful orchids found 
in the country, the Angraecum sesquipedale, which 
I have seen growing in the greatest profusion on 
the dead tree-trunks, and even on the rocks so 
near the sea that at times they must have been 
washed by the sea spray. It has frequently been 
stated that the long spur (from a foot to eighteen 
inches in length) "points to the existence of an 
insect with an extraordinary long trunk or suck- 
ing tube for the fertilization of the flower."* I 
have had very many of these orchids in my gar- 
den at Tamatave, and they have frequently be- 
come fertilized and the seeds come to perfection, 
yet no insect with a longer proboscis than the 
ordinary hawk-moth has been discovered. But I 

• Sibree's " Great African Island," p. 98, 



4IO MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

noticed on very many of the specimens a species 
of ant, which fed upon the petals and spur of the 
flower, in some cases eating away a great part of 
the surface. As I have seen these ants making 
their way in and out of the orifice of the spur, I 
believe that the A. sesquipedale is fructified by 
ants and not by any long-trunked insect. 

Of all the many beautiful varieties of vegeta- 
ble life in Madagascar, none are more attractive, 
from their delicate perfume and the purity of their 
color, than the orchids, of which there is a great 
variety in the country. The flowers, like wax, 
shining out star-like amid a dense cluster of dark 
green leaves, perched in the forks of branches or 
springing from the protruding roots of the smaller 
trees and bushes, present a picture not easily 
erased from the memory. The Angrsecum El- 
lisii, brought to England by Mr. Ellis, is still, and 
justly so too, a great favorite. Its large cluster 
of butterfly-like flowers, each with a spur seven 
or eight inches long, when in full bloom is a 
splendid sight. The A. superbus, to be met with 
in such profusion among the bushes on the coast, 
has a spur of flowers two feet long and exhales a 
delicious fragrance. Many of the orchids in the 
island are still unnamed, and only a few compar- 
atively have found their way to England alive. 
I had the opportunity of seeing in Tamatave a 



THE FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 411 



splendid collection growing in the ground of a 
French collector, among which were thousands 
of specimens, of all sizes and of various colors — 
white, white and yellow, yellow, yellow striped 
with red, brown and gold, mauve and white, pur- 
ple, etc. , presenting as gorgeous a show of flower- 
ing beauty as it is possible to conceive. 

From various parts of the forests very valua- 
ble wood for building and cabinet-making is ob- 
tained. The rosewood is found in the southeast; 
a species of ebony also is brought from the same 
locality. A wood resembling teak in some of its 
graining, and mahogany in others, is the com- 
monest wood used in the capital for floors, doors, 
windows, and heavy furniture, while the nato, or 
natte, a red wood from the bark of which the peo- 
ple obtain their red dye, is used for the same pur- 
poses on the east coast. A very hard and durable 
wood called the varongy (Calophyllum inophyl- 
lum) is extensively used for posts, rafters, joists, 
etc. , but possesses no particular beauty. A species 
of sandalwood is found near the east coast and is in 
request for cabinet-work. The grain is fair, and 
the scent, though strong, and not disagreeable 
when first brought from the forest, soon loses a 
great deal of its fragrance by exposure. As the 
law at present exists, none of this valuable tim- 
ber can be exported, or it would doubtless soon 



412 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

find its way into the English and other European 
markets. 

But the most useful plants and trees to the na- 
tive are those which furnish him with food, cloth- 
ing, and medicine. Among the former are such 
trees as the bread-fruit, the tamarind, and varie- 
ties of the ficus among the larger trees; while 
among smaller plants is to be found a great va- 
riety of food-yielding vegetation. The various 
arums cultivated in the swampy gardens near the 
rivers on the coast, and called Saonjo mamy, are 
apparently identical with the taro of the South 
Sea islands, and are very palatable and wholesome. 
A gigantic arum (Arum colocasia?) grows in great 
abundance along the rivers in the east, but, ex- 
cept in case of famine, it is not used for human 
food, though the seeds are always extensively 
used for feeding the pigs. A yam, the root of a 
creeping plant found throughout the forest re- 
gion, is also used, and when boiled very much 
resembles a potato. The mangahazo, the manioc, 
forms an important article of vegetable food. It 
has been very extensively cultivated since the 
last rice famine, and although on the table-land 
it occupies the ground for a long period before 
coming to perfection, nearly ten times as long as 
on the coast, yet land is not of so much value as 
to be likely to enter into the calculation. 



