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THE SENSES 



WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 



" Christ exalted our whole conception of nature by habitually- 
associating it with the spiritual instruction of man." — Batne. 



-A- 




PUBLISHED BY THE 

AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY, 
28 Cornhill, Boston. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1863, by 

The American Tract Society, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of 
Massachusetts. 



t&r^yb 




riverside, Cambridge: 
stereotyped and printed by h. 0. houghton. 



PREFACE. 



" Consider the lilies," said our Lord to his 
disciples when teaching them some of the simplest 
yet sublimest truths of the gospel. God has 
spread open the wondrous book of his works, 
filled with his own great thoughts, illustrated by 
pictures which only his divine hand could draw, 
and ever speaking to us of his goodness, and our 
duty of gratitude, of love, and of obedience to him. 

It is to this source of instruction and never- 
failing interest that we would attract the young. 
In the study of The Senses, we see how God has 
provided for the enjoyments and the safety of 
the creatures that he has made. What are these 
but hints and prophecies of higher arrangements 
by which he will fit immortal natures for homes 
and happiness in his spiritual kingdom above? 
" For now we see through a glass darkly, but 
then face to face ; now I know in part, but then 
shall I know even as also I am known, 

W. 



CONTENTS. 

I. SIGHT 

CHAPTER I. 

PAGE 

Structure of the Human Eye. —The Pupil. —Red Eyes. 

— Humors. — Muscles. — Lachrymal Gland and 
Ducts. — Protection of the Eye. — Omnipresence of 
God 9 

CHAPTER II. 

Eyes of Fishes and Birds. — Lens with its Fibers. — Eye 
of the Secretary Bird. — Eyes of the Chameleon. — 

— Eyes of Insects. — Prismatic Facets. — Eyes of 
Crustaceous Animals. — Eyes of the Giraffe . . 24 

CHAPTER III. 

Function of Vision. — Refraction of Light. — Color. — 
Magnitude. — Power of Vision. — Spiritual Light . 36 

II. TASTE. 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Tongues of various Animals. — The Woodpecker. — 
Ivory -billed and Golden-winged Woodpeckers. — 
Toucans. — Parrots. — Chameleon. — Rattlesnake. — 
Butterfly. — Taste of Insects. — Tongues of Bees. 

— Cattle. — Giraffe. — Works of God to be studied 47 



CONTENTS. V 

CHAPTER V. 

PAGE 

Structure of the Tongue in Man. — The Tasters. — Be- 
nevolence of God. — Knowledge and Industry of 
Man. — Pleasure of Taste. — The Voice. — Speech. 

— Eloquence. — Government of the Tongue. — Praise 

to God 64 

III. TOUCH. 

CHAPTER VI. 

The Sense of Touch. — Sea Anemone. — The Barnacle. 

— Clio Borealis. — The Angler. — Fishes under con- 
trol. — The Snake. — Insects. — Birds. — The Lion. 

— Proboscis of the Elephant 83 

CHAPTER VII. 

Parts of the Frame on which the Hand is dependent. — 
Bones of the Arm. — Radius and Ulna. — Cavities and 
Tubercles. — Bones of the Fingers. — The Thumb. 

— Muscles of the Hand. — Rapid Movements of the 
Hand. — Covering of the Hand. — Nails of the Fin- 
gers. — The Spider Monkey. — Nerves. — Paw of 
the Lion. — Value of the Hand. — Praise to God . 98 



IV. HEARING. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Sound. — Air a Medium of Sound. — Sound conveyed 
by solid Bodies. — Sonorous Bodies. — Vibrations. — 
External Structure of the Ear. — Internal Structure. 
— The Bones. — Tympanum. — The Labyrinth and 
Cochlea . 119 



PAGE 



vi CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER IX. 

The Sense of Hearing in inferior Animals. — Sense of Hear- 
ing in Reptiles. — Snake Charmers. — Ear of the 
Common Barn Owl. — Hearing in Mammalia. — The 
Long-eared Bat. — Ears of the Horse. — Special 
Provision for the Whale. — The Human Ear. — Musi- 
cal Sound. — Velocity of Sound. — Extraordinary 
Echo. — Echo Lake. — Faith cometh by Hearing . 137 

V. SMELL. 

CHAPTER X. 

Odors. — Fragrance of the Fields. — Odor of Flowers 
and Wood. — Sandal- wood. — The Civet. — The 
Musk Deer. — Duration of Perfumes. — Minuteness 
of the Particles of Scent 157 

CHAPTER XL 

The Organ of Smell. —Nostrils of the Human Nose. — 
Turbinated Bones of the Sheep and of the Seal. — 
Scent of Hounds, of the Deer, and of the Camel. — 
Remarkable Provision. — Scent of Smell in various 
Animals. — in the Vulture, in Fishes, and in Insects 169 

CHAPTER XII. 

The Benevolence of God. — A Child with only one Sense. 
— Preparation for Eternity 187 



SIGHT. 




THE HUMAN EYE 




SIGHT. 



CHAPTER I. 

Structure of the Human Eye. — The Pupil. — Red Eyes. — 
Humors. — Muscles. — Lachrymal Gland and Ducts. — 
Protection of the Eye. — Omnipresence of God. 

It would be an interesting task to trace the 
sense of sight, from the little creatures in which 
it may first be detected to its most perfect de- 
velopment. At every step of our progress, it 
would become us to adore the attributes of the 
great Creator, which are displayed in the hum- 
blest as well as the noblest of his works. But 
for this there would be required space far be- 
yond our present limits, and a minuteness of 
detail which would not be deemed popular. The 
attention must, therefore, be directed to a sim- 
ple description of the structure of the eye, some 



10 THE SENSES. 

of the varieties which appear in different crea- 
tures, and a few of the most striking facts relat- 
ing to the function of sight. 

Speaking generally, the eye is a globe, or ball, 
admirably adapted to the purposes intended. Its 
first, or outer coat, is called the sclerotic. 1 The 
whole of the back part of the eye-ball, which is 
sunk within the socket to the edge of the trans- 
parent portion, has this covering. It is composed 
of fibers, interwoven in every direction. In man, 
it is flexible, and endowed with great tenacity. 
Its use is to protect the important parts within, 
to preserve the globular figure of the eye, and 
to afford sufficient support to the muscles by 
which it is moved. In all vertebrate animals, 
however, the figure of the eye is not globular; 
and, where this is the case, the sclerotic coat has 
more or less of a bony character. In birds, of 
which the owl is an example, it is surrounded 
by a bony belt, not unlike the frame of a watch- 
maker's eye-glass. This is to prevent that ten- 
dency to the form of a globe, which fluids, on 
compression, naturally assume. 

1 See a a, page 7. 



SIGHT. 11 

The transparent covering in front of the eye 
is called the cornea, 1 which may be compared 
in shape to a common watch-glass. It is some- 
what cup-shaped, and thin at its rim, where it 
joins the sclerotic coat. It appears to be com- 
posed of concentric plates, or coats, one within 
another, like those of the onion, united by a 
compact cellular substance. It possesses few 
blood-vessels and nerves. The union of the cor- 
nea with the sclerotic coat exhibits some diver- 
sity in different animals. In man, the cornea 
slides under the sclerotic coat. In the hare, the 
sclerotic coat divides at the edges, and, like a 
pair of forceps, grasps the margin of the cornea. 
In the whale, the fibers of the sclerotic coat 
pass, in the form of very delicate white lines, 
into the substance of the cornea. In fishes, the 
cornea is nearly flat. 

Dense as the texture of the cornea may 
seem, it is porous, and suffers the escape of 
the fluid behind it, after death. In its healthy 
state, no vessels admitting the red particles or 
globules of the blood are to be observed in this 

1 See b b, page 7. 



12 THE SENSES. 

transparen coat, but vessels receiving the un- 
colored portion exist in abundance. When in- 
flamed, they become so enlarged as to admit the 
colored globules. Disease, if suffered to contin- 
ue, always destroys its transparency, thus effect- 
ually intercepting the rays of lights and causing 
blindness. 

Immediately within the sclerotic coat is the 
choroid membrane ; at its anterior, or front part, 
it gives off a sort of fringe-like structure ; and 
where the cornea joins the sclerotic coat it 




Section of the Bye. a a a, the Sclerotic Coat ; b b, the Choroid 
Membrane, showing the Black Pigment; c, the Cornea; d d, the 
Iris ; e, the Pupil. 

gives off the iris. The iris is a circular mem- 
brane, having a central aperture, termed the pu- 



SIGHT. 13 

pil. Its color varies from gray and bluish-gray 
to hazel, dark hazel, and black. It is the seat 
of what is commonly called the color of the eye. 
The cut shows these different portions of the 
eye in a vertical section ; or, the reader can 
look at his own eye in a mirror, and easily 
understand the outer structure. A modern trav- 
eler states, that he could never understand the 
declaration in the Song of Solomon, " Thine 
eyes are like the fish-pools in Heshbon," (vii. 
4,) till he had visited the East. But there, 
as he observed reservoirs for the purpose of 
containing fish, which, arrayed in their most 
brilliant colors, darted hither and thither, be- 
neath the brightest rays of the sun, he felt that 
the changes of which the human eye is suscep- 
tible had here a lively and beautiful illustration. 
The iris is peculiarly sensible to light. It acts, 
therefore, as a self-adjusting curtain, moderating 
the rays of light, and preventing too large a 
quantity being admitted. The shape of the pu- 
pil varies in different quadrupeds, though, for 
the most part, it is round as it is in man. In 
the cats, that hunt in the gloom, and therefore 



14 THE SENSES. 

require all the light that can be made availa- 
ble, it is long and vertical and becomes round 
at night. In larger creatures, such as the leop- 
ard, the lion, and the tiger, the pupil assumes 
a round form. 

The surface of the choroid coat is covered 
by a black mucous coloring matter, to absorb, 
instead of reflecting, the superfluous rays of 
light, and thus to secure distinctness of vision. 
For the same reason, and in imitation of na- 
ture, the insides of the tubes of telescopes and 
other optical instruments have a coating of black. 
In some quadrupeds, a small space is free from 
this pigment, so that the surface of the choroid, 
or, as some rather consider it, a thin, distinct 
membrane over the choroid, is seen to glisten at 
the bottom of the eye. The eyes of cats glare 
in the light of a candle ; an effect produced by 
the shining of this space without the coloring 
matter. 

Some rabbits, and other animals, have what 
are called red eyes. In this case, the hair is 
white, and the creatures are called albinos. 
Some of the human race have these peculiar- 



SIGHT. 15 

ities. The redness of the eyes in these cases 
is to be traced to the absence of the black pig- 
ment, or rather to the mucous being uncolored. 
Thus the vascular structure, by which we mean 
the arteries, veins, and other vessels of the cho- 
roid, is seen. It is a curious fact, that there 
appears to be some connection between the col- 
oring matter of this mucous coat and that of 
the hair. Where there is a deficiency in the 
one, there is a deficiency also in the other, as 
if the secretion were one and the same. Red 
eyes are always weak, and incapable of endur- 
ing strong light. 

The inner membrane of all is called the re- 
tina. The optic nerve, at its entrance into the 
eye, divides itself into numerous small bundles 
of fibrils, and these spread themselves out, and 
so unite with each other as to form a net-work, 
which is the outer layer of the retina. From 
this substance a very large number of little 
fibers arise, all directed toward the center of 
the eye. These pass through a delicate layer 
of tissue, containing a minute net- work of blood- 
vessels, and from this every fiber receives a 



16 THE SENSES. 

sheath, which covers its extremity. The sur- 
face of the retina is entirely composed of these 
little tubercles, which are closely set together. 
In the retina of a frog, the diameter of these 
nervous fibers is stated at about -5^Vo tn °f an 
inch ; while that of the tubercles is about 7¥ ViT tn 
of an inch. In man, they are stated at from the 

Woo tn to tne srVoth °f an inch. 

The internal cavity of the eye is filled with 
three humors. The anterior portion of the eye 
contains the one called aqueous, or watery ; it 
surrounds the iris, which divides the cavity into 
two chambers, the pupil being the door of com- 
munication. Immediately behind the pupil is 
the crystalline humor, or lens. In man, the 
lens is like a convex magnifying glass ; its tex- 
ture is like hardened jelly ; and it is enveloped 
with a membraneous sac, quite transparent, but 
not adhering to its surface. If immersed in 
boiling water, it becomes dark and hard, and is 
found to consist of concentric plates, formed by 
the combination of delicate fibers. The greatest 
portion of the eye, and the whole of its back 
part, is occupied by the vitreous, or glassy hu- 



SIGHT. 17 

mor. It is of a gelatinous or sticky quality, 
quite transparent, and contained in a very fine 
membrane. This is called the hyaloid, and can 
be separated at its anterior part into two plates, 
so as to form a sort of canal. Internally, this 
membrane is furnished with a large number of 
little cases for containing the vitreous humor, so 
that though the outer part be cut or ruptured, 
the fluid does not escape. 

The globe of the eye is moved by certain 
muscles, arising from the bony walls, and insert- 
ed into the sclerotic coat. One around the eye, 
for raising the globe ; another, for moving it 
downward ; a third, for drawing the orbit in- 
ward, toward the inner angle of the eyelids, or 
the nose ; a fourth, parallel on the opposite side 
of the orbit to the former muscle, for moving 
the eyeball outward ; and three others, which 
demand a particular notice. 

One of them, called the oblique superior, or 
upper muscle, passes through a little pulley 
attached to the bone of the forehead, and runs 
in a slanting manner downward until it is fas- 
tened to the outer coat of the eye. By this 
2 



18 



THE SENSES. 



simple and beautiful arrangement, which is ea- 
sily understood by looking at the cut, the globe 




Muscles of the Eye. At the upper part of the globe is the leva- 
tor oculi, or the muscle for lifting the eye ; at the lower, the depres- 
sor, for moving it downward ; and in the middle the abductor. The 
upper oblique muscle, a, is extended over the upper part of the 
globe, and gradually assumes the form of the tendon, b, which pass- 
es through the pulley, c, fixed to the inner edge of the orbit, d, 
then returning backward and downward, e, is inserted in the scle- 
rotic coat. 

of the eye is rolled by the muscle outward 
and sometimes downward. The other is the 
oblique inferior, or lower muscle, arising from 
the lower edge of the bony orbit, and run- 
ning obliquely backward, to be inserted into 
the sclerotic or outer coat. Another muscle opens 
wide the eyelids, depressing the lower at the 



SIGHT. 19 

same time that it elevates the upper. The en- 
graving gives a profile of it in its natural position. 




Muscle of the Eyelids. 

This muscle is inserted, by a broad tendon, into 
the upper eyelid. 

In addition to these muscles, the orbit, or 
cavity under the forehead, in which the eye is 
placed, contains the lachrymal or tear gland. 

This is situated near the temple, and sends 
out the fluid secreted, forming the tears, so as 
to allow them to trickle over the cornea, by 
several minute tubes. This fluid passes over 
the eye, in order to keep it moist and clean. It 
also washes off any small irritating particles 
which may adhere accidentally to the cornea. 

Most wisely and benevolently is it ordered, 
that the irritation should excite an unusual flow, 
so as to wash the eye more effectually. The 



20 THE SENSES. 

fluid is absorbed by two small openings, situated 
at the internal angle of the eye. These lead 



d 




a, Lachrymal Gland; b, its Ducts; c c, the small Orifices ; d, Lach- 
rymal Duct terminating in the Nostrils. 

into a membraneous sac, whence a tube conveys it 
into the nostrils. What a perfect little contriv- 
ance is this ! a wash-basin and towel, and a spout 
to carry off all the waste water ! 