THE FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 413 

In some parts of the country, especially among 
the Sakalava and Ibara, a great deal of Tacca 
pinnatifida is cultivated, from which a kind of 
arrowroot is made that is said to form the chief 
article of consumption among the western tribes. 
It is very insipid, but nourishing. 

The sweet potato is cultivated in all parts of 
the country, and not only is the root cooked and 
used as food, but, in common with those of the 
mangahazo, the leaves are boiled as a vegeta- 
ble, to be eaten as a kind of curry to flavor the 
rice. 

Several kinds of anana, or vegetables of which 
the leaves only are eaten, are cultivated in gar- 
den patches around the houses, the commonest 
being the anamamy (Solanum nigrum), which, be- 
lying its name, sweet vegetable, is extremely bit- 
ter, and to many who taste it for the first time 
very unpalatable. 

The potato has been introduced into the in- 
terior and grows prolifically and without disease, 
and with the expenditure of very little labor on 
the part of the people to secure a good crop. It 
is very much appreciated by the natives, who 
have brought considerable tracts south of Imer- 
ina under this cultivation. In a peaty soil the 
native simply has to turn over the clods in great 
masses, drop the seed potatoes in the centre of the 



414 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

reversed clod, and wait the result. When pro- 
gressing towards maturity they are sought for by 
the owner, not by digging and then selecting the 
fair-sized tubers and discarding the small ones, 
but by scratching away carefully the soil with a 
pointed stick, by which means he secures the lar- 
gest harvest, as he removes the fully-grown pota- 
toes and allows the small ones to develop until 
the haulm is dead. On the roadsides between 
the chief towns in the interior are invariably to 
be found stalls for the sale of cooked potatoes as 
well as the mangahazo and sweet potato. If com- 
munication with the coast were more fully devel- 
oped there is no reason why potatoes and wheat 
should not become articles of considerable com- 
mercial importance. The latter is cultivated, but 
only to a very limited extent at present, yet suffi- 
ciently to demonstrate the capability of the soil to 
produce a good harvest. 

But the chief article of food cultivated by the 
Malagasy is rice, of which there are several qual- 
ities found in the same districts, while other vari- 
eties have a limited cultivation. Some are plant- 
ed like wheat, in a moist, light soil, but without 
any irrigation, as in the forest clearings on the 
east, where, after burning down a portion of the 
forest, the rice is dropped into the soil thus ma- 
nured with the ashes of the timber and brush- 



THE FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 415 

wood. This is a hard, reddish-colored rice, not 
held in mnch esteem by the inhabitants of the 
highlands. There the rice is invariably grown 
under water, and considerable ingenuity is exhib- 
ited by the people in the formation of their rice- 
fields. 

Around the capital the plain is level and low, 
and no very great amount of skill is required to 
keep the rice-fields constantly under water, by 
means of narrow channels or ditches leading from 
the river above the town and rejoining the river 
below. But in many places, notably in the Bet- 
sileo, a considerable amount of engineering talent 
is exhibited by the people. After having selected 
a spot as suitable for the formation of their rice 
plantation they lead the water, by means of gul- 
lies cut in the sides of the mountains, for consid- 
erable distances, in some cases a mile or two, 
from a spring situated sufficiently high to allow 
of the necessary fall. The ravines and deep 
valleys are crossed by roughly-made aqueducts, 
formed by hollowing a tree and placing it across 
the chasm. In some broader valleys a number of 
these are necessary. In one place, by a series of 
these hollowed trunks, I have seen the water con- 
ducted a hundred or a hundred and twenty yards, 
the rough aqueduct being supported at the junc- 
tures by long posts driven into the ground in 



416 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

pairs, with a cross-piece at the proper height 
lashed across them. 

Having thus conducted the water, a series of 
terraces are made, commencing as high up the 
valley, or even on the convex side of the hill, as 
the water will flow to readily. Bach terrace is so 
constructed that the overflow of water shall fall 
into the terrace below; so that as many as a hun- 
dred or hundred and fifty of these rice terraces 
may be seen kept constantly full of water by a 
small stream which enters the top one and dis- 
charges itself eventually from the lowest. 

The rice is sown in a patch, sheltered from the 
winds, and near enough to the houses to be pro- 
tected in part from the depredations of the birds; 
and after it has shot up to a height of about eight 
inches it is pulled up by the roots and transplant- 
ed into the larger rice plains or terraces. This is 
usually done by the women, who sing as they 
work, pushing into the soft mud one of the plants 
at each accented note. In some respects this is 
one of the pleasing sights of life in the interior of 
Madagascar, for it is a relief to see the people, 
usually content to "let things slide, " in earnest 
about some work; and no one who only saw the 
Malagasy women when at work in their rice-fields 
would think them otherwise than overwhelming- 
ly energetic. But there the charm ends, for work- 



THE FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 4^7 

ing in soft mud and muddy water above the knees 
is no improvement to personal appearance, and 
the position assumed is anything but graceful. 

Except the weeding, which is performed by 
the men once during their growth, no further 
care is taken of the rice plants than to see that 
the roots are constantly under water until the 
time of harvest draws near. Then troops of 
small boys are stationed with slings and stones to 
keep off the flocks of fody which infest the neigh- 
borhood of the rice-fields and prey upon the ri- 
pening grain. The fody is not the only enemy to 
the rice. I have known whole districts cleared of 
the rice by locusts, and in the earlier stages of its 
growth by rats. 

At harvest-time all the village turns out to 
reap each man's plot, as the women did to trans- 
plant. The rice is cut with knives near the foot, 
and carried to the threshing-floor and stacked in 
long, low stacks. After this it is threshed by the 
men taking a handful in each hand, by the end 
nearest the root, and striking the ears on a stone 
placed in the centre of the threshing-floor. The 
winnowing is performed by simply holding a bas- 
ketful of the newly-threshed rice as high as possi- 
ble and pouring it out gently, allowing the wind 
to carry away the chaff. It is then stored in the 
various ways peculiar to the different tribes. In 



418 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

Imerina and Betsileo it is placed in pits dug in 
the hard red soil and lined with mats. In the 
Bara and Tanala and coast tribes it is stored in 
small houses mounted on poles four or five feet 
from the ground, and protected from the ravages 
of the rats by a wooden hood at the top of each 
post, over which the rats cannot pass. 

There is no reason why rice should not become 
a much more important article of commerce than 
it has been. Some little quantity has every year 
been exported to Mauritius and Bourbon; but 
with the capabilities of the country, especially 
in the swampy lowlands of the coast plain, there 
is room for an almost unlimited supply. No for- 
eigner has, however, turned his attention to this 
branch of agriculture, but all the rice brought 
into the ports has been of purely native produc- 
tion, and hence grown on a small scale. The 
land suitable could be procured at very little cost, 
and no considerable capital would be required 
further than that necessary to pay wages, and I 
am convinced a large return would be the result 
of fairly good management. It has been objected 
that the rice is small and broken; but this is 
simply the result of the primitive mode of re- 
moving the husk, which is done by merely pla- 
cing the well-dried rice in a wooden mortar and 
pounding it with wooden pestles until the grain 



THK FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 419 

is free of husk. But notwithstanding this rough- 
and-ready plan, there are qualities of rice which, 
in point of size and purity of color, compare fa- 
vorably with the highly-esteemed South Carolina 
rice. 

The vegetable production which has for the 
longest period occupied the attention of foreign 
capitalists as an article of commerce is coffee. 
Great hopes were entertained by planters that a 
large return would be the result of money laid out 
in the purchase and propagation of this plant. 
Large tracts along the coast were planted, nota- 
bly around Mananjara, south of Tamatave, at Ma- 
hela, Mahanoro, and elsewhere: considerable sums 
of money were invested in this industry, and for 
a few years all went well. But trouble soon came. 
At Mananjara whole plantations were swept to 
the ground by the cyclones of 1868-72, and in 
other places it was discovered, when too late, that 
the soil was too damp for the continual produc- 
tiveness of the coffee plant. For a certain num- 
ber of years the tree grew and bore well, but 
after the tap-root had penetrated to a certain 
depth the leaves and fruit rotted off the branches 
and the tree died. Hence all the coffee estates 
on the coast and near it are abandoned, and 
their promoters have in many cases been ruined. 

But in the interior, especially along the rocky 



420 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

sides of the central plateau, the plant succeeds well, 
attains a great size, and bears both freely and of 
good quality. There is, however, very little 
more grown than is required for the home con- 
sumption. Only small parcels find their way to 
Europe, and that under a false name. It finds, 
however, ready sale at good prices, and is highly 
esteemed for its flavor. 