Abundant provision is made for the protec- 
tion of the eye. Sunk within the socket, it is 
overhung by the brows, which not only give 
expression to the countenance, but also defend 
the eye from violence or accidents. The fringes 
of the hair interrupt the trickling down of the 



SIGHT. 21 

perspiration. The globe of the eye has, also, a 
special defense in the eyelids, which are moved 
by a peculiar set of muscles. They are lined 
by a membrane called the conjunctiva, or join- 
ing membrane, which unites with the sclerotic 
coat, the blood-vessels of each intermingling 
freely. The edges of these lids are fringed with 
a row of hairs, termed eyelashes, which form 
a screen against dust, or too bright a glare of 
light. They are kept moist by the secretion 
of small glands arranged along them. The eye- 
lids wipe the surface of the eye, protect it from 
injury, and close together during sleep. They 
are natural curtains, involuntarily open during 
the hours of toil, and as involuntarily drawn 
during the repose of exhausted nature. Though 
capable of being closed voluntarily, they close 
involuntarily, by an instinctive energy, when the 
eye is threatened, as if to afford it special pro- 
tection. How carefully has God protected the 
eye from injury ! And shall we not pray with 
the Psalmist, " Keep me as the apple of the eye, 
hide me under the shadow of thy wings." 
And now, having thus hastily sketched an 



22 THE SENSES. 

outline of the eye, shall He be forgotten who 
constructed this wondrous and admirable organ, 
who adapted it to the material world around, 
and who made it one of the inlets of knowl- 
edge to the mind ? So let it not be. Most 
impressively does it tell us of the perfections 
of God, and remind us that he is about our 
path and our bed, and is acquainted with all 
our ways. " He that formed the eye, shall he 
not see ? " Well may we adopt the language 
of the Psalmist : — 

<k Such knowledge is too wonderful for me ; 
It is high, I can not attain unto it. 
Whither shall I go from thy Spirit? 
Or whither shall I flee from thy presence? 
If I ascend up into heaven, thou art there: 
If 1 make my bed in hell, behold, thou art there. 
If I take the wings of the morning, 
And dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea ; 
Even there shall thy hand lead me, 
And thy right hand shall hold me. 
If I say, Surely the darkness shall cover me ; 
Even the night shall be light about me. 
Yea, the darkness hideth not from thee; 
But the night shineth as the day: 
The darkness and the light are both alike to thee." 



SIGHT. 23 

And to these inspired words we may add: 

" Then let this thought possess my breast, 
Where'er I rove, where'er I rest; 
Nor let my weaker passions dare 
Consent to sin, for God is there." 



CHAPTER II. 

Eyes of Fishes and Birds. — Lens with its Fibers. — Eye of 
the Secretary Bird. — Eyes of the Chameleon. — Eye8 
of Insects. — Prismatic Facets. — Eyes of Crustaceous 
Animals. — Eyes of the Giraffe. 

No organ of the senses is so important to 
fishes as the eye. It is generally unprovided 
with eyelids, but is capable of being slightly 
turned in various directions. Living as these 
creatures do in a fluid medium, with which the 
eye is always washed, they have no tear glands ; 
but the cornea, which is slightly convex, is pro- 
tected by a delicate continuation of the skin of 
the head, which passes over it. The sclerotic 
coat is very thick and firm, and generally con- 
tains cartilaginous plates in its tissue ; and in 
some fishes it is converted into a cap of bone. 

That the eye in fishes may bring the light to 
a focus or point on the retina in a denser medi- 
um than the air, the power of the crystalline lens 
is increased to the utmost. The aqueous humor, 



SIGHT. 25 

which, being nearly of the same density as the 
surrounding element, would have but a feeble 
power in concentrating the light to a focus, is 
just sufficient in quantity to allow of the free 
suspension and movement of the iris. The vit- 
reous humor, too, though the rays of light 
are more refracted or bent than while passing 
through the aqueous humor, would still be in- 
sufficient ; and hence, the crystalline lens is the 
chief means of bringing the rays to a focus, or 
point of conveyance, on the retina. 

For this a distinct provision is made. Instead 
of being simply convex, as in many other crea- 
tures, it is globular, and though perfectly trans- 
parent, at the same time is very dense. But as 
the focus of this lens is short, in proportion to the 
increase of its refractive power, it is placed 
much closer to the retina than in most animals, 
and the vitreous humor is therefore diminished. 
Both the vitreous and the crystalline lens are, 
in many fishes, kept in their place by a very 
delicate, slender membrane, derived from the 
retina, which traverses the vitreous humor, and 
is inserted in the covering of the lens. 



26 THE SENSES. 

The structure of the lens of fishes is very 
curious. It has been found that the hard central 
portion is composed of a succession of concentric, 
transparent plates, the surfaces of which, though 
apparently smooth, have a luster like that of 
mother-of-pearl. The cause is the same in both 
cases — the occurrence of regularly arranged lines. 
These lines, which mark the edges of the separate 
fibers composing each plate, converge from what 
may be called the meridian of this little globe, to its 
two poles. These fibers are flat, tapering as they 
approach these poles. The breadth of the fibers 
of the outer layer is about the 5,500th part of 
an inch, and they are locked together by tooth- 
like projections. The number of teeth in each 
fiber has been computed, by Sir David Brewster, 
to whom we owe these interesting discoveries, to 
amount to 12,500. The whole lens contains 
about 5,000,000 of fibers ; and, consequently, the 
total number of these minute teeth amounts to 
62,500,000,000. 

Very different from the eye of a fish is that of 
a bird : in the former, the sphere of vision is very 
limited ; in the latter, it is remarkably extensive. 



SIGHT. 27 

The rapid movements of the feathered tribes 
require also a special provision. A variation 
between the extremes of long and short sighted 
vision is necessary. The bird of prey, at a hight 
in the air which almost places it beyond the 
reach of human sight, sees on the surface of 
the earth the mouse on which it determines to 
pounce. With the speed of an arrow it de- 
scends ; and now it perceives its prey as distinctly 
as it did when far remote ; and to the long and 
short sight there is a complete and all-wise adap- 
tation. As we draw out or press in the tube of a 
telescope, according to the distance or nearness 
of the object on which we are looking, so is* 
there on the part of the bird an instinctive 
adjustment of the organ of vision. It contains 
what has been aptly called " a living sponge," 
filling and separating the parts between which it 
is placed, when this is desirable ; contracting and 
allowing them to approach, when this is required. 
Birds are provided with a special eyelid, or, as 
it is called, a nictitating or winking membrane ; 
when at rest, it is neatly folded up in the inner 
angle of the eye. By a peculiar muscle, it can 



28 THE SENSES. 

be brought instantly over the pupil, be retained 
there at will, or be allowed to fold up again. 




Eye of the Secretary Bird, showing the passage of the Nictitating 
Membrane across the Corue.i. 

One of its uses, while sweeping over the eye, is 
doubtless to clear the cornea ; but the most 
'important is, to interrupt the light of day. It is 
very observable indeed in the owl, which, when 
exposed to the light, defends its large eyeballs 
from the glare, by drawing this delicate and 
beautifully contrived curtain over them. When 
the bird is on the chase, during the dusk of 
evening or night, it is folded up, the pupil at 
the same time enlarging, and the eyelids being 
opened widely apart. 

The eyes of animals living both upon the land 
and in the w 7 ater are generally intermediate in 



SIGHT. 29 

form and structure between those of fishes and 
those of the air-breathing classes, which receive 
the rays of light through the rare medium of 
the atmosphere. A curious circumstance may be 
mentioned in reference to the eye of the chame- 
leon. A recent observer of this creature says, 
that nothing struck him with so much surprise, 
in connection with its variations of color, as the 
difference between the tint on one side of the 
body and that of the other. He attributes this to 
involuntary galvanic or nervous currents, distinct 
from and independent of each other, and occupy- 
ing separate halves of the body. The remote 
cause of the difference in color in the two halves 
of the creature is referred to the manner in 
which the light acts on the animal; and the 
different effects are traced to two different cen- 
ters, from which the nervous currents radiate. 

Over these centers, it is said, the organ of vis- 
ion immediately presides, and that we ought not 
to wonder that the action of light has such pow- 
erful effects on the irritable structure of the cha- 
meleon, considering that the eye is most highly 
developed. The eyes move independently of 



30 THE SENSES. 

each other, and convey different impressions to 
their respective centers. The consequence is, 
that when the animal is agitated, its movements 
appear like those of two creatures glued together; 
each half wishes to have its own way, and there 
is no accordance of action. But when the creat- 
ure is undisturbed, the eye which receives the 
strongest impression conveys it to the common 
center, and prevails on the other eye to follow 
that impression, and direct itself to the same ob- 
ject. The chameleon, moreover, may be asleep 
on one side, and on the other awake. Thus says 
Dr. Weissenborn, who came to these conclusions : 
— " When cautiously approaching my specimen 
at night with a candle, so as not to awaken the 
whole animal by the shaking of the room, the 
eye turned towards the flame would open and 
begin to move, and the corresponding side to 
change color : whereas the other side would re- 
main for several seconds longer in its torpid 
and unchangeable state, with its eye shut." 

The simple eyes of insects resemble those of 
higher animals, but the compound eyes may 
well fill us with amazement. These organs are 







The Chameleon 



SIGHT. 33 

two in number. When examined with a mi- 
croscope, their surface appears divided into a 




Group of Prismatic Facets, from the Eye of a Bee. The hairs be- 
tween, them tend to protect the surface from injury. 

multitude of six-sided facets, between which mi- 
nute hairs are generally seen. The number of 
facets is various. Thus, in the ant, there are 
50 ; in the common house-fly 4,000 ; in some 
dragon-flies, upwards of 12,000 ; and more than 
double this number has been counted in other 
insects. As the eyes of insects can not be moved, 
the number of facets appears to compensate for 
this want. Here, however, it may be asked, do 
they see distinctly with every one of these, or 
with only one ? To this it may be replied, that 
the probability is, that only one acts perfectly 
at a time, the insect seeing imperfectly with the 
rest. Thus, w T e perceive in all its distinctness 



34 THE SENSES. 

a part of a landscape, while we see confusedly 
the whole. The eyes of crustaceous animals, or 
those animals covered with a crust or shell, like 
the crab and lobster, for example, are compound, 
like those of insects. In the two compound or- 
gans of the latter there are about 5,000 eyes. 

In all vertebrate animals or animals possessed 
of jointed spines, the eye occupies a cavity, 
more or less surrounded with bone, its walls 
being formed by the frontal bone above, and 
by those of the face below. This cavity is lined 
with a layer, or cushion of fat, on which the 
eyeball reposes. It contains also the muscles 
which move the eye, the lachrymal or tear 
gland, the orifices into the duct, conveying the 
fluid secreted from the eye into the nostrils. 

In man, the eyes, protected by the edge of 
the overarching forehead, from which arise the 
eyebrows, look forward, and have a compara- 
tively bounded sphere of vision. In the lower 
animals, especially the timid and gentle, as 
the deer or hare, each eye is situated laterally, 
looking from opposite sides of the head, and is 
large and projecting. The sphere of vision is 



SIGHT. 



35 



thus extended, so that the approach of enemies, 
numerous as they are, may be more readily dis- 
cerned. In the giraffe, this projection of the 
eye is so great, that, in connection with its lat- 
eral position, the animal is really as capable of 




Byes of the Giraffe. 



seeing behind it as before, as the engraving will 
clearly show. Hence arises one of the great 
difficulties which the hunter experiences of get- 
ting within gunshot. 



CHAPTER in. 

Function of Vision. — Kefraction of Light. — Color. — Magni- 
tude. — Power of Vision. — Spiritual Light. 

It is now desirable to consider the human 
eye as an optical instrument. In doing so, we 
must look again at the part already described 
as the retina — the delicate, transparent, filmy 
web, which is an expansion of the optic nerve. 
This nervous tissue, be it observed, is alone 
sensible to the rays of light. 

Here, however, another fact requires to be 
noticed. When rays of light pass from a rare 
into a denser medium, they are refracted or 
bent out of the straight line in which they nat- 
urally proceed. Thus if you place a stick in 
clear water, it will appear bent. The rays of 
light, therefore, emanating in a straight line from 
a given object, on touching the cornea pass 
through the aqueous humor, which being denser 
than air causes them to be thus refracted. After 



SIGHT. 



37 



passing through this humor they proceed through 
the lens, suffering still further refraction, next 
through the vitreous humor ; and all is so exqui- 
sitely arranged, that they meet at a point, termed 
the focus, on the retina. 

To illustrate this by a simple experiment : let 
a lens be placed in an opening in the window- 
shutter of a darkened room ; then from any ob- 
ject, a tree, for instance, all the light which each 
point sends forth towards the lens will be concen- 
trated in a focal point behind it ; and if a sheet of 
paper be held there, it will have on it an image 
of the tree. 




Lens in the Shutter of a Window, a, the Lens. 

In the same way the retina receives images of 
the various objects placed before the eye. But 



38 THE SENSES. 

if it be asked, How does it take knowledge of the 
rays of light which these objects send forth? 
How is it that it should then convey to the mind, 
not an impression of the rays of light, but of the 
objects themselves ? How does the mind, having 
contemplated these objects, associate them with 
others ? the only reply is, We are aware of the 
fact, but this is all. We know that the exile 
looks at the sea, and thinks of his native land; 
and that the wayworn traveler who sees a flower 
blossoming in the wilderness may adore God's 
power and wisdom and goodness; but the man- 
ner in which these results arise defies the grasp 
of our finite understanding. 

It has often been asked, How is it that if the 
figure be painted in a reversed position on the 
retina, we see the object in its true position ? 
The fact is, that we are misled by the terms em- 
ployed. In truth, the object is not painted on the 
retina at all ; and though the rays of light do 
pass from the top of an object to the lower part 
of the retina, and those from the right of an ob- 
ject to the left, it is not of these rays nor of the 
place where they strike, that the mind takes 



SIGHT. 39 

knowledge. We see no picture but the object 
itself; and as we see the parts of an object in 
the direction of the rays proceeding from them, 
it follows that the eye truly sees objects in their 
natural and relative situation. 

All the hues and tones of color with which we 
are familiar, however varying in their minutest 
tints, or on the same object, are seized upon by 
the eye with exquisite discrimination. Here it is 
aided by none of the other senses ; while, on the 
contrary, its information aids that of touch, 
whence, after due experience, a knowledge of 
bodies is obtained, which neither would com- 
municate alone. Thus touch gives us the soft- 
ness, lightness, warmth, and texture of a feather ; 
sight its color, and, mainly, its form. And hence, 
after being assured of the unfailing connection 
between the qualities appreciable by these senses, 
the sight of a feather brings to mind its other 
qualities. 

As to the general form and condition of the 
surface of bodies, the eye relies on experience. 
It is true, it judges of the roughness or smooth- 
ness of any object by the different degrees of the 



40 THE SENSES. 

illumination or light and shade of the various 
parts composing it. But then, touch was long 
needed to assure the mind of the connection be- 
tween different degrees of illumination and the 
corresponding elevations or depressions of such 
bodies. Thus, after a series of experiments, at 
length relying on the sight alone, the mind be- 
comes capable of accurately judging from the 
impressions received through that medium. 

Having determined the fact as to form and 
surface, the eye is naturally led to an estimate 
of magnitude. The magnitude of an object (or 
the idea thus denominated) is communicated to 
the mind by the size of the angle produced by a 
line drawn from each of the extreme points of 
that object, and meeting in the eye. But as the 
size of the angle thus drawn depends no less 
on the real magnitude of objects than on their 
distance, it must be obvious that the true infor- 
mation is only to be acquired by the assistance 
of touch, and that only after a long series of ex- 
periments. It is easy to see, that if an elephant 
and a sparrow are at the same distance from the 
eye, the angle formed by imaginary lines, from 



SIGHT. 41 

the extreme points of the dimensions of the for- 
mer, converging toward the eye, would be much 
greater than the angle formed by similar lines 
from the latter. But remove the elephant to a 
certain distance, and let the sparrow remain, and 
the angle formed in either case will be the same. 
This is one of the laws of perspective, without 
attending to which, the artist could never imitate 
nature. For, were he to draw an elephant miles 
off, of its natural relative magnitude to a sparrow 
close by, he would outrage truth. The object in 
each case falling on the retina, under the same 
degree of angle, distance in the one case produces 
an angle as acute as proceeds from a minute ob- 
ject near at hand. This, then, shows how neces- 
sary experience is to our information on this 
subject. 

The knowledge of distance, in all its degrees, 
is solely the result of experience. Infants stretch 
their hands to grasp distant objects, as well as 
those within reach. And why ? The sense of 
touch has not yet corrected that of sight, and 
they have yet to learn, by practice, what are the 
relations of size and distance. After all, the 



42 • THE SENSES. 

ideas of distance and of size are more or less 
imperfect, and while sight continues good, we are 
all our life learners. Let a man accustomed to 
land, and habituated to judge of objects in fields 
and woods and vales, where from the eye to any- 
fixed point there is a succession of objects, be 
placed on board a vessel out at sea. Land ap- 
pears ; and if a sailor is asked the distance, he 
tells you with tolerable correctness how many 
miles yet intervene; to the landsman's eye, it 
appears just close beside the vessel. The ex- 
panse of sea, without any succession of objects to 
graduate the distance, is to an inexperienced eye 
extremely deceptive. The distinctness and illu- 
mination of objects assist us in judging of dis- 
tance ; but it often happens, as these characters 
are variable, and depend on atmospheric condi- 
tions, that error, and not accuracy, results from 
the impression. 

How precious is the power of vision ! The 
loveliest scenery of the earth, the most wonderful 
works of art, are lost to him whose sight " the 
drop serene hath quenched." Well might Milton 
sing in plaintive strains, — 



SIGHT. 43 

" Thus with the year 
Seasons return; hut not to me returns 
Day, or the sweet approach of eve or morn, 
Or sight of vernal hloom or summer's rose, 
Or flocks or herds, or human face Divine; 
But cloud instead, and ever-during dark 
Surrounds me : from the cheerful ways of men 
Cut off; and for the book of knowledge fair, 
Presented with a universal blank 
Of nature's works, to me expunged and rased, 
And wisdom, at one entrance, quite shut out." 

There is, however, a more fearful privation 
still ; it is spiritual blindness, an ignorance of the 
things that belong to our peace. Is this the state 
of the reader? Then, while it should be seri- 
ously lamented, because of its guilt, and may well 
excite apprehension, because of its danger, it 
should be remembered that there is still hope 
concerning this thing. The means of cure are 
found in the Word of God, the agency by which 
it can be rendered effectual is the power of the 
Holy Spirit. May He "who commanded the 
light to shine out of darkness," shine into the 
heart, " to give the light of the knowledge of the 
glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ ! " 2 
Cor. iv. 6. 



TASTE. 




TONGUE OF THE GIRAFFE. 



TASTE. 



CHAPTER IV. 

The Tongues of various Animals. — The Woodpecker. — 
Ivory-billed and Golden-winged Woodpeckers. — Tou- 
cans. — Parrots. — Chameleon, — Eattlesnake. — Butter- 
fly. — Taste of Insects. — Tongues of Bees. — Cattle. 
— Giraffe. — Works of God to be studied. 

The design of every created object is worthy 
of its Author. Whenever, therefore, we find any 
thing required to be accomplished for the wel- 
fare of his creatures, then we trace his opera- 
tion. But he ceases to work when he would 
continue to do so without an adequate reason. 
Of this fact we are reminded in connection with 
the sense of taste : in certain instances, it accords 
with the Divine wisdom and benevolence to en- 
dow it with great delicacy, and here it is found ; 
in others, this grant would have been needless, 



48 



THE SENSES. 



and here it is withheld. The various modifica- 
tions of the tongue are also exceedingly curious. 
Taste in birds must be feeble, if it exists at 
all. The skin of their tongue has no tasters, 
found on those of other creatures ; and frequently 
this part is enveloped in a horny sheath ; yet 
among them we shall discover facts well deserv- 




Tongue of Woodpecker— showing also the elastic, hooped muscle 
which moves it. 

ing attention. Thus, the tongue of the wood- 
pecker is, as Paley long since remarked, "a 
particular instrument for a particular use;" and 
"what," he asks, "except design, ever produces 
such ? " This bird lives chiefly on insects, lodged 
in the bodies of decayed or decaying trees. It 
is, therefore, furnished with a hard, angular, and 



TASTE. 



49 



sharp bill for boring into the wood. When, by 
this means, it has reached the cells of the insects, 
its tongue comes into play. No other species of 




Golden-winged Woodpecker. 

bird has such an instrument. The tongue is so 
long, that it can be darted out three or four inches 
from the bill. It is tipped with a stiff, sharp, bony 



50 THE*\SENSES. 

fM<m\\ andy niefeUver, this tip is toothed on both 
sides, like the beard jw an arrow, or the barb of 
once be seen. The bird, 
having opened the retreats of the insects, darts 
forth its long tongue, transfixes them with its 
spear, and draws its prey within its mouth. At 
every point of this process we behold exquisite 
adaptation. That the beak may be sufficiently 
sensible, a nerve perforates the bone by innumer- 
able small canals, so that the horny covering may 
feel in the crevices of the wood and under the bark ; 
and thus the tongue receives its direction, after be- 
ing darted forth with great celerity. To prevent 
the necessity of the bird sticking each insect with 
its arrow, a viscid or sticky secretion bedews the 
tongue, which is poured out from a very large 
gland. The golden-winged woodpecker is abun- 
dant throughout the whole of the United States, 
and is celebrated for its liveliness and activity. 
The ivory-billed woodpecker prefers the top 
of the tallest trees, whence it seldom descends 
to the ground. So great is its strength, that it 
has been seen to detach pieces of bark seven 
or eight inches in length, with a single blow 



TASTE. 51 

of its bill. Beginning at the top branch, it has 
torn off the bark to an extent of twenty or 
thirty feet in the course of a few hours, and 
then looked out for the precise spot where the 
grubs were concealed, immediately renewing its 
blows with great vigor, and giving forth its 
loud notes as if highly delighted. 

The tongue of the toucan, a bird of the Amer- 




Tongue of a Toucan 

ican tropics, is composed of a long, firm, narrow 
cartilage, fringed along each side with a contin- 
ued barb of fine slender projections. These 
are directed forward, and become longer tow- 
ard the tip. The tongue, from its structure 
and inflexibility, can not be used to turn the 
food, or guide it into the gullet ; and hence, 
when the bird seizes any morsel, it is thrown 



52 THE SENSES. 

with a jerk into the widely-opened throat, and 
then swallowed. 

The powers of speech with which some birds 
are gifted are truly surprising. The writer heard, 
a few years ago, a canary, able distinctly to ar- 
ticulate several words, which it was accustomed 
to introduce in the midst of its very animated, 
varied, and melodious song. Parrots of both 
sexes, it is well known, readily learn to pro- 
nounce words. Some of these make extraordi- 
nary attainments. A gentleman in describing a 
parrot of remarkable intelligence and powers of 
imitation says, " Her laugh is quite extraordi- 
nary, and it is impossible to help joining in it 
one's self, more especially when, in the midst of it, 
she cries out, ' Don't make me laugh so ; I shall 
die, I shall die.' Her crying and sobbing are 
curious ; and if any one says, ' Poor Poll, what 
is the matter ? ' she replies, ' So bad, so bad ; got 
such a cold ; ' and, after crying for some time, 
will gradually cease, and, making a noise like 
drawing a long breath, says, ' Better now,' and 
begins to laugh." What a resemblance is here to 
the marked insincerity of many rational beings ! 



TASTE. 53 

"The first time," says the writer, "I ever 
heard her speak, was one day when I was talk- 
ing to the servant at the bottom of the stairs, and 
heard what I then considered to be a child's voice 
call out, ' Payne/ (the maid's name,) ' I am not 
well ; I am not well ; ' and on my saying, ' What 
is the matter with that child ? ' she replied, ' It is 
only the parrot ; she always does so when I leave 
her alone, to make me come back ; ' and so it 
proved, for on her going into the room the parrot 
stopped, and then began laughing, quite in a jeer- 
ing way. 

"It is singular enough that whenever she is 
affronted in any way, she begins to cry ; and 
when pleased, to laugh. If any one happens to 
cough or sneeze, she says, * "What a bad cold ! * 
One day, when the children were playing with 
her, the servant came into the room, and on their 
repeating to her several things that the parrot 
had said, Poll looked up and added, quite plainly, 
4 1 didn't ! ' Sometimes, when she is inclined to 
be mischievous, the servant threatens to beat her, 
and she often says, ' No, you won't.' She calls 
the cat very plainly, saying, ' Puss, puss/ and 



54 THE SENSES. 

then answers, ' Mew ; ' but the most amus- 
ing part is, that whenever I want to make her 
call it, and for that purpose say, * Puss, puss/ 
myself, she always answers 'Mew/ till I begin 
mewing, and then she begins calling ' Puss * as 
quick as possible. She imitates every kind of 
noise, and barks so naturally, that I have known 
her to set all the dogs on the parade at Hampton 
Court barking ; and I dare say, if the truth were 
known, wondering what was barking at them; 
and the consternation I have seen her cause in a 
party of cocks and hens, by her crowing and cluck- 
ing, has been the most ludicrous thing possible." 

With regard to reptiles, as they, for the most 
part, must necessarily swallow their prey entire, 
organs of taste, as in the case of fishes, would be 
of little use. The tongue, therefore, is generally 
an instrument by which the food is seized, and 
conveyed into the mouth. 

The tongue of the chameleon is cylindrical, 
worm-like, capable of being greatly lengthened, 
and ending in a fleshy projection, lubricated with 
a viscid saliva. It is the only part of the creat- 
ure which moves with quickness. With the ex- 



TASTE. 



55 



ception of this projection, forming the tip, it con- 
sists of a hollow tube, so constructed that when 
withdrawn into the throat it is folded in upon 
itself, somewhat in the way in which a pocket- 
telescope is shut up. When fully extended, the 
tongue reaches to a distance, at the least equal to 
that of the animal's body. Its movements are in- 
variably rapid. An insect on a leaf, apparently at 




Tongue of the Chameleon 

a hopeless distance, or a drop of water on a twig, 
disappears, as if by magic, before the chameleon. 
So unerring, too, is its aim, that an acute observer, 
who had kept many of these animals, remarked, in 
the hearing of the writer, " I never knew a cha- 
meleon miss his mark but once, and then the fly 
was on the other side of the glass." 

A very erroneous opinion is often held of ser- 
pents, to which it may be well here to allude. It 



56 THE SENSES. 

is not the tongue which conveys the venom with 
which some are supplied ; neither can they be 
said to sting. The fact is, that in each branch 
of the upper jaw is a long, recurved, pointed 
tooth, traversed by a canal, leading from a large 
gland situated beneath the eye. Here the fluid 
is secreted which passes through the tube into 




Tongue and Fang of a Rattlesnake. 

the bottom of the wound which the poison-fang 
inflicts. The fatal wound is therefore produced, 
not by a sting, but a bite. When the fangs are 
not used, they lie concealed in a fold of the gum. 
When about to bite, the creature raises them up, 
and in the act of biting compresses the poison 
glands, and so distills a few drops of venom in- 
to the wound. 



TASTE. 57 

The tongue of insects frequently differs from 
that with which larger animals are supplied, but 
in the locusts, grasshoppers, crickets, and dragon- 
flies, it is rounded and fleshy, somewhat resem- 
bling that of quadrupeds. The dragon-flies have, 
besides, a sort of palate, formed of a square fleshy 
cushion, thickly set, like the upper surface of their 




Tongue of the Butterfly. 

tongue, with small black tasters, ending in a short 
bristle. Other insects have been observed to have 
a similar provision. The hairs are supposed to 
be mechanically useful in securing food. 

Some organs of insects are adapted to pump 
up the juices from the cups of flowers. Ac- 
cordingly, the tongue is of great length, to ena- 
ble them to reach the store of the nectar. It 



58 THE SENSES. 

has been described by Professor Jones as repre- 
senting, when unfolded, a long double whip-lash. 
If carefully examined under the microscope, each 
division is found to be made up of innumerable 
rings. These are connected together and moved 
by a double layer of spiral fibers, that wind in 
opposite directions round its walls. Each of the 
two long pieces forming this trunk is tubular, 
and, when placed in contact, it is seen that their 
edges lock together by means of minute teeth, 
forming a central canal leading to the opening 
of the mouth. Through this tube it is that 
liquids are imbibed. When not in use, it is 
curled up, and lodged beneath the head. 

The taste of insects must often be very acute. 
"Were any of us to taste the fox-tail grass, we 
should find little, if any, difference between this 
and many others ; and yet the caterpillar of the 
antler-moth will not touch this one, though it will 
devour greedily a great variety of other herbs. 
Other instances of discrimination, preference, and 
dislike, have often been observed. It seems prob- 
able, however, that the sense of taste is the least 
perfect of those enjoyed by bees. Contrary to 



TASTE. 59 

the received opinion, they display, according to 
Huber, little choice in collecting honey ; nor are 
they very nice in the quality of their water, for 
corrupted marshes and ditches appear to be pre- 
ferred to limpid streams, and even to dew itself. 
To this the great inequality of honey is owing. 
The produce of one district differs from another ; 
the honey of spring is unlike that of autumn ; 
and even the contents of one hive may differ 
from those of one that is near. 

Quantity is, however, a great object with bees. 
They soon find, and visit frequently, the spots 
where most is to be found; and they leave the 
hive, much less regarding the fineness or tem- 
perature of the weather than the prospect of a 
scanty or plentiful collection. Let but the lime- 
tree and black-thorn blossom, and they depart 
before sunrise, brave the rain, and return later 
than usual. But when the flowers begin to fade, 
and the scythe has been busy in the clover-fields, 
they are seldom tempted to leave their home, 
even by the most brilliant sunshine. 

Taste appears as possessed of its highest power, 
among the mammalia. Those cattle and other 



60 THE SENSES. 

animals which feed on green herbs have a tongue 
which is large and studded with tubercles, or 
pimples, which may be properly called tasters. 
These are abundantly moistened with saliva, and 
also with a peculiar mucus. A special provision 
is more necessary for these creatures than for 
those which feed on flesh. So great is the va- 
riety of herbs, and so frequently do they grow 
promiscuously together, that, but for their having 
a nicety of taste, they would be poisoned, instead 
of fed. Against this, however, they are defended 
by instinct, excepting only the case of a few 
quadrupeds, which are disposed to crop the young 
shoots of the yew-tree. Generally speaking, 
nothing will induce them commonly to eat any 
plant which is not their natural food. 

In cattle, the tongue occupies the base of the 
mouth. It is firmly held in its situation by 
appropriate muscles. They extend their fibers 
through every part of it, and being intermingled 
with a considerable quantity of fatty matter, the 
tongue has, when cut into, its peculiar appearance 
and taste. It is covered by the membrane of the 
mouth, curiously modified, resembling more the 



TASTE. 61 

cuticle, or scarfskin. The internal layer is 
fibrous and sensitive ; and between the two is a 
soft net-like substance, which seems as a bed for 
the tasters, scattered all over the tongue. The 
use of the tongue, generally, is to dispose of the 
food between the grinders during mastication ; to 
collect it afterward ; and to aid in forming it into 
a pellet for swallowing. It is also the chief in- 
strument in drinking, and forms the canal through 
which the fluid passes in the act of doing so. 
The outer covering of the ox's tongue is harder 
and rougher than that of the horse. This is 
necessary from the way in which its food is 
gathered. 