This is another industry which only awaits a 
more ready communication with the coast from 
the interior to command a much greater atten- 
tion than has hitherto been given to it. I have 
seen trees in the uplands covered with berries, 
and producing a splendid harvest for the people, 
without any particular care having been taken 
with them and despite the unscientific manner 
in which the natives treated them. 

Spices of various kinds have been tried as an 
article of commercial produce along the east 
coast, and as far as the venture has gone I believe 
it has been a success. Cloves and cinnamon 
flourish in the hot climate and damp soil of the 
low plain, and pepper would doubtless be still 
more profitable, as the wild pepper of the forests 
produces abundantly, and the berries have be- 
come an article of trade in all the markets in 
the interior, under the name voamperifery. It is 
the Peperonica Lyallii. 



THE FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 42 1 

Among the fibres which are produced abun- 
dantly by the natives for their own use, and 
which might become articles of export if the 
cultivation were taken in hand by European en- 
terprise, these may be mentioned : cotton ; a species 
of flax; the fibre of the hemp, Cannabis sativa; the 
barks of certain forest trees, as the species of As- 
trapeia, from which the natives make string and 
even weave cloth; and the fibres of the banana, 
also used by the people for cloth-making. Silk 
is also grown in large quantities in the southern 
part of the table-land, the plant upon which the 
insect feeds being grown in patches covering 
acres of land in the large plain around Ambo- 
himandroso. 

But the vegetable production upon which the 
greatest amount of skill has been bestowed by 
the foreigners in Madagascar, and upon the 
development of which the greatest amount of 
money has been expended, is the sugar-cane. 
The soil and humid climate of the coast seem ad- 
mirably suited to its cultivation, and without any 
large amount of high farming or especial care the 
cane, though not attaining the size seen in ima- 
gination by a certain newspaper correspondent, 
who describes it as "thirty feet in height," yet 
reaches to a height of twelve or eighteen feet and 
large in girth. It is full of juice, but contains 

Madagascar and France. o C 



422 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

a large proportion of water as compared with the 
product of the same species of cane raised in the 
drier atmosphere of Mauritius. But, notwithstand- 
ing the low percentage of saccharine matter in 
the expressed juice, so prolific is the growth of 
the cane that the extra time and expense involved 
in the evaporating processes are fully compensated 
for by the large yield of sugar compared with the 
trouble and expense of growth. 

In the interior the juice is expressed between 
a couple of roughly-made rollers of wood fixed in 
two upright posts and turned by hand. The 
canes are inserted between the rollers, which are 
fixed so near to each other as to squeeze the cane 
quite dry, and the juice is caught in a wooden 
trough below. Some of this juice is fermented 
and made into a native drink, called betsabetsa, 
or distilled after the fermentation and made into 
a spirit called toaka, which is now unfortunately 
the chief product of the sugar-cane in Imerina. 
This coarse spirit (flavored with anise-seed) is sold 
in most of the markets in the interior of the coun- 
try, and produces sad havoc among the young 
and ignorant and causes one of the great troubles 
of the missionaries and pastors in the conduct of 
church affairs. A small quantity of the juice 
comparatively is boiled for sugar. This is of the 
coarsest kind, the juice being simply boiled till it 



THE FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 423 

is thick enough to harden on cooling into a cake, 
and in that form it is sold. When required for 
use, a little is scraped into a suitable vessel. 

On the coast sugar-rnills after the pattern of 
those at work in Mauritius and Bourbon have 
been erected. British subjects owned four of the 
five mills planted near Tamatave, three of which 
were worked by steam and one by bullocks. In 
these, and notably in the largest — that of Messrs. 
Wilson & Co. at Melville, ten miles west of 
Tamatave — machinery of the most approved kind 
and of the newest type was to be found. Crush- 
ing machines, with their immense grooved roll- 
ers, stood ready to receive the cane as it came in 
from the field. Large cup-shaped boilers received 
the liquid conveyed to them through troughs com- 
municating with the reservoir below the rollers. 
Then after being boiled, passed through refrige- 
rators, and evaporated in a vacuum-pan, it was 
left to crystalline, after which the crystals were 
separated from the syrup in turbines. The syrup 
was again passed through the various processes, 
and a lower class of sugar obtained. 