The tongue of the ox answers also another 
purpose. It helps to collect the grass together, 
and to form it into a roll, before it is brought 
between the pad of the upper jaw and the cutting 
teeth of the lower one. It seems to free the 
mouth from dirt, or insects. It is shorter than 
the tongue of the horse, and yet it is able to per- 
form all those functions which are only imperfectly 
performed, and some which can not be performed 
at all, by the tongue of the horse. The horse 



62 THE SENSES. 

shows his friendship for his companion by nibbling 
him with his teeth; two cows, on the contrary, 
will rub or rasp one another for an hour or two 
at a time. The reader familiar with country-life 
will readily recall this habit of cows in the fields, 
and will admit that no prettier picture of good- 
will can be seen. 

The giraffe, feeding, as it does, on the leaves, 
twigs, and shoots of lofty trees, and especially on a 
species of mimosa, has a tongue specially adapted 
to its purposes. It has the power of motion to an 
extraordinary degree, and at the same time one 
of extension, so as to perform, in miniature, the 
office of an elephant's proboscis. It is indispen- 
sable in procuring food. Coiling its tongue round 
the branches, it draws them down between its 
very movable and flexible lips, and thus nips off 
the tender portions. 

The highest power of taste seems to be con- 
fined to man, and those herb-eating orders of ani- 
mals which masticate, for a long time, their food. 
Carnivorous quadrupeds, accustomed to tear their 
food in pieces, and to swallow it in large morsels, 
can not pay much attention to its peculiar taste. 



TASTE. 63 



The tongue of all animals of the cat kind is used 
for mastication, as well as taste. When, for in- 




Tip of the Tongue of the Lion. 

stance, a lion gnaws a bone, the flesh left on it by 
the teeth is scraped away by sharp and horny 
points, inclining backward, with which the tongue 
is furnished. 

From these various orders of inferior creatures, 
it becomes us to rise to man, in whom the organ 
of taste attains its highest delicacy, and whose 
powers of speech may well fill all, who seriously 
contemplate them, with astonishment and admira- 
tion. While the display of the Divine perfec- 
tions, so apparent in innumerable objects around, 
should not appeal to us in vain, it is of the high- 
est moment that the mind should be attracted to 
the gospel — the gosple of the crucified Re- 
deemer ; the gospel in which whosoever be- 
lieveth shall be saved. 



CHAPTER V. 

Structure of the Tongue in man. — The Tasters. — Benevo- 
lence of God. — Knowledge and Industry of Man. — Pleas- 
ure of Taste. — The Voice. — Speech. — Eloquence. — Gov- 
ernment of the Tongue. — Praise to God. 

The organ of taste in man is the tongue, 
of which the surface is peculiarly sensitive, the 
skin being furnished with a large proportion of 
blood-vessels and nerves. Here a distinct lay- 
er is formed, through which a great number of 




Piece of the Tip of the Tongue, magnified, to show the Tasters. 



TASTE. 65 

tasters pass, and project from the surface, covered 
with a thin cuticle, like the pile or nap of velvet. 
Some tubercles or projections there are, however, 
which can not be called tasters, as those only 
which are of a conical shape are the seat of 
taste. In the fore-part of the tongue these tast- 




Magnified Section of one of the Tasters of the Tongue ; showing the 
Nerves and Blood-vessels. 

ers are visible to the naked eye. They are 
especially so in some cases of disease. Thus, in 
the early stage of scarletina, they become long, 
and of a bright red color, from their minute 
blood-vessels being distended with that fluid. 
As the fever subsides, the points of the tasters 
collapse, and acquire a brown hue, an appearance 



66 THE SENSES. 

which has given rise to the name of " the straw- 
berry tongue." If these be touched with vinegar, 
by means of a camel-hair pencil, they will appear 
to be lengthened by this stimulus ; an effect sup- 
posed to accompany the sensation of taste. 

Pleasure in the act of eating is granted to 
some inferior creatures. A horse, at liberty, 
passes a great part of his waking hours in 
eating. To the ox, the sheep, the deer, and oth- 
er ruminating animals, the pleasure must be 
greatly increased. Nearly their whole time is 
occupied in browsing on their pasture, and 
chewing their cud. Whatever, therefore, their 
pleasure be, it is spread over a large portion 
of their existence. Is there any object of great- 
er contentment than a cow lying upon the soft 
grass under the shade of some thick-leaved 
tree, leisurely chewing her cud ? 

Here, then, we have a fact specially deserving 
notice. The primary use of the sense of taste 
is, obviously, to guide animals in choosing their 
food, and to warn them against receiving noxious 
substances into the stomach. But there is some- 
thing more to be observed. " Why, " as Paley 



TASTE. 67 

has asked, " add pleasure to the act of eating ; 
sweetness and relish to food ? Why should the 
juice of a peach applied to the palate, affect the 
part so differently from what it does when 
rubbed on the palm of the hand ? " Such ques- 
tions can only be answered by referring to the 
pure benevolence of God. Eating is necessary, 
but the pleasure attending it is not necessary. 
The gratification thus enjoyed is peculiar ; it 
depends not only on our possessing the sense 
of taste, but on a particular state of the organ in 
which it resides. The adaptation of the organ to 
the object will be considered happy by those who 
have suffered from fevers, when every taste is 
irregular, and sometimes every one is unpleasant. 
The goodness of God, which is thus apparent, 
may be observed as clearly in other senses. 
Thus, there might have been smell without fra- 
grance, and we might have seen and heard, and 
yet it might never have been said : 

"Thou mak'st all nature beauty to hi3 eye, 
And music to his ear." 

Such special adaptations to render what is neces- 



68 THE SENSES. 

saiy delightful should call forth our highest grat- 
itude. But it will be well to trace the Divine 
beneficence, as illustrated by the sense of taste, 
still further. There is, for example, among plants 
a particular secretion, or substance, in which the 
taste it affords resides. There is, therefore, a 
system of vessels appointed to secrete whatever 
has this quality, and, consequently, a special ar- 
rangement for it. These vessels, and their prod- 
ucts too, are different in different plants, and are 
unnecessary to the existence of the plant itself. 
In like manner, we often find this produce use- 
less to other animals, or else disliked by them, 
and useless also for any other purpose than our 
own pleasure. What a range may the mind 
take, from wheat or rice, to cinnamon or pep- 
per! The former belong to those plants where 
we can not detect the specific source of taste, and 
the latter to others where it is easily separated, 
and where the special organs to produce it can 
also be observed. 

To take one class from the many : the fruits form 
a very peculiar set of productions, united by a 
common bond, which yield gratification to the 






TASTE. 69 

taste. How striking is the succession in which 
they have been destined to appear ! Nor is the 
arrangement less admirable by which we have 
the greatest variety, from those which require to 
be eaten as soon as ripe, to those which we are 
enabled to preserve through an entire year, till 
a new summer comes, to recommence the same 
round. 

Thus far, then, benevolence is manifest, since 
all the useful qualities might have existed under 
one variety, just as the nutritious properties might 
have excluded not only variety, but taste itself. 
But this is not all ; there remains to be noticed 
that marvelous compound, or set of substances, 
which forms the principle of flavor. No chemist 
can tell us what this is ; and yet it is expressly 
appointed in the exercise of the Divine goodness. 
Deprive the finest fruits of their flavor, and they 
are nothing. The peach, or the nectarine, so 
delicious when ripe, is often cast aside with dis- 
taste when an unfavorable season prevents its 
being matured by the beams of the sun. 

It is a remarkable fact, in connection with the 
present subject, that enjoyment is made greatly to 



70 THE SENSES. 

depend on industry and knowledge. Man is thus 
enabled to change the characters and qualities 
of vegetables for his own purposes, so as to form 
new species and previously unknown substances. 
A simple effort now converts an useless wilding 
into a plum or peach. And if the rude ore was 
placed in the earth for man, while all beside was 
left to his own industry, as little can it be doubted, 
that as certain fruits would not have existed but 
for his exertions, so here we see again the benefi- 
cence of God. 

The pleasure of the sense of taste, which duty 
and privilege alike require us to keep fully under 
control, it may further be remarked, is associated 
in a peculiar manner with domestic enjoyment. 
To have met at the same table affords gratification 
amidst the remembrances of friendship ; and to 
meet there again after long absence is a source 
of great pleasure. In some half-civilized coun- 
tries, in which feelings of this kind operate more 
powerfully, and with less restraint, than in our 
own, this hospitable bond forms one of the strong- 
est ties of mutual obligation. Troubles seem to 
vanish at a well-filled table, and cheerfulness and 



TASTE. 7 J 

good-will to make all hearts light and happy. 
Had there been no pleasure attached to a repast, 
independent of the mere relief from the pain of 
hunger, the coarse and equal food would probably 
have been taken by each one apart ; social and 
domestic feelings, far inferior to those now com- 
monly exercised, would have been the result. It 
is indeed difficult to say how much of pleasure, 
and of kindly feeling too, would be lost by a 
change of manners which would simply put an 
end to the social meal, — that meal, which now 
calls all the members of a family to suspend their 
engagements for a while, and to enjoy the cheer- 
fulness which is best reflected from others. 

One remarkable power of the tongue still re- 
mains to be noticed, connected as it is with the 
utterance of vocal sounds. Sound, as is well 
known, is produced by the vibration of air emit- 
ted from the lungs of animals, caused by an organ 
termed the larynx. Mammals, birds, and reptiles, 
are the only animals which, according to this 
definition, possess a voice. But many species of 
other classes produce peculiar sounds, by which 
the individuals are attracted to each other, or 



72 THE SENSES. 

express their wants and feelings. A true organ 
of voice includes various parts : the lungs, bron- 
chi, trachea, larynx, and mouth. The most es- 
sential portions are two vibratile chords, bound- 
ing a slit-shaped opening, called the glottis ; and 
this may be situated at different parts of the air- 
tube in different animals; the part of the tube 
between the glottis and the oral outlet being the 
true sonorous instrument. In mammals and rep- 
tiles the glottis is situated at the end of the 
windpipe, which communicates with the bronchial 
tubes, and consequently the whole trachea be- 
comes, in this class, part of the vocal instrument. 
The admirable apparatus by which man is 
enabled to produce a sufficient variety of sounds 
to answer his purposes, consists of the chest for 
containing air, of the larynx at the top of the 
windpipe for producing the voice, and of the 
short tube of the mouth for modifying it. When, 
therefore, air rushes from the lungs through the 
opening at the top of the windpipe, it causes the 
elastic tips of that opening to vibrate, and to ex- 
cite the tremblings which produce sound. This 
is modified at the will of the individual in a great 






TASTE. 73 

variety of ways ; a variety which is, however, still 
very simple. The principal means of doing this 
appears in the tongue and the lips, which are 
expressly adapted to render sounds articulate. 

The modifications of the voice, easily distin- 
guishable by the ear, are reckoned to be about 
fifty in number, but no single language contains 
more than about half of them. They are divis- 
ible into vowels and consonants; the one class 
being formed by the voice issuing through the 
open mouth, and influenced only by the degrees 
in which this is done ; the other by some inter- 
ruption of the sound. How beautiful in its sim- 
plicity is such an arrangement ! The combina- 
tions that are thus produced are indeed immense. 
Tones of joy and sorrow, the endless variety of 
musical notes that so delight us in their beautiful 
arrangements, all have this simple origin. 

Command is acquired over other muscular or- 
gans of the body, as the feet in walking, or the 
fingers in playing on musical instruments; and 
just so is it obtained over the organs of speech. 
At first, there must be a distinct act of the will 
for every muscular movement ; but the action is 



74 THE SENSES. 

easier each time it is repeated; and, at length, 
habit renders a series of such movements easy 
and prompt in obeying a single wish. The child, 
for example, must exert as distinct and powerful 
an act of the will to pronounce the single syllable 
Ma, or Pa, as, after a little practice, is required 
to double it, or, when there has been a little more, 
will be necessary for the hardest word it can 
utter. So far, however, may the ability improve, 
that an accomplished speaker will pour forth com- 
plete sentences, most powerful and eloquent, in 
rapid succession ; and yet his oratory, fascinating 
and impressive as it is, grew, as the result of 
effort and habit, from the imperfect utterance, 
and the comparatively feeble wish, of a little 
child. 

Speech is, indeed, the peculiar privilege of 
man. His intellect does not more surely indicate 
his sovereignty over the animal world, than does 
the power of expressing his thoughts. So far as 
relates to their wants and desires, their attach- 
ments and aversions, methods may be observed 
of communication between one animal and an- 
other. There are cases, too, in which words are 



TASTE. 75 

uttered by the force of imitation. But speech, 
which alone can embody thought, and cause 
mind to interchange with mind, is confined to 
man alone. It is the product and the vehicle 
of intellectual power. It is the last seal of 
dignity impressed by the Creator on the first 
of his earthly creatures. 

In early times, knowledge was communicated 
by the living voice from fathers to their children. 
These, again, adding to the store, transmitted it 
to their descendants, and thus the amount of in- 
telligence was increased from age to age. Thus 
tradition was for a long time the only history, the 
only source of knowledge. Most admirable, in- 
deed, is the power of speech. But for this, how 
degraded would have been the condition of tlose 
who have been distinguished as the noblest of 
our race ! At the present time, in circumstances 
where language may be said scarcely to exist, the 
people are greatly debased ; while, on the con- 
trary, progress in civilization may be traced as 
one of the results of a larger vocabulary. 

" Thoughts shut up, want air, 
And spoil, like bales unopened to the sun. 



76 THE SENSES. 

Thought in the mind may come forth gold or dross; 
When coined in words, we know its real worth. 
Speech ventilates our intellectual fire; 
Speech burnishes our mental magazine; 
Brightens for ornament, and whets for use." 

Many instances might be mentioned of human 
eloquence. To the records of some we may ea- 
sily turn with pleasure ; but how much greater is 
the effect when we can hear it from the living 
voice ! "When JEschines, the rival of Demosthe- 
nes, struggled in vain to share with him the palm 
of eloquence, he withdrew from the public gaze. 
In his retirement, he had sufficient strength of 
mind to place the oration which caused his dis- 
grace in the hands of his pupils. He watched 
their countenances kindling as they read it, and 
found that, at length, unable to suppress their 
feelings, they broke out into expressions of un- 
bounded admiration. Nor did he check, he rather 
stimulated the glowing emotions of their bosoms, 
exclaiming, "What then would you have said, 
had you heard him deliver it ! " Such freedom 
from jealousy, such pleasure in the triumphs of 
another, even to his own disadvantage, casts great 



TASTE. 77 

honor on the name of JEschines, while the fact 
pleasingly illustrates the influence of the power 
which has been granted to man. 

It is ours, however, to be familiar with a higher 
order of eloquence still — the eloquence of the 
prophets of the Most High, of the apostles of our 
Lord, of Him who " spake as never man spake." 
Here the orators of times past, present, and to 
come, are, and will be, unspeakably surpassed. 
From them gratification and instruction may 
often be derived ; but it is only in reference to 
those who "spake as they were moved by the 
Holy Ghost," and to Christ, in whom dwelt " all 
the treasures of wisdom and knowledge," that it 
can be said, " Hear, and your soul shall live." 

The government of the tongue is of difficult 
attainment ; and yet it is as certainly of great 
importance. The apostle James expressly says, 
that the degree of subjection in which the tongue 
is held is a standard of the power of religion in 
the heart — a measure of our real Christianity. 
" If any man among you seem to be religious, 
and bridleth not his tongue, this man's religion is 
vain," James i. 26. 



78 THE SENSES. 

The whole reasoning of this apostle, in the pas- 
sage referred to, shows the necessity and the dif- 
ficulty of controlling this "little member." As 
the bridle governs the horse, as the helm guides 
the vessel, so the influence of the tongue is great 
in society. It is even " a fire," burning and de- 
stroying ; and " a world of iniquity." No words 
could, therefore, more impressively urge us to 
" set a watch at the door of our lips." We should 
obey the precept of the Psalmist, "Keep thy 
tongue from evil, and thy lips from speaking 
guile ; " and also remember that " the mouth of 
the righteous speaketh wisdom, and his tongue 
talketh of judgment." 

A strong reason for placing such a guard may 
be derived from a recollection of the past. Who 
can refer to the words he has uttered, considering 
them in the light which the Scriptures throw 
around them, without feeling that there is much 
cause for deep humiliation of spirit ? Here our 
sins appear as a great mountain. And only can 
our iniquities be blotted out through "the blood 
of the Lamb." Now Jesus invites us to trust 
in Him with whom the Father is always well 



TASTE. 79 

pleased; and if he is our confidence, we may 
say, " Who is he that condenineth ? It is Christ 
that died, yea rather, that is risen again, who is 
even at the right hand of God, who also maketh 
intercession for us," Rom. viii. 34. Great, incon- 
ceivable great, is this blessedness. 

Thomson has said, as he contemplated the 
works of God : 

"For me, when I forget the darling theme, 
Whether the blossom blows; the summer ray 
Russets the plain; inspiring autumn gleams; 
Or winter rises in the black'ning east; 
Be my tongue mute, my fancy paint no more, 
And, dead to joy, forget my heart to beat." 

And truly, the providence of God, and the dis- 
coveries of his Word, should also employ our 
tongues now, as in them eternity itself will be 
occupied. Our rank in the creation, our unfail- 
ing supplies, our distinguished mercies, our re- 
ligious privileges, alike demand our tributes of 
thanksgiving. On all the followers of Christ it 
devolves, to show forth the praises of Him who 
hath called them " out of darkness into marvel- 
ous light." It becomes each one of them to say, 



80 THE SENSES. 

with the sincerity and fervor of the Psalmist, 
" Bless the Lord, O my soul : and all that is 
within me, bless his holy name. Bless the Lord, 

my soul, and forget not all his benefits. While 

1 live I will praise the Lord : I will sing praises 
unto my God while I have any being," Psa. ciii. 
1, 2 ; cxlvi. 2. And with a modern writer we 
may exclaim : 

"In every smiling, happy hour, 
Be this my sweet employ; 
Thy praise refines my earthly bliss, 
And doubles all my joy. 

" Nor shall my tongue alone proclaim 
The honors of my God; 
My life, with all its active powers, 
Shall spread thy praise abroad. 

"How will my happy spirit mount, 
Confined in flesh no more, 
Up to thy courts, where kindred minds, 
In countless ranks adore! 

" There shall my lips, in endless praise, 
Their grateful tribute pay; 
The theme demands an angel's tongue, 
And an eternal dav-'' 



TOUCH. 




POWER OF THE HAND 



TOUCH. 



CHAPTER VI. 

The Sense of Touch. — Sea-Anemone. — The Barnacle. — 
Clio Borealis. — The Angler. — Fishes under Control. — 
The Snake Insects. — Birds. — The Lion. — Proboscis 
of the Elephant. 

The resources of the Divine Being are infi- 
nite. Hence the amazing variety of the natural 
world, which excites admiration just in propor- 
tion as it is devoutly observed and studied. It 
presents before us not only a vast diversity of 
objects, but also of means by which the same 
end is secured, in different circumstances. We 
have an interesting illustration in the sense of 
touch, the examination of which will amply re- 
ward the attention it demands. 

The little creature which can only be brought 
under inspection by the power of the micro- 



84 THE SENSES. 

scope has unquestionably this power ; while it 
is more observable in other tenants of the wa- 
ters. 

In a walk on the shores of the ocean, when 
the heat of mid -day is past, and the refresh- 
ing sea-breeze invigorates the exhausted frame, 
many objects of interest claim our attention. 




When, for instance, the retiring tide has left 
bare a cluster of weed-covered rocks, with little 
pools between, we are sure of finding some- 
thing worthy of our scrutiny. What an in- 
teresting object is the sea-anemone, or the sea- 
sunflower, as it is sometimes called ! The mouth 
is surrounded by several rows of arms, which 



TOUCH. 85 

are capable of being expanded or contracted, 
or moved about, as may be required. When 
they are fully expanded, the appearance of the 
Creature is very beautiful ; and the effect is 
increased by the fine colors which these arms 
often assume, and which vary in different indi- 
viduals. 

These curious animals are endowed with the 
highest sensibility, contracting not only when 
touched, however delicately, but even when a 
dark cloud passes over the sky, as if apprehen- 
sive of impending danger from the light being 
suddenly obscured. The sea-anemone waits for 
its prey with expanded arms, its instruments of 
touch being ready to grapple it at the moment of 
contact. In clear water it may be watched thus 
engaged, and it is curious to see how the wander- 
ing crab, brought within its grasp, is seized, and 
how firmly it is held. 

In the mollusks, or soft-bodied creatures, we 
detect a similar provision. Thus, from the body 
of the barnacle proceed two rows of stems, six in 
each row, and each of these stems supports two 
jointed arms, with hair-like appendages springing 



86 THE SENSES. 

from each joint, and forming a fringe along each 
little fiber. 

The barnacle can protrude or retract these or- 
gans at pleasure, and move them about with great 
facility. It is by their means that the seizure of 
food is effected. The delicacy of touch possessed 
by them is extreme. They feel the contact of the 
smallest bodies, and infold them in their grasp. 

A little mollusk, called the clio borealis, which 
is sometimes found near the coast of England, 
and which abounds on the Arctic Ocean, is en- 
titled to special notice. It is not more than an 
inch in length. Its head is covered with a man- 
tle, which can be retracted at pleasure, so as to 
expose the mouth, surrounded by three conical 
appendages on each side, like fleshy arms, which 
are instruments for taking prey. Examined by 
means of a microscope, each of these appendages 
is seen to be regularly and profusely covered 
with red points, which, when examined by a lens 
of great power, are found to be distinct trans- 
parent cylinders, covering about twenty minute 
suckers, capable of being protruded, and acting 
as organs for seizing and retaining prey. It has 






TOUCH. 87 

been calculated that the total number of these 
suckers, on the head of a single clio, amounts to 
three hundred and sixty thousand, constituting a 
seizing apparatus, perhaps unparalleled in the 
animal creation. Besides these appendages the 
clio can protrude from its head, even when the 
mantle is closed, two slender horns or feelers, in 
order to ascertain the presence of food ; and, ap- 
prised of it by this means, it prepares its instru- 
ments for securing its captives. 

In general, fishes are not intended to exercise 
the sense of touch. That part of the surface 
which possesses the most acute feeling is the un- 
der side, where the coverings are the thinnest. 
The chief seat of the sense of touch, however, is 
the lip, or end of the snout, which is largely sup- 
plied with nerves ; and perhaps the barbels, 
which, in some species, are appended to the 
mouth, may be subservient to this sense. 

These instruments are remarkable for their 
length and power of motion in the fish called the 
angler, which is said to use them, while lurking 
in ambush, as a decoy to other fishes, that are 
enticed by their resemblance to worms. In its 



88 THE SENSES. 

appetite this creature is most voracious, and as it 
possesses but little power in its breast-fins, and is, 
therefore, not a rapid swimmer, we have here one 
of the instances of compensation, so often observ- 
able, by which the angler may obtain a sufficiency 
of food. The parts referred to appear on its 
head ; they are two long, slender appendages, the 
first of them broad, and flattened towards the end, 
and having, at this part, a shining, silvery ap- 
pearance. 

These fibers are formed of bone covered by the 
common skin, and are curiously jointed at the 
base with the upper surface of the head. The 
first is joined by a process resembling two links 
of a chain, by which motion in any direction is 
obtained, no less than twenty-two muscles being 
provided for this purpose ; the second is united in 
a different way, so that it appears only capable 
of being brought forward or backward. The soft 
parts are abundantly supplied with nerves, and 
thus serve as delicate organs of touch. The uses 
to which they are applied are singular. The fish, 
while keeping close to the ground, stirs up the sand 
or mud, by the action of its fins. Thus hidden 



TOUCH. 89 

by the obscurity produced, it raises these fibers, 
moves them in various directions, by way of at- 
traction as a bait, and the small fishes, approach- 
ing either to examine or to seize them, imme- 
diately become the prey of the angler. Fish of 
considerable size also prove equally acceptable. 

In the time of the Romans, fishes were brought, 
to a remarkable degree, under the control of man ; 
and it appears highly probable that the sense of 
touch, aided by that of sight, contributed to this 
result. In a pond belonging to the emperor Do- 
mitian, each fish is said to have come on its name 
being called. Plutarch describes this as being done 
by the lampreys of Marcus Crassus. It has been 
supposed, however, by M. Arderon, quite as proba- 
ble that fishes in ponds, either by their feeling or 
sight, discovered the approach of their benefac- 
tors, whose coming they were accustomed to ex- 
pect, as that they were sensible of their voices 
calling them. 

Some experiments he made led to this conclu- 
sion. He had frequently struck with his thumb- 
nail against the edge of a glass jar in which he 
kept two fishes. The stroke was not harder than 



90 THE SENSES. 

the beat of the pulse, yet it would cause them, 
in a moment, to dart from the bottom of the jar 
to the top ; though he was sure they did not see 
him. But if he made the same motion, without 
hitting the glass, or if he made a hundred times 
louder noise than the striking of his nail against 
the glass, at a very small distance from it, he 
could not perceive that they were affected by it 
in the least degree. This certainly seems to show 
that a delicate power of feeling supplies them 
with a knowledge of the motion of bodies, when 
their other senses fail. 

Serpents, from their structure, are endowed 
with great flexibility. The vertebral column of 
a snake consists of a series of bones beautifully 
united together ; the head of each vertebra being 
received into a deep cup-like cavity of the suc- 
ceeding one. Thus the animal is capable of twin- 
ing in the most extraordinary manner, and in com- 
mon with kindred creatures, is capable of grasping 
and twining round objects of almost any shape. 
Such a structure must be very favorable to the 
exercise of touch. It has been said of serpents, 
that their whole body is a hand, conferring some 




^€ m / 



Boomslange. 



TOUCH. 93 

of the advantages of that instrument. The slender 
tongue is also used for the purposes of touch. 

In thofe species of lizards which are enabled, by 
the structure of their feet, to clasp the branches of 
trees, as the gecko and the chameleon, and whose 
tails also are adapted for seizing objects, it must 
be supposed that the sense of touch is greater 
than in other reptiles, who have not such an 
advantage. 

Insects are variously endowed with the sense 
of touch. Spiders, for instance, in constructing 
their webs must use their eyes in planning their 
frameworks, but they can not be guided by sight 
in the details. As the spinneret, from whence 
their threads are drawn, is situated behind, they 
must depend, in a great degree, on the delicate 
tact of this organ for the accuracy of their work. 
The claws, also, must have this sense in great 
perfection, for, in making the various rays, as 
well as the cross-lines of a web, the spider al- 
ways guides the thread from the spinneret by 
one of its hind claws, which it can not possibly 
see, as all its eyes are placed forward on the 
head. The harvest spiders, which have only 



94 THE SENSES. 

two eyes, and do not spin webs, use their long 
legs not only to escape from enemies, and to 
pursue their prey, but to explore by teuch the 
objects among which they travel. The chief 
organs of touch in insects, however, are the an- 
tennas or fibers and palpi. 




Antennae and Palpi 

In looking at birds, it might be supposed, from 
the scaly covering of their feet, and the feathered 
surface of the body, that they were not remark- 
able for the sense of touch. Yet, it is certain 
that they possess it in a high degree. In them 
it resides in the mouth, the bill, or the tongue, 
for which purpose there is a copious supply of 
nerves. In water-birds, and particularly in the 
duck-billed animal of Australia, this sense dwells 



TOUCH. 95 

in the coverings of the expanded proboscis of the 
jaws, particularly the upper, where the nerves 
are also very abundant. Such a power must be 
of great importance, to enable them to detect, so 
easily and certainly, the food for which they have 
to grope in the mud and water. 

The mole is provided with an elongated muzzle, 
which acts as an organ for seizing its food. In the 
seal, a long nerve proceeds from below the socket 
of the eye to be distributed to the projecting lips. 
This nerve is composed of forty branches or 
more. The whiskers on a cat's upper lip have 
frequently been noticed, but the importance of 
them in a state of nature, has not been as com- 
monly perceived. They are, in fact, organs of 
touch. As they are attached to a bed of close 
glands under the skin, and each of these long and 
stiff hairs is connected with the nerves of the lip, 
the slightest contact of the whiskers with any ob- 
ject is thus distinctly felt, although the hairs are 
insensible. 

The same provision is made for the lion. The 
whiskers stand out on each side of the animal as 
they do in the common cat ; so that from point to 



96 THE SENSES. 

point they are equal to the width of the lion's 
body. Let this animal, stealing through a covert 
of wood in an imperfect light, pass before the 
eye of the mind, and the use of these hairs will 
at once appear. They indicate any obstacle to 
the passage of his body, and preventing the rustle 
of the boughs and leaves, which would give warn- 
ing to his prey, enable him to move towards his 
victim with a remarkable stillness. In the rhi- 
noceros the soft upper lip is used as the organ 
of touch. 

Perhaps the most remarkable instrument of this 
kind among inferior creatures, is the proboscis 
of the elephant. Most admirable is the structure 
of this instrument. It is composed entirely of 




Extremity of the Proboscis, showing the Finger and Thumb, with 
the Canals. 

bundles of muscular fibers, disposed in order lon- 
gitudinally and transversely, and enclosing two 
canals. These canals are for the purpose of 



TOUCH. 97 

drawing up water, to be afterward discharged 
into the throat, or over the body at pleasure. 
They are, in fact, two self-acting syringes. The 
number of distinct muscles with which the trunk 
is furnished, each having its distinct action, is not 
far short of forty thousand. By their contrac- 
tion or relaxation they are capable of drawing 
up, shooting out, or twisting in any direction the 
instrument they compose. The proboscis is ter- 
minated by a flexible prolongation of the muscles, 
not unlike a finger, and indeed usually so called, 
the end of the trunk being concave, the divi- 
sion between the two canals serving as a thumb, 
against which the finger can press so as to hold 
any small object with the greatest facility. With 
this instrument the elephant can pick up the 
smallest coin, or even a pin. How various and 
wondrous are the works of the glorious Crea- 
tor! 



CHAPTER VII. 

Parts of the Frame on which the Hand is dependent. — 
Bones of the Arm. — Radius and Ulna. — Cavities and 
Tubercles. — Bones of the Fingers. — The Thumb. — 
Muscles of the Hand. — Rapid Movements of the Hand. 
— Covering of the Hand. — Nails of the Fingers. — The 
Spider Monkey. — Nerves. — Paw of the Lion. — Value 
of the Hand. — Praise to God. 

It is now desirable to enter on the examination 
of the principal organ of touch in man — the 
hand. To consider it merely as detached and 
separate, would, however, greatly contract the 
view of its admirable mechanism. A glance at 
those parts with which it is connected, and on 
which its power is so materially dependent, will 
therefore precede an account of its structure. 

To begin with the bones of the shoulder, it 
may be remarked, that they give firm attachment 
to the upper extremity of the human frame, and 
supply origins to the muscles of the arm and 
fore-arm. The square form of the chest, and 



TOUCH. 



99 



the free use of the hand, are greatly owing to 
the clavicle, or collar bone, which runs across 
from the breast-bone to the top of the shoulder. 
The scapula, or shoulder-blade, is flat and trian- 
gular; it lies upon the ribs, and is cushioned 
with muscles. It shifts and revolves in its place 
with every movement of the arm. It has the 




The Scapula, showing its Cavity. 



Bone of the Upper Arm, 
showing the Ball, to fit the 
Cavity of the Scapula. 



power of moving upwards, downwards, back- 
wards, and forwards ; and when these motions 
succeed rapidly, the arm is rotated. 