In this way large quantities of sugar of a good 
quality were annually exported to Mauritius and 
Natal, and the prospects of the planters were 
bright and alluring. Each and all were looking 
forward to not only covering by the harvest of 



424 



MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 



1883 the great outlay caused by the establishing 
of such large concerns, but also to the netting 
of a considerable balance. As it is, however, the 
outbreak of hostilities has prevented the cutting 
of the canes, which were just ripe for the sugar- 
mill, and the merchants and planters have had 
the chagrin of seeing their harvest rotting on the 
land and the mills being ruined by inability to 
protect them. 

Madagascar is well supplied with fruit, some 
indigenous to the country, and other kinds intro- 
duced and flourishing. Among the former the 
banana holds the first place. It is universal and 
very plentiful, of many varieties, but all good. 
Because of its sustaining and satisfying qualities 
it is an excellent article of food. The lemon and 
lime, the rose-apple and guava, also abound. 
The orange, one of the introduced fruits, has be- 
come at Tamatave an article of commerce; while 
the vine, when properly cared for, furnishes two 
splendid crops of grapes in the year, one in De- 
cember and the other in June. Beside these 
may be mentioned the citron, melon, pineapple, 
loquat, li-chi, avocat (the alligator pear), custard- 
apple, mango, peach, mulberry, pomegranate, 
and quince. Figs in great quantities, but of 
poor quality, grow in many parts of the forest 
and on the upper plateau. 




THE PITCHER PLANT. 



THE FLORA OF MADAGASCAR. 427 

Among the curiosities of the plant-life on the 
east coast should be mentioned the three most 
notable. The sensitive plant, growing in abun- 
dance about one hundred miles south of Tama- 
tave, is a conspicuous object, with its delicate 
flowers resembling tufts of pink threads, and its 
highly sensitive leaves and leaf-stalks. When 
touched the leaves immediately fold themselves 
up, and then the leaf-stalk falls, almost hiding 
the leaves under the branches of the plant. The 
pitcher-plant also grows in the marshes along the 
east coast, but generally out of sight among the 
rushes and sedges at the water-side. At the end 
of each leaf, which narrows to a mere stalk at the 
tip, it carries a vase-like excrescence, very much 
resembling a pitcher, with lid and all complete. 
This pitcher seems provided for the purpose of 
keeping the leaves well supplied with moisture, 
as I have frequently found them with a consid- 
erable quantity of water in these receptacles. 

The lace-leaf plant, the other curious plant to 
which reference is made, has frequently been 
described. In the rivers west of Tamatave great 
quantities of this fresh-water yam may be seen 
sending its two-forked flower just above the ed- 
dying of the water, in which it bobs backwards 
and forwards in a fantastic dance. The root is 
edible, but the interest of the plant centres in its 



428 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

leaves, which are about eight to fourteen inches 
long, and resemble a square-patterned lace or a 
skeleton leaf with parallel veining, the whole 
space between being empty. These are supported 
on stalks two or three feet long, just sufficient to 
raise the leaf to the level of the water. For many 
years it was thought to be confined to Madagas- 
car; but since the time that Mr. Ellis first made 
the scientific world acquainted with the strange 
Ouvirandra fenestralis it has been discovered that 
plants somewhat similar have been growing in 
other parts of the world. 

I have not attempted to give anything but a 
cursory glance at the vegetation of an island 
which is full of interest to the botanist, and to 
point out a few of its features, leaving open the 
vast field, which can only be properly treated in 
a work devoted to that science alone. 



METEOROLOGY. 



429 



CHAPTER XV. 

METEOROLOGY. 

A Year's Registrations at Tamatave. Observations in the Interior. 
The Wet and Dry Seasons. Waterspouts. Rainstorms. 
Earthquakes. Mists. 

As this is a subject closely connected with the 
capabilities of a country for agricultural and com- 
mercial development, it may be interesting to 
give the results of one year's regular registration 
at Tamatave in latitude 18° 10' S. and 49° 27' E. 
longitude. The observations were taken 15 feet 
above the level of high water, and at a consider- 
able distance from any other habitations. 