The upper arm consists of a single bone. The 



100 THE SENSES. 

head is hemispherical, standing obliquely back- 
ward from the bone ; and when received into a 
cavity with which the scapula is provided, a ball- 
and-socket joint is formed. In this there is a 
provision for the rotating or rolling movement 
of the arm-bone, as it is called, on the scapula. 
In other cases, the wrist has a finer and easier 
rolling, but this is from the motion of two other 
bones, the radius on the ulna. 

The radius, or smaller bone of the fore-arm, 
is supposed to be so called from its imaginary 
resemblance to the spoke of a wheel. The ulna 
is placed on the inside of the fore-arm by the 




The Radius and the Ulna, showing their Tubercles and Cavities. 

side of the radius. The upper extremity is large, 
and scooped out in front, forming a cavity which 
unites with the base of the bone forming the 
upper arm. There is a smaller cavity for the 
head of the radius. Here, then, we observe a 
beautiful contrivance. That there may be a per- 
fect use of the arm, two motions are wanted: 



TOUCH. 101 

one at the elbow, backward and forward, like 
a hinge-joint ; and a rotating motion, by which 
the palm of the hand may be turned up at 
pleasure. How, then, is this power secured ? 
Most simply and admirably. The two bones 
of the fore-arm lie along side each other, and 
touch only toward the ends. Only one of them 
is joined to the upper arm, at the elbow; the 
other only to the hand, at the wrist. The 
former, by means of a hinge-joint at the elbow, 
swings backward and forward, carrying with it 
the whole fore-arm. As often, too, as there is 
occasion to turn the palm upward, the latter 
bone rolls upon the other, by the help of a 
cavity near each end of one bone, to which 
there is a corresponding projection in the other. 
If both bones had been joined to the upper arm 
at the elbow, or both to the hand at the wrist, 
these motions could not have been made. But, 
as the first is free at one end, and the second 
at the other, the two actions may be performed 
together. The bone which carries the fore-arm 
may be swinging on its hinge at the elbow at 
the very time that the lesser bone, which car- 



102 THE SENSES. 

ries the hand, may be turning round it in the 
cavities. 

The cavities, and the projections or heads of 
the bones which play in them, are equally en- 
titled to notice. Toward the elbow, a head of 
the radius plays into a socket of the ulna ; while 
toward the wrist, the radius finds the socket, and 
the ulna the head, or tubercle. A single bone in 
the fore-arm, with a ball-and-socket-joint at the 
elbow, which admits of motion in all directions, 
might, in some degree, have answered the purpose 
both of moving the arm and turning the hand. 
The mode adopted by the great Creator is, how- 
ever, far more easy and expeditious. 

The carpus, or wrist, forms the base of the 
hand, and is joined to the bones of the fore- 
arm. It is composed, as may be seen in the 
engraving, of eight small bones, compacted to- 
gether, with none, or with little motion among 
each other, and thus constitutes a solid mass. 
The hand comprehends all, from the joint of 
the wrist to the tips of the fingers. At the 
back part, it is convex, for greater firmness and 
strength; and it is concave before, for contain- 



TOUCH. 103 

ing more surely and conveniently such bodies 
as it can hold. 

The orderly disposition of the bones of the 
fingers into three rows, has led to their being 




Back View of the Skeleton of the Hand. 

called the three phalanges, into which each fin- 
ger is divided ; the whole resembling, in some 
degree, the martial phalanx of the Greeks. The 
first of these phalanges of each finger is united 
to its corresponding part by a simple joint, or 
articulation, which admits only of the hinge-like 
motion of bending and extension. To this first 



104 THE SENSES. 

row succeeds a second, consisting of smaller 
bones, but of a similar character, that of each 
finger being united to the previous one by a sim- 
ple hinge-like joint. Next succeeds the third 
and last row, consisting of still smaller bones, 
with a similar mode of articulation, but less in- 
dependent, and more limited in their movements. 
Such, then, are the fingers, of which the bones 
are alike in all, with the exception of a differ- 
ence in their relative magnitude. Those of the 
middle finger, as it is termed, are the longest 
and largest ; those of the fore-finger next in 
thickness, but not in length ; the bones of the 
ring, or third finger, being rather longer. The 
little finger has the shortest and most slender 
bones. Many advantages are owing to the di- 
vision of the fingers. Suppose they were one 
and undivided, or that the delicate power of 
touch resided only in one, we should lose all 
the aid which, in the exercise of this faculty, 
they mutually give and receive. 

The thumb is situated obliquely, as it respects 
the fingers. It is neither directly opposite to 
them, nor in the same plane with them, but 



TOUCH. 105 

capable of being brought to bear on all, or each 
separately. As it is designed to maintain a 
counteracting agency against the fingers, its bones 
are necessarily thick and strong in proportion to 
their length. They are three in number : the 
first is joined with a bone of the wrist, so as 
to admit of but a limited degree of motion ; 
strength and firmness being aimed at. The sec- 
ond bone is stout and short, and has a large 
base formed into an oblong cavity for its union 
with the preceding. The joint thus formed is 
especially strong and secure, but more confined 
and less expeditious than hinge-like joints in 
general. The third and last bone arises also 
from a base of great extent, hollowed into two 
cavities, into which fit pulley-like projections of the 
preceding bone, forming by this mode of union 
a joint of great strength and tolerable freedom. 
With these bones are connected various mus- 
cles. A muscle consists of minute threads bun- 
dled together. They are placed close and par- 
allel to each other. They are much the same 
in shape, size, and general appearance. Con- 
sisting only of a tender pulp, they are still solid. 



106 THE SENSES. 

The threads, which appear to the naked eye to 
be single, are shown by the microscope to di- 
vide successively into others still smaller. The 
minutest are supposed not to exceed the forty- 
thousandth part of an inch in diameter. Thus 
innumerable fibers are joined together to form 
one muscle, every one being a distinct organ. 
There are said to be not less than four hun- 
dred and thirty-six muscles in the human frame, 
besides those that perform the internal vital mo- 
tions. 

Muscles are throughout the body the agents 
of motion. They have a marvelous property of 
contraction and relaxation, and are governed, 
with some exceptions, by the will. They are 
generally attached at their origin to one bone, 
and are inserted into that upon which they are to 
act by tendons, or small cords, of greater or less 
magnitude and length ; at least, such is the case 
with the muscles of the limbs. It is by these 
agents that the hand is closed and opened, and 
that each finger is moved ; and it is by their 
firmer or slighter contraction that the pressure 
of the grasp is regulated. 



TOUCH. 107 

The principal flexor and extensor muscles of 
the hand, or those used for bending or extending, 
are situated in the fore-arm, of which they con- 
stitute the fleshy portion. Their tendons may be 
easily seen at the wrist, where they pass beneath 
a band, or ligament, which binds them in their 




Muscles of the Hand. 

place as they proceed to their different points of 
insertion. The flexor muscles are situated on 
the inside, the extensor muscles on the back of 
the arm ; and the tendons of the latter are seen 
on the back of the hand, passing to each finger. 
These two sets of muscles have, of course, a con- 



108 THE SENSES. 

trary action. When the flexors close the hand, 
the extensors are relaxed, and vice versa. Be- 
sides the muscles of the fore-arm, there are on 
the palm a number of accessory muscles, flexors 
of the fingers, and especially of the thumb ; and 
also abductors and adductors, muscles to separate 
and draw together the fingers. These arise from 
the fixed bones of the palm, and are inserted into 
the relative movable bones which they are ap- 
pointed to govern. 

Of the rapidity of action, the precision, the 
obedience to the will, which these muscles dis- 
play, we may form some idea by attending to 
the movements of our own fingers, by watching 
the hands of a skillful player on the piano-forte 
running over the ivory keys, or by observing 
other movements, in which the rapidity secured 
is truly surprising. The muscular machinery 
by which the hand and its fingers are moved is 
well adapted to bring before the eye of the mind 
that great Being, whose skill is throughout his 
works so strikingly apparent. The individual 
who can consider this beautiful apparatus without 
feelings of profound admiration, and without the 



TOUCH. 109 

offering of a glowing tribute to the adorable 
Creator, must be insensible indeed. 

The covering of the hand is very remarkable. 
It is a tissue of cellular structure, nerves, arteries, 
veins, and other vessels, over which is spread the 
network of the true skin. But this is not left 
alone ; it is guarded by that thin, transparent 
membrane called the cuticle, or epidermis, — the 
same which is detached in blistering or by scald- 
ing water. The cuticle is thicker on the palm 
of the hand than the back of it, as if it were 
designed to lessen the sensitiveness of that part. 
This is commonly desirable, and, indeed, in the 
hands of those who lead a life of toil, it becomes 
hard, thickened, and almost horny. This state 
is, however, attended by a lessening of the live- 
liness and accuracy of impression. Hence arises 
a want of adroitness, and of the power of regu- 
lating the pressure of the fingers in the holding 
of slight and fragile bodies, which, in such hands, 
are seen to suffer. 

If, however, there appears in one sense an im- 
perfection, there is no less clearly a wise and kind 
law of Providence, by which the laborer and the 



110 THE SENSES. 

artisan are fitted for their daily and useful toil. 
"Were the hands of the farmer or the mechanic 
tenderly susceptible of every impression, he would 
be in constant pain, and be restrained by fear 
from pursuing his rugged work ; but early use 
has accustomed and hardened them to labor ; he 
grasps the axe, the spade, or the plough, with 
indifference ; handles the iron at a heat which by 
others could not be endured ; or thrusts his hand 
among the rough briers and thorns of the thicket 
or hedge-row with impunity. 

The manner in which the tips of the several 
fingers are defended on the back with nails, is 
worthy of notice. These nails grow out of the 
skin from a pulpy root ; and are closely attached 
to the fingers. They appear to be designed not 
only as a defense against injury, but also to act 
as a barrier between the nerves beneath and 
external objects, so as to prevent their receiv- 
ing definite impressions. This is done that the 
whole of the nervous touch may be concentrated 
at the point expressly appropriated to that pur- 
pose, — the under surface of the tips. The nails 
are intended also for other purposes. Man is 



TOUCH. 



Ill 



designed to make use of various instruments for 
the accomplishment of his purposes. The talon 
of the lion, the scraper of the mole, the hoof of 
the horse, and the delicate nail of the human 
hand, are all indications of the same organ, each 
being fashioned according to the use for which 
it is intended. 

As the sense of touch, so refined and delicate 
in man, as a means by which ideas are acquired, 
is not wanted by other creatures, so among them 
it is not found in perfection. The hands of the 

m 




The Spider Monkey 



112 THE SENSES. 

monkey, for instance, are rather to be regarded 
as hook-like in action, the pressure of the fingers, 
with which the thumb concurs, being directed 
against the solid under part of the palm. In 
their case, the thumb is of little importance ; in 
some instances, it is altogether rudimentary, or, to 
speak familiarly, the mere root of a thumb, and 
in others entirely wanting. It is so with the 
spider-monkey, whose tail, however, answers the 
purpose of an additional hand. 

In various creatures, we find a modification of 
the hand which is very curious. One may be 
observed in the bat: the fingers consist of two 
slender bones each, tapering gradually to a point, 
like the extremity of a fishing-rod, and having 
the joints so constructed as to fold down laterally. 
The whole is connected by the membraneous ex- 
pansion which forms the wing, to which the fin- 
gers act as stretchers or supporters. The thumb 
is partially free, and comparatively short, the 
last bone being terminated by a strong, hooked 
claw. With such a high degree of nervous sen- 
sibility is the membraneous expansion gifted, that 
the wing is not only an apparatus for flight, but 



TOUCH. 113 

an organ of sensation, capable of detecting chan- 
ges in the atmosphere, and of aiding the bat in its 
course. 

To mention only one other case, the paw 
of the lion consists of four fingers and a thumb, 
which does not, however, possess the property of 
meeting or antagonizing with the fingers. The 




Paw of the Lion. 

last joint alone has much freedom of motion ; the 
terminating bone of each finger being armed 
with a talon. The talons can be drawn back into 
sheaths, so that the point of each only just peeps 
out, being hid beneath the fur, and raised above 
the ground by a pulpy pad below. Thus the lion 
at play with his mate or his cubs uses an unarmed 
paw ; but when he strikes in anger, the toe ap- 



114 THE SENSES. 

pears with the claw unsheathed, as will be seen 
in the sketch. 

The paw of the cat is similar to that of the lion. 

Inferior creatures are perfectly adapted to the 
circumstances in which they are placed ; but 
knowledge is not their sphere. Their wants and 
desires are merely animal. Man, on the contrary, 
is intended to acquire knowledge, and to advance 
in a course of progressive improvement. And 
for this, he is prepared not only by his mental 
endowments, but by his physical structure. 

It is difficult to overrate the value of the hand. 
Heat and cold, smoothness and roughness, fine- 
ness and coarseness, are among the many sensible 
qualities of matter it enables us to recognize. 
This power depends on the nerves, with which 
the hand is abundantly supplied. These won- 
drous fibers, too delicate for the anatomist to trace 
beyond a certain point, form a net-work which is 
minute beyond conception, so that the finest 
instrument can not puncture the skin without 
producing pain. This nervous tissue is especially 
provided for the pulpy tips of the fingers, and 
hence we find there the actual sense of touch. It 



TOUCH. 115 

is well known that, by applying the tips of the 
fingers to various bodies, the most distinct im- 
pressions are obtained. Alluding to the hands, 
Quintilian says : " Other parts of the frame 
assist the speaker, but these, as I may say, speak 
themselves. By them we ask, we promise, we 
invoke, we dismiss, we threaten, we entreat, we 
deprecate ; we express fear, joy, grief, our doubts, 
our assent ; we show moderation, profusion ; we 
mark number and time." 

In the absence of this faculty, a formidable 
barrier would be raised to human improvement. 
All that knowledge which depends on the ex- 
quisite power of discernment of the fingers would 
then be unknown. We should be effectually shut 
out from all those performances and arts which 
depend on the nice and delicate use of the hand. 
We should be unable to use with any skill the 
pen, the pencil, or the engraving tool. What 
would then be the products of the loom, the 
structure of our machinery, or the furniture and 
utensils of our dwellings ? Our condition would 
indeed be comparatively helpless — that, indeed, 
of abject barbarism. 



116 THE SENSES. 

With what gratitude, then, should we ever re- 
gard this bestowment of a gracious God ! It is 
difficult to conceive how inferior our circumstan- 
ces would have been had there been a different 
termination of the fore-arm to that which has 
been wisely appointed. What the hand is not 
equal to, as desirable to be possessed, it can 
fashion, under the guidance of the mind, and 
thus attain results which the spectator beholds 
with unfeigned astonishment. Let, then, the 
Creator of this marvelous instrument, and of 
" all things visible and invisible," have the praise. 
The powers of the body, and the faculties of the 
soul by which they are directed, should be conse- 
crated to him. On the altar which sanctifieth 
both the giver and the gift, let every reader be 
concerned to present them. Whatever has been 
the guilt accumulated, salvation may be sought 
through the Lamb that was slain. " The blood 
of Jesus Christ, the Son of God, cleanseth from 
all sin." 



HEARING. 




EARS OF THE HARE. 



HEARING. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Sound. — Air a Medium of Sound. — Sound conveyed by- 
Solid Bodies. — Sonorous Bodies. — Vibrations. — Exter- 
nal Structure of the Ear. — Internal Structure. — The 
Bones. — Tympanum. — The Labyrinth and Cochlea. 

It has been truly said by the poet Wordsworth : 

The eye — it can not choose but see ; 
We can not bid the ear be still. 

Were, however, the question proposed, What do 

we hear ? the general reply would be, " Sounds." 

Yet this, as will presently be seen, would not be 

accurate. 