The instruments used for the observations are 
all by Cassella, and were mounted according to 
the instructions of the Meteorological Society of 
London. The maximum and minimum ther- 
mometers, with the hygrometer, were mounted 
four feet above the grass in a Stevenson stand, 
to which the wind from every quarter had free 
access. Hence the readings are in all cases con- 
siderably below what they would have been in 
the ordinary shade of a veranda or house. The 
direct heat of the sun was measured by an insu- 
lated thermometer placed on a stand four feet 



430 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

from the ground. This thermometer being in- 
serted in an outer shield, and in a nearly complete 
vacuum, the maximum direct heat of the sun can 
be registered unaffected by humidity and wind. 
It is, however, incorrect to imagine that it regis- 
ters the maximum heat of the sun's rays at any 
given time, but rather the accumulative heat 
during the hottest part of the day. For the outer 
case of clear glass is a conductor for the bright 
heat of the sun's rays, but a non-conductor of the 
dull heat thus confined in the ball in the centre 
of which is the blackened bulb of the thermome- 
ter. The mouth of the rain-gauge, w r hich is 
placed perfectly perpendicular in an open space, 
was one foot from the ground. The amount of 
cloud (from clear sky to complete overcast, o to 10) 
was estimated at each time of observation. The 
wind also (from o to 12) was estimated in the 
same way. The barometer used was an aneroid. 
The observations have been registered at 9 o'clock 
A. M. and at 3 p. M. 

In one or two respects, noted below, the weath- 
er of 1881-2 was exceptional. During the sum- 
mer, from October to February, the northerly wind 
was but seldom felt at Tamatave, variable winds, 
frequently with a southwesterly direction, taking 
the place of the northeast wind. The winter 
months are generally spoken of as the wet season 



METEOROLOGY. 



431 



on the coast, and the summer as the dry season. 
But in June, 1882, only 8.52 inches of rain fell, 
against 15.5 inches in June, 1881. There was a 
fall of 2.19 inches in May, 1882, while in May, 
1 881, there fell 9.76 inches. With these excep- 
tions the year chosen may be considered a typical 
one in meteorology. The total amount of rain- 
fall for the year was 94.94 inches. The greatest 
fall in any 24 hours took place on June 29, when 
5.06 inches were registered. 

The number of days on which rain fell, and 
the total amount for each month, were distributed 
through the year as follows: 





Days in which rain fell. 


Inches. 




. . . . 17 


4.18 




. . . . 13 


5-20 




. . . . 17 


6.33 




. . . . 19 


13.02 




. . . . 18 


11.62 


" March . . . 




6.46 


" April . . . 


. . • . 23 


n-35 


" May .... 


. . . . 16 


2.19 


" June .... 


. . . . 19 


8.52 


" July .... 


. . . . 2S 


1345 






741 




. . . . 14 


5-21 



The general direction of the wind was souther- 
ly. During 306 days it blew between east, round 
by south, to the west; and during the remaining 
59 days it had a direction between east, round by 
north, to west. There was no hurricane on the 
coast during the year, though considerable fear 



432 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE- 



was felt on February 26, when the barometer fell 
from 30 0 in the morning at 9 o'clock to 29.81 by 
12 o'clock noon, rising to 29.90 on February 27, 
and falling to 29.80 by 3 o'clock, and on the fol- 
lowing day from 29.91 to 29.81. On March 3 it 
again became steady at a little above 30. This 
was the greatest atmospheric disturbance we had 
during the year. The wind at the time was strong 
from south and southeast to south. 

The greatest amount of heat registered by the 
insulated solar radiation thermometer was on 
December 22, when it stood at 163 0 . The high- 
est temperature in the shade in a good current of 
air was 93 0 , which it attained on December 24, 
January 1 5 and 25. The lowest temperature during 
the night was 58 0 on June 28 and July 9 and 10. 

AVERAGE DAILY RECISTER, MORNING AND AFTERNOON. 



AT 9 O'CLOCK A. M. 







Thermometer. 
















Amount 


Force 


Rainfall 


Date. 


Barometer. 






of 
Cloud. 


of 
Wind. 


in 
Inches. 


Dry 
Bulb. 


"Wot 
Bulb. 


October . . 


30.288 


/6 


68.3 


3-1 


2-3 


•139 


November . 


30-I53 


79-5 


73-5 




3-2 


•173 


December . 


30.2 


82.6 


77-7 


3-5 


2.1 


.204 


January . . 


3O.II4 


84.08 


76.7 


4-3 


2.6 


•434 


February . 


30-05 


82.2 


76.8 


5 


3-5 


415 


March . . . 


30.O9 


80 


75 


4 


4 


.208 


April .... 


30.I86 


78.4 


74-3 


4 


3 


.378 


May .... 


30-23 


73 


76 


4 


2.S 


.07 


June .... 