Sound is commonly supposed to be produced 

by solid bodies. We are all familiar with the 

voices of animals, the ringing of bells, and the 

notes produced by musical instruments ; but 

these are merely the means employed. They 

are, it is true, solid bodies, but did they act alone 



120 THE SENSES. 

there would be no sound ; this can only be pro- 
duced by their giving a tremulous motion to the 
air. This may be proved by experiment. For 
instance, if a bell be struck in the air, we are 
aware of the circumstance by the sound it gives 
forth. But if the bell be placed under the re- 




Bell in a Receiver. 

ceiver of an air-pump, and the air be exhausted, 
the hammer may strike, but there will be no 
sound. And why? Because there is no air to 
receive or transmit the vibrations of the bell. 
If, however, air is gradually admitted, as it may 
be, into the receiver, by turning the valve below 
the plate, and the hammer be made to strike, 



HEARING. 121 

the usual sound of the bell will be heard. Here 
the fact is placed beyond all doubt ; it is clear 
that the glass was not the cause of obstructing 
the sound, for it remains as it did when the sound 
was heard ; the air, then, is necessary, in this case, 
to the production of sound. 

But, though the air is by far the most common 
medium of sound, it is not at all times abso- 
lutely necessary. Liquids are capable of con- 
veying the vibratory motion of a sonorous body 
to the ear. Sound can therefore be heard under 
water. Persons accustomed to dive have fre- 
quently taken with them a stone in each hand, 
and on rubbing them together have found a 
loud noise to be produced. Force, or motion, 
is thus transmitted through water, and fish are 
sometimes caught from a knowledge of this fact. 
When the smaller lakes and rivers of Lapland 
or Siberia are completely frozen over, the hardy 
peasant watches attentively on their banks. As 
soon as he perceives, through the clear ice, a 
fish, perhaps at a considerable depth, but lying 
close to the bottom, he strikes a smart blow 
against the firm surface. The result is remark- 



122 THE SENSES. 

able : the impulse sent through the water in- 
stantly stuns or kills the prey, as if the blow 
had been struck without an intervening medium, 
and the fish is drawn up by a hook let down 
through a hole made in the ice. 

Another curious fact, illustrative of the power 
of solid bodies to convey sound, may here be 
mentioned. A gentleman, who had nearly lost 
the ability to hear, was sitting one day near a 
piano,^ while some one was playing, and found 
that as his pipe rested on the body of the instru- 
ment he could distinctly hear all its notes. This 
suggested various experiments. He soon learned, 
in consequence, by means of a piece of hard 
wood, one end of which he placed against his 
teeth, while another person placed the opposite 
end on his teeth, to keep up a conversation, and 
to be able to understand even the least whisper. 
In this way, two persons who have stopped their 
ears may converse with each other, when they 
hold a long stick between their teeth, or rest 
their teeth against it. 

A very simple experiment, equally conclusive, 
may be tried by any one. Let a string be 



HEARING. 123 

fastened by the middle round a poker, and the 
poker be raised from the ground by the two 
ends of the string, and one of these he held to 
each ear ; then, if the poker be struck, the sound 
will be conveyed to the ear by the strings more 
completely than if the air were the only medium. 

Sonorous bodies are those which emit clear, 
regular, and durable sounds. Of these many 
examples will instantly come to mind, as drums, 
trumpets, and stringed instruments. These, and 
similar bodies, are sonorous, because they are 
elastic. When an elastic body is struck, it not 
only returns to its former place, but, gaining 
momentum, or force, it springs out, like a pen- 
dulum, to the opposite side. If, for instance, 
a thin plate of tempered steel have one of its 
ends fixed and the other drawn a little aside, 
then, as soon as the force is removed by which 
the plate is bent, the plate commences a series 
of vibrations, which become smaller and smaller, 
until the plate is again at rest. 

To take another example. If a string, A, B, 
be made fast at both ends, and then pulled to 
C, it will not only return to its original position, 



!24 THE SENSES. 

but proceed onward to d. At the end of this 
its first vibration, it will retain sufficient force to 
bring it to e, and back again to f. The third 
c 



A*m 



Vibrations of a String. 

vibration will carry it only to G, and so on 
through the lessening distances, h, i, k, till 
motion is destroyed by the resistance of the air, 
and it regains it original position, l. 

The vibration of a sonorous body gives to 
the air a tremulous motion. This is similar to 
that communicated to smooth water, by throwing 
in it a stone. A small circular wave is first 
produced round the spot in which the stone falls. 
The wave then spreads, and gradually commu- 
nicates its motion to the neighboring waters, 
thus producing similar waves to a considerable 
extent. The motion of a sonorous body pro- 
duces in the air the same kind of waves, but 
with some difference. As air is an elastic fluid, 



HEARING. 125 

the motion does not consist of regularly extend- 
ing waves, but of vibrations, moving forward 
and backward, similar to those of a sonorous 
body. Another difference appears; the one tak- 
ing place on a plane, the other in all directions. 

It may seem difficult to conceive how sound 
is conveyed to a distance from the backward 
as well as forward motion of the air. But the 
first sphere of undulations, produced immediately 
round the sonorous body, condenses the air, and 
this, though impelled forward by the pressure, 
reacts on the first set of undulations, driving 
them back again. The second set put in motion 
also give their motion, and are driven back, in 
like manner, by reaction. Thus a succession of 
waves occurs in the air, like that of waves in 
the water. The vibrations of sound extend 
much farther than the undulations of the water, 
from the elasticity of the air. 

With these facts before the mind, in reference 
to sound, how may the ear be described ? Simply 
as an organ so constituted as to feel and appre- 
ciate the vibrations produced among the particles 
of the atmospheric fluid ; and it is this which 



126 THE SENSES. 

we call hearing. The structure of this organ, so 
far as regards its various parts, is well under- 
stood, but it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to 
assign to each one its particular function. 

The ear may be said to consist of two portions, 
an external and an internal. The external ear 
varies in shape and in power of motion in most 
animals. In man, its figure is familiar ; its mo- 
tion in him is at most but very limited ; but it is 
not so in the deer, the hare, the horse, the ele- 
phant, and other animals, to whom the sense of 
hearing is given as a warning faculty against 
the approach of enemies. The use of this part 
seems to be that of collecting and concentrating 
the vibrating currents of air proceeding from 
certain points. Hence the horse turns his ear 
to the side from which the noise proceeds, and 
so do the deer and the hare. Many animals 
have a very small external ear, some none at 
all. In birds, the aperture is large, and pro- 
tected by feathers. Fishes have no external ear 
nor orifice. 

The internal parts of the ear are the most 
important, as actually constituting the essential 




Internal Structure of the Ear 




Section of Cochlea, (enlarged.) 



HEARING. 129 

organ. ^ They consist, in quadrupeds, of cavities 
hollowed out in the substance of the hardest bone 
of the skeleton. In a portion of the temple bone 
is a fluid, termed the water of Cotunnius, through 
which the minute fibers of the auditory nerve are 
dispersed. The auditory nerve is a branch of 
the seventh pair, which takes its rise from the 
under surface or base of the fourth ventricle or 
cavity of the brain. It penetrates into these 
cavities, collectively termed the labyrinth, by 
traversing an innumerable multitude of openings, 
which serve as channels to the minute filaments 
into which it divides. This auditory branch, 
when spreading through the labyrinth, becomes 
there soft and pulpy, instead of being in the 
form of a firm cord, as the other portions of this 
and most other nerves become. 

The internal structure of the ear will be best 
understood from the figure on the opposite 
page. A is the external ear, or conch ; from 
this a tube, or canal, b, (meatus auditorius,) pro- 
ceeds internally, in a curved direction, and is 
terminated by a ring, into which is fixed a 
membrane, (membrana tympani,) c, stretched 



130 THE SENSES. 

over a shallow cavity, termed the tympanum, as 
the parchment is stretched over the head of a 
drum. In this cavity are situated four little 
bones, d, but which are respectively named mal- 
leus, or the mallet ; incus, or the anvil ; os orbi- 
culare, or the spherical bone ; and stapes, or the 
stirrup. 

The first and largest bone is the malleus, A ; 
it consists of a head and two projections, of which 




Magnified Representation of the Four little Bones. 

the longest is connected with the temple bone. 
Immediately below the head, we find two minute 
muscles inserted ; one for relaxing, and called 
the laxator tympani ; the other, tensor tympani, 
for tightening, the membraneous expansion, or 
membrana tympani ; by the head, it is united to 
the incus, B. The principal use of this bone is 
to act as a lever, for enabling the muscles attached 



HEARING. 131 

to it to increase or diminish the tension of the 
raembrana tympani, and thus modify the impulses 
of the air which strike upon that membrane. 
Like the succeeding bones, it contributes materi- 
ally to communicate the vibrations, caused by the 
impulses of the air upon the membrana tympani, 
so as to continue them towards the most internal 
cavities. 

The second bone is the incus, b ; into a hollow 
in its body is received the head of the malleus, 
which plays, as the head of the thigh-bone does, 
in the cup-like hollow of the hip-joints. The 
incus has little independent motion ; its chief use 
seems to be as a conductor of sound. The third 
bone, or os orbiculare, c, is the smallest of all ; 
in shape, it is nearly round ; it serves as the link 
of communication with the fourth or last bone, 
the stapes, d. This singular bone is in shape 
a close resemblance of a stirrup (whence its 
name) ; by its point it is united to the os orbicu- 
lare, and its foot fills up the oval entrance into 
the labyrinth. Its use is to communicate the 
impulses of the air, through this oval entrance, 
to the labyrinth. It is, however, at the same 



132 THE SENSES. 

time, the most essential of these little bones ; as 
it has been remarked that, while it remains, 
though the other bones have been destroyed, the 
hearing is not entirely lost, and may even be im- 
proved by time. 

Thus are these four bones arranged in the 
cavity of the tympanum. But there is another 
circumstance connected with the tympanum which 
must not be passed by. From its floor, or lower 
part, a tube, bony at its commencement, and car- 
tilaginous in its remaining length, takes its rise, 
and terminates in the back of the mouth, at the 
side of the soft palate. It is termed the eusta- 
chian tube (see g, p. 128). By this tube, the 
air is admitted into the cavity ; and hence per- 
sons who are dull of hearing are observed to 
listen to a speaker with open mouths, so that 
the little bones of the ear may be acted on as 
freely as possible by the uninterrupted impulses 
of the air, and this they do habitually and uncon- 
sciously. Dr. Paley observes, that the eustachian 
tube answers the same purpose as the hole in a 
drum ; that it would not, for example, have done 
to have made this cavity a vacuum, as the pres- 



HEARING. 133 

sure of the external air would then be liable 
to burst the membrane. Nor yet would it have 
answered the purpose to have made it enclose a 
confined volume of air, which, by contracting 
and expanding, according to temperature, would 
have contracted and expanded that membrane, 
so as to have prevented the due performance of 
its duties. As, however, air is required within 
the cavity, so by this safety-pipe every evil is 
avoided. 

How beautifully has God arranged every part 
of our system so as to conduce to our comfort, 
happiness, and safety ! Thus it is seen that there 
is a chain of bones communicating from the mem- 
brana tympani, or vibratory membrane of the 
tympanum, to the labyrinth, in the complex and 
winding cavities of which the pulpy nerves of 
hearing are distributed. Still further, it is mani- 
fest that this chain is the conductor of the im- 
pulses of the external air, directed upon this 
membrane, which the first bone, by some secret 
law, is appointed also to brace, or relax, accord- 
ing to the modifications of these impulses. 

On referring to page 128 it will be perceived 



134 THE SENSES. 

that the labyrinth is represented with the mem- 
brana tympani and small bones ; but the repre- 
sentation of the labyrinth is to be considered in 
the light of an outline of the cast of the cavities 
of that part, and not of the cavities themselves. 
With this caution, it may be remarked, that the 
labyrinth consists of three parts ; the semicircular 
canals, the vestibule, and the cochlea. 

The semicircular canals, e, are three in num- 
ber, each of them opening into the vestibule at 
both extremities. They are lined with a very 
fine membrane. 

The vestibule is between the semicircular 
canals and the cochlea. It is a chamber with 
several openings, one termed the fenestra ovalis, 
or oval window, already noticed as leading from 
the tympanum, and covered by the foot of the 
stapes, or stirrup-bone. Besides this, and the 
openings leading into the semicircular canals, 
it has also another, which leads to the cochlea, f ; 
besides minute channels for the transmission of 
nervous filaments. The cochlea is a double spi- 
ral cavity, resembling the inside of the shell of 
a snail, or periwinkle ; or it may be considered 



HEARING. 135 

as a tube revolving round a hollow conical axis. 
The cavities thus formed are filled with a pecul- 
iar fluid. 

Who, that has proceeded thus far, is not im- 
pressed with the admirable completeness of an 
organ to which we are so much and so constantly 
indebted ? Well might Cowper say, in one of his 
letters, " It strikes me as a very observable in- 
stance of providential kindness to man, that such 
an exact accordance has been contrived between 
his ear and the sounds with which, at least in a 
rural situation, it is almost every moment visited. 
All the world is sensible of the uncomfortable 
effect that certain sounds have upon the nerves, 
and consequently upon the spirits ; and if a sinful 
world had been filled with such as would have 
curdled the blood, and made the sense of hearing 
a perpetual inconvenience, I do not know that we 
should have had a right to complain. But now 
the fields, the woods, and the gardens, have each 
their concerts, and the ear of man is for ever 
regaled by creatures, who, while they please 
themselves, at the same time delight him." As 



136 THE SENSES. 

we wonder at the perfection of the ear, its adap- 
tation to the wants of man, we call to mind the 
words of the Bible : " The hearing ear and 
the seeing eye, the Lord hath made even both 
of them." 



CHAPTER IX. 

The Sense of Hearing in Inferior Animals. — Sense of Hear- 
ing in Keptiles. — Snake Charmers. — Ear of the Com- 
mon Barn Owl. — Hearing in Mammalia. — The Long- 
eared Bat. — Ears of the Horse. — Special Provision for 
the Whale. — The Human Ear. — Musical Sound. — 
Velocity of Sound. — Extraordinary Echo. — Echo Lake. 
-Faith cometh by Hearing. 

A few remarks are now desirable on the sense 
of hearing in inferior creatures. Of the organs 
for this purpose in insects, we know very little. 
That they are able to receive sounds, is evident 
from many tribes being capable of producing 
audible noises, by which they communicate. 
There seems reason to conclude that the power 
of hearing is, in some way or other, connected 
with the antennae, or horns. 

A distinct apparatus for hearing is found, for 
the first time, among creatures inferior to man, in 
the higher Crustacea. Here, however, it is ex- 
tremely simple. The ears of the lobster are 



138 THE SENSES. 

situated on the under surface of the first joints 
of the second pair of antennae, or feelers. The 
attentive observer may find a prominent tubercle 
formed by its shell, the top of which has a small 
circular opening, covered with a tightly-drawn 
membrane. Behind this opening is placed a small 
vessel filled with fluid, on which a delicate nerve 
is distributed. By this simple structure the 
effect is produced. The vibration of the water 
strikes on the outer membrane, the fluid just 
mentioned partakes of the tremor, and the nerve 
conveys the sensation thus produced to the brain. 
Some persons have considered that fishes have 
no sense of hearing ; but this appears to be erro- 
neous. The internal structure may be observed 
most clearly in the various species of skate. The 
Chinese breed large quantities of gold fish, and 
call them to their food by means of a whistle. 
Sir Joseph Banks used, by sounding a bell, to 
collect his fish. Carew, who wrote the history of 
Cornwall, made a noise with two sticks when 
he wished to feed those he had. A friend of the 
writer's has mentioned to him a similar instance. 
A fish kept in a pond was accustomed to make 



HEARING. 139 

his appearance when called. In some cases, how- 
ever, it seems reasonable to conclude that the 
sense of touch may contribute to such results. 