30.376 


71.8 


68.Q 


5-4 


3-5 


.284 


July 


3°- 2 3 


69.9 


67.8 


4-7 


2.4 


.448 


August . . . 


30.40 


7i-5 


67.8 


4 


3 


.240 


September 


30-35 


74 


69 


3 


7 


.18 



METEOROLOGY. 433 



AT 3 O'CLOCK P. M. 







Thermometer. 












Date. 


Barometer. 






Amount 


Force 


Maxi- 


Mini- 


Maxi- 












of 


mum in 


mum in 


mum in 










Cloud. 


Wind. 


Shade. 


Shade. 


Sun. 






Dry 


Wet 
















Bulb. 


Bulb. 












October . . 


3°- 2 59 


79-3 


7O.9 


2.4 




/9-9 


62 4 


I40.4 


November . 


3°-°95 


80.5 


72.8 


3-3 


.8 
3-° 


9l A 


£R T 


I4O.2 


December . 


30.06 


82.4 


74-9 


3- 2 


2.8 


05.2 


66.4 


I4I.4 


January . 




84.2 


78.2 


T J 


J T 


88.8 


7O.9 




February . 


30.01 


83 


77-5 


4 


3-9 


86 


71.8 


145 


March . . . 


30-03 


81 


76 


5 


4 


85 


69 


143 


April .... 


30.091 


80 


76 


4 


3 


83 


68 


145 


May . . . 


30.18 


79 


72 


3-3 


3-3 


82 


64 


137 


June .... 


30.33 


74-3 


70.3 


5-2 


4.1 


77.75 


61.5 


I3I.I 


July 


30.386 


72.8 


70.7 


3-S 


3-8 


75-9 


60.9 


I29.4 


August . . . 


30.365 


74-3 


69.1 


3-9 


4.6 


75-6 


61.3 


132.8 


September 


30.30 


75 


70 


3 


4 


78 


62 


135 



In the interior of the country the readings are 
very much lower in every particular, except, per- 
haps, in the amount of the cloud. The land be- 
ing elevated 3,000 or 4,000 feet above the sea, so 
far tempers the climate that, although within 
the tropics, the heat is not much greater than in 
countries in the lower temperate zones; and al- 
though ice and snow are never seen, and hoar- 
frost only occasionally, yet the climate in the 
winter months may be said to be cold. The dry 
and cold season commences generally in April, 
and continues till the middle or end of November. 
During this time very little rain falls, but the air 
nearly every morning is charged with a thick, 
penetrating mist. However, occasionally in July 
and August the prevailing southeast wind sud- 



434 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

denly changes to a westerly wind, which blows 
up a dense blue mist, hot and stifling, enervating 
and unhealthy. This is usually followed by a 
thunderstorm, when the wind reverts to its old 
quarter, the southeast, piercing and damp. 

Hailstorms of considerable violence occur, 
doing great damage to the growing crops; and 
occasionally the hailstones are so large as to be 
positively dangerous to life. Sometimes the 
rainy season is ushered in by a high wind, accom- 
panied by a hailstorm, not unfrequently complete- 
ly destroying the rice and sugar-cane in the dis- 
trict in which it occurs. 

The wet season is heralded by one or two 
months' dry mist in the afternoons, entirely ob- 
scuring the distant hills and completely chan- 
ging the usual character of the atmosphere, which 
is generally so transparent that hills and trees at 
great distances can be seen with the greatest dis- 
tinctness. "This is the time of year when the 
air contains the least amount of moisture. At 
this period the ground becomes parched, the grass 
is scorched up, and almost everything, except 
shrubs and trees with deep roots, withers and dies. 
Sickness also is prevalent, and chest complaints 
often abound." About six weeks before the 
rainy season really sets in there occurs frequent- 
ly a week of rains, which the natives call the 



METEOROLOGY. 435 

" leader of the rains," or "the former rain," after 
which the weather remains calm and dry until 
the rainy season commences. 

The months from November to April are looked 
npon as the rainy season, during which time, 
after a morning bright and hot, but saturated 
with moisture, the clouds very suddenly collect 
about two o'clock, and the rain commences at 
half-past, or three, continuing far into the night. 
But although in the centre of an island, nearly 
the whole of which is within the tropics, it is a 
fallacy to suppose that the rains are very great in 
aggregate quantity. It certainly rains occasion- 
ally very much harder than is usual in temperate 
climates; but the total rainfall is not so great as is 
registered in some parts of England. The average 
number of days on which any rain falls appears 
to be between 100 and no days, and the amount 
precipitated to average 50 or 52 inches; while in 
some western parts of England, among the hills, 
the annual rainfall amounts to 80 or 100 inches. 
The difference between the high register of rain 
on the coast, 94 or 95 inches, and the small 
amount on the table-land, is accounted for by the 
fact that the clouds and moisture, being driven 
up from the sea, become condensed in passing 
over the forest belt on the slopes of the plateau, 
and are precipitated before reaching the treeless 



436 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE). 

plains of the interior. The rainfall is distributed 
through the year as follows: 



Date. 


Number of 
d&ys 011 wliich 
rain fell. 


Amount of 
Rainfall. 


October, 1882 


4 


1.72 inches 






7.60 






15 


7.09 






3° 


16.86 


tt 


16 


7.12 




March " 


*9 


9.04 


<( 


April " 


4 


.88 


«( 


May " 


4 


i-59 


«« 


June " 


1 


•33 


<< 


July u 


5 


.21 


u 




1 


.07 


<< 


Totals 


1 10 


52.51 " 



During the rainy season waterspouts are not 
uncommon in and around Imerina; and in the 
capital one or two of the cannon in the battery 
at Andohalo are kept loaded in order to break any 
waterspout suddenly rising from the vast expanse 
of water in the river, lakes, and rice-plains in 
the valley below the city, by the concussion in 
the air caused by the discharge. It is no uncom- 
mon thing for whirlwinds and waterspouts to 
pass over a village, completely destroying it and 
seriously injuring the inhabitants. 

Fortunately, hurricanes are not of frequent 
occurrence in Madagascar. I have experienced 
but one during sixteen years' residence. When 
they do occur they take the character of the cy- 



METEOROLOGY. 



437 



clones so dreaded in trie neighborhood of Mauri- 
tius, travelling in a certain direction, but having 
a rapid circular motion at the same time. Houses, 
chapels, trees, growing crops, are all swept clean 
from the course of these storms, and much loss of 
life from exposure, as well as from falling houses, 
is the result. But every rainy season we are sub- 
ject to terribly fierce winds, preceding the vio- 
lent thunderstorms, accompanied by hail or rain. 
"These heavy blasts of wind are never of long 
duration, seldom lasting longer than ten minutes; 
but while they continue they seem as if they 
would carry everything before them. Occasion- 
ally they disperse the threatened rain altogether; 
but often they are accompanied and followed by 
a heavy downpour, deluging the town with water, 
w T hile there is scarcely a house whose roof does 
not leak more or less. It is a grand sight to watch 
the approach of these storms. In front of them 
there is a long horizontal roll of dark cloud, fol- 
lowed by a smooth, bluish-black background. 
The lightning darts about w T ith dazzling bright- 
ness, followed by long peals of rolling and crack- 
ling thunder. As the storm advances the long 
roll of cloud changes its shape, while tattered 
shreds are torn away and scattered abroad in fleecy 
fragments. It advances with steady and rapid 
speed, and as it reaches the town, lays hold of 



438 MADAGASCAR AND FRANCE. 

the thatch of the houses, lifts it up or tears it off, 
threatening destruction to everything in its way, 
while the heavy roll of the thunder is deadened by 
the fierce blasts of the wind and the roar of the 
rain like the ' noise of rushing waters. ' While it 
lasts it is fearful; fortunately, a few minutes suf- 
fice, and as a rule it is confined to a very small 
area, passing over one end of the town, and proba- 
bly leaving the other end entirely untouched." 
These sudden and local storms are most probably 
caused by the rapid cooling of the air after a hot 
morning, by the sudden fall of rain or hail ; and 
as it cools it rushes forward towards the warmer 
and lighter air beyond at a fearful rate, carrying 
destruction with it. 

Notwithstanding the volcanic structure of the 
island, it is not subject to many or violent earth- 
quakes. I have felt but two or three very faint 
shocks — almost too faint to be perceptible. Last 
year a more severe shock than usual shook the 
capital, and strangely enough occurred at 2 a. m. 
on the morning of the queen's death, July 13, 
1883, thus helping to confirm the old superstitious 
belief of the people that some extraordinary 
phenomenon is sure to occur before the death of 
the sovereign. 



DT469.M26S5 

Madagascar and France; with some account 



Princeton Theological Seminary-Speer Library 




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