On attentive examination, reptiles show a 
higher form of the organ of hearing than fishes. 
The latter, being designed to hear sounds con- 
veyed by the water, have only a membraneous 
labyrinth, enclosed in the cavity of the skull, and 
without communicating with the exterior of the 
body. Reptiles, on the contrary, living in air, 
must be enabled to appreciate its sonorous vibra- 
tions, and have therefore organs which are affected 
by sounds of far greater delicacy. Among these 
are detected, for the first time, as we ascend in 
the series of animated nature, a tympanic cavity, 
and a membraneous drum. 

A considerable variation of the power of hear- 
ing appears in different groups. In tortoises and 
some other creatures, it appears to be dull ; but in 
lizards it seems to be otherwise. Thus, it is said, 
there are lizards in the West Indies, often caught 
by boys, who take advantage of their fondness for 
musical sounds to arrest their attention, and then 
throw a little noose over their heads as they perch 



140 THE SENSES. 

in a listening attitude on the branches of the 
trees. In serpents this sense is very acute, and 
these animals evidently derive pleasure from 
musical notes. Of this the persons called serpent- 
catchers, or charmers, who practice chiefly on 
the species called cobras, are fully aware. 

They pretend to draw these reptiles from their 
holes by a song, and by an instrument somewhat 
resembling an Irish bagpipe, on which they play 
a plaintive tune. That music has power over 
them there is reason to believe. One gentleman 
describes the efforts of a snake-catcher, who had 
been sent for to capture a cobra, which some per-, 
sons had in vain attempted to kill. He had in 
his hands, when he arrived, two baskets ; one 
containing tame snakes, the other empty. These 
and his musical pipe were the only things he 
brought; and he was required to leave his two 
baskets at some distance, and to ascend a high 
green mound, having only his pipe. As he be- 
gan to play, the cobra, coiled up in a hole, came 
out gradually and slowly. When it was within 
reach, the snake-catcher seized it dexterously by 
the tail, and held it at arm's length, while the 



HEARING. 141 

cobra, enraged, darted its head in all directions, 
but in vain. Thus suspended, it has not the 
power to raise itself, so as to seize hold of its 
tormentor. In these exertions it became ex- 
hausted, when the snake-catcher descended the 
bank, dropped the creature into the empty basket, 
and closed the lid. He then began to play, and 
shortly after raised the basket-lid. The cobra 
darted about wildly, and tried to escape. The 
lid was shut down again quickly, the music being 
still played. This was repeated two or three 
times, and in a very short interval, the lid being 
raised, the cobra sat on its tail, opened its hood, 
and danced as quietly as the tame snakes in the 
other basket ; nor did it again attempt an escape. 

In the crocodile, the external opening, instead 
of being closed, as in some other reptiles, has a 
firm, hard, movable lid, by which the aperture 
may be either opened or stopped. Thus, while 
basking on the margin of the river, or lying there 
in ambush, it has the power of raising the ear-lid 
to catch any sound ; but when it dives under 
water, it closes the opening by this means. 

The organ of hearing in a bird is nearly the 



142 THE SENSES. 

same in its structure as that of one of the more 
perfect reptiles, such as the crocodile. There 
is still no external ear; yet, in a few rare in- 
stances, such as the bustard, the feathers are 
so arranged around the ear as to collect faint 
impressions of sound. The ears of owls are 
highly susceptible. The cavities within the skull 
are of unusual size, and the outer opening is very 
large. It is concealed between two extensive 
and membraneous valves, from the edges of which 
proceed the feathers which form the outer rim of 
the disc which encircles the face. The leaves 
of this double valve can be thrown apart, so as 
not only to admit freely, but to concentrate every 
slight vibration of the air. The effect is also 
increased by the widely-diffused cavities con- 
nected with the mechanism within. Here is prep- 
aration for its pursuit of prey. During the day, 
the owls remain in their retreat, with their eyes 
half-closed ; but at night, as they go forth to the 
chase, the eyes are fully expanded, and the power 
of hearing is equally vigorous and active. No 
noise escapes that sense ; the faintest sound is 
caught, — even the cry of the mouse, or its rustle 
in the straw. 



HEARING. 1 43 

In ascending from these creatures to the mam- 
malia, we observe an increase of power. One 
remarkable difference appears in the increased 
complexity of the cochlea. Another, that is 
observable in the tympanic cavity, is still more 
remarkable. In the instances now referred to, 
it is very large, and communicates freely, by 
means of the eustachian tube, with the throat. 
Other points of superiority will reward the obser- 
vations of an attentive student. 




The Head of the Long-eared Bat. 

One of the most common kind of bats is that 
which is remarkable for its long ears. These are 
beautifully transparent, and are thrown by the 



144 THE SENSES. 

animal at pleasure into elegant curves. They 
are usually folded under the arm during sleep, 
especially if it be profound. It is said that a 
person who had not seen it in the act of folding 
its ears could never imagine it to be the same 
species when they are fully expanded. 

The sense of hearing in many quadrupeds 
is particularly keen, and seems to be given espe- 
cially to the herb-eating tribes. The elk, though 
not remarkably swift, avoids its enemies by its 
acute sense of sound. A similar power, it is well 
known, is possessed by the stag. The chamois 
and the antelope are still more highly gifted than 
either of these creatures. With the power of 
hearing in hares and rabbits we are all acquainted. 
The ears of the horse demand particular notice. 
The interior of the external ear is covered with 
long hair, which stands across the passage in 
every direction : this is to defend the ear from 
insects, which can only penetrate it with great 
difficulty. Cold air is also prevented from 
reaching the interior of the ear, and the sound 
is moderated, penetrating readily, but not violent- 
ly, so as not to injure the membrane which covers 



HEARING. 145 

the drum. The hearing of the horse is very 
acute. He attends to many vibrations of the 
air, far too slight to impress the human ear. He 
catches the cry of the hounds a considerable time 
before his rider becomes aware of the slightest 
sound. How absurd and cruel is the practice 
of cropping this part ! In itself it is perfect ; to 
cut is to mutilate one of the most beautiful 
parts of these animals. It is more intelligible 
than the eye ; and an attentive observer can tell, 
it is said, " by the expressive motion of the 
ears, almost all the horse thinks and means." 

It is considered that ears rather small than 
large, placed not too far apart, and erect as well 
as quick in motion, show both breeding and 
spirit. If a horse is in the habit of carrying 
one ear forward, and the other backward, and 
especially if he does so on a journey, he will 
generally have both spirit and continuance. The 
stretching of the ears in contrary directions in- 
dicates attention to what is passing around the 
animal, and while doing so he can not be much 
fatigued, or likely soon to suffer from weariness. 

Few horses sleep without directing one ear 
10 



146 THE SENSES. 

forward, and the other backward, that they may 
hear the approach of objects in every direction. 
When horses or mules march in company at 
night, those in front direct their ears forward; 
those in the rear point them backward ; and those 
in the center laterally, or across ; the whole 
troop appearing to be actuated by one feeling 
of regard to the general safety. Such intelligence 
is wonderful, and leads us to adore Him who is 
so manifest in all his works. It is a common 
belief, that when a horse lays his ears flat back 
on his neck and keeps them so, he is most as- 
suredly meditating mischief, and the stander- 
by should beware of his heels or his teeth. The 
ears will be laid back in play, but not so decidedly, 
or so long. A quick change in their position, 
and more particularly the expression of the eye 
at the time, will distinguish between playfulness 
and vice. 

A special provision is made for whales, where- 
by they hear either through the medium of the 
air they breathe, or of the water, in which they 
live. Let the reader consider for a moment the 
difficulties which are here to be overcome. The 



HEARING. 147 

ear of a fish, having no external communication, 
though best adapted to receive the violent concus- 
sions conveyed through the water, could never 
appreciate the more delicate vibrations of the air. 
The common ear of the mammalia would be con- 
stantly deafened by the tumult of the waters. 
What, then, shall be done ? The wisdom of 
God has furnished the reply. The outer opening 
of the ear is made as small as possible, and this 
part only is exposed to receive aquatic sounds. 
The eustachian tube, on the contrary, is very 
large, and opens into the blow-hole, through 
which the whale respires atmospheric air. When, 
therefore, the creature comes to the top of the 
water to breathe, it is this that conveys aerial 
sounds to the ear, and thus it hears sufficiently 
in both conditions. How admirable are the 
arrangements at which we have thus rapidly 
glanced ! 

" Above the earth, around the sky, 
There's not a spot, or deep, or high, 
Where the Creator has not trod, 
And left the footprints of a God." 

In returning from this survey of inferior creat- 



148 THE SENSES. 

ures, to man, his sense of hearing appears most 
admirably adapted to his knowledge and delight. 
The power with which the human ear is gifted 
may well fill us with astonishment. Allusion has 
already been made to a thin plate of tempered 
steel made fast at one end, and the other being 
drawn aside. On this being done, it has been 
proved that the plate begins to sound when there 
are thirty-two vibrations in a second, and at this 
rate of movement the sound which it gives is 
of the same pitch as that of an organ pipe, open 
at both ends, and thirty-two feet in length. By 
vibration is meant, in this instance, the passage 
of the plate from the extreme excursion on one 
side of the point of rest to the opposite. The 
velocity at which sound ceases to be appreci- 
able is not so easily determined. Until recently, 
it was usual to fix it at 8200 vibrations, but it 
has been discovered that acute sounds may be 
distinguished at a velocity of 24,000 vibrations 
in a second. It is possible that the limit may 
be considerably beyond that number. 

It is by a sense so exquisite that we derive 
pleasure from the melodies of nature and of 



HEARING. 149 

art. What observer of nature has not been 
delighted with the song of the lark, which has 
been said, from its admirable structure, " to 
convert the atmosphere into a musical instru- 
ment of many stops " ? That bird can produce 
an exceedingly wild and varied song, a song 
which, though not equal in power and compass to 
that of many warblers, is more varied in the 
whole succession. 

A number of single and separate sounds follow- 
ing one another in quick succession, produce a 
continued sound, as a burning stick whirled round 
before the eye forms a circle of light. That 
the sound may be a single one, nearly sixteen 
separate sounds must follow one another every 
second, and when these are exactly similar, and 
recur at equal intervals, they form a musical 
sound. Of no consequence is it to the production 
of a tone in what way the pulses of the air 
are caused, provided they follow with sufficient 
regularity. The sounds of a stick pulled along 
a grating, are not tones, only because the pulses 
follow too slowly. And whenever a continued 
sound is produced by impulses which do not follow 



150 THE SENSES. 

in regular succession, like those of an elastic 
body, the effect is called a noise. 

The velocity of sound is far inferior to that 
of light. The ax of the woodman working on 
the hill is seen to fall a considerable time before 
the sound of the stroke is heard. In like manner 
the flash of a gun precedes the report. Sound 
travels at the rate of 1142 feet per second, or 
a mile in about four seconds and a half, vary- 
ing little with the density or temperature of 
the air. The pulse at the wrist of a healthy man 
is a convenient measure of time for ascertaining 
distances by the progress of sound. Each beat 
marks nearly a second, and therefore indicates 
a distance of nearly a quarter of a mile. 

A wave of water turns back at any obstacle, 
so that it appears at any distance after the 
reflection what it would have been at the same 
distance beyond the wall, only moving in an 
opposite direction. In like manner, the pulses 
or waves of sound are regularly reflected from 
flat surfaces, and produce what is called an echo. 
The rapidity with which it is returned to the 
spot where the sound originates, depends on the 



HEARING. 151 

distance of the reflecting surface ; and the latter 
may therefore be determined by the former. 

Some echoes are very remarkable. One of 
these is at the palace of a nobleman near Milan. 
About one hundred paces before the mansion 
a small brook glides gently; and over this is a 
bridge, forming a communication between the 
palace and the garden. On firing a pistol from 
this bridge, fifty-six vibrations of the report have 
been heard. The first twenty were distinct, but 
in proportion as the sound died away, and was 
answered at a greater distance, the repetitions 
were so doubled that they could scarcely be 
counted, the principal sound seeming to be saluted 
in its passage by reports on either side at the 
same time. There is a beautiful little lake in the 
Franconia Notch, in New Hampshire, so remark- 
able for its echoes as to bear the name of Echo 
Lake. It is one of the most charming spots in 
the country, and the reverberations which thunder 
back and forth among the mountains, and grad- 
ually die in the distance in quick repeating notes, 
are as startling as they are wonderful. The 
report of a gun, or the faintest tone of the human 



152 THE SENSES. 

voice, even a footfall, is tossed about among the 
high mountains that surround the lake in the 
most vivid manner. 

In concluding these remarks, the importance 
of the sense of hearing, as a means of improve- 
ment, demands particular attention. How much 
valuable knowledge have we thus received ! It 
is only for us to visit those who are deaf, es- 
pecially those who were born so, to have a lesson 
which should excite our gratitude to God for 
granting to us, and continuing in exercise, so 
precious a power. And well may our sense of 
obligation be increased, as we observe the words 
of the apostle Paul : " Whosoever shall call upon 
the name of the Lord shall be saved. How, then, 
shall they call on him in whom they have not 
believed ? and how shall they believe in him 
of whom they have not heard ? and how shall they 
hear without a preacher? and how shall they 
preach, except they be sent? As it is written, 
How beautiful are the feet of them that preach 
the gospel of peace, and bring glad tidings of good 
things ! But they have not all obeyed the gos- 
pel. For Esa.ias saith, Lord, who hath believed 



HEARING. 153 

our report ? So, then, faith cometh by hearing, 
and hearing by the word of God." Rom. x. 13-17. 
Reader ! have you so heard the gospel as to 
have this faith ? It is not yours, unless, under 
a conviction that as a sinner you are lost, you 
have fled to the only Saviour to put your whole 
trust in Him. Should you have delayed the 
exercise of this confidence till now, defer it no 
longer, for all must perish who have not an 
interest in Christ ; and our life is but " a vapour, 
that appeareth for a little time, and then van- 
isheth away." 



SMELL. 




MUSK DEER. 



SMELL. 



CHAPTER X. 

Odors. — Fragrance of the Fields. — Odor of Flowers and 
Wood. — Sandal-wood. — The Civet. — The Musk Deer. 
— Duration of Perfumes. — Minuteness of the Particles 
of Scent. 

Odors demand our first attention, in consider- 
ing the sense of smell. Many highly interesting 
facts will thus be disclosed. Some of these are 
little known, and others are likely to appear 
in a new light. In this way knowledge may 
be improved and increased, — an object worthy 
of constant effort. 

The fragrance of the fields enters largely into 
that delightful group of images which often arises 
in our minds. How are they called up, even 
by the mere names of the country, or of spring 
and summer ! Only let it be imagined that all 



158 THE SENSES. 

the flowers rising from the surface of the earth, 
like a tribute of incense poured forth to its 
God, were stripped in a single moment of their 
odor, and what a loss would there be ! Cold 
and dead would they instantly appear ; and one of 
our pleasures, large in itself from its frequent 
occurrence, would be utterly destroyed. 

The poet Gray felt that odors greatly con- 
tribute to the joys of spring when he said — 
"In vain the golden morn aloft 

Waves her dew-bespangled wing; 
With vermeil cheek and whisper soft 

She wooes the tardy spring; 
Till April starts and calls around 
The sleeping fragrance from the ground." 

The basis of all the vegetable perfumes is 
formed by the volatile or essential oils. These 
are found, more or less, in every part of the 
plant, except the seed. As few organized bodies, 
in their natural state, are without some volatile 
part, so there are not many entirely without 
smell. The odors of flowers will at once occur 
to the reader, but the volatile oil that produces 
them is often most abundant in the rinds of oranges, 
lemons, and other fruits. That it may be easily 



SMELL. 159 

extracted by the slightest pressure is well known. 
This oil is also plentiful in the leaves of mint, 
thyme, and many other sweet smelling herbs. 
Geranium leaves are remarkable for yielding a 
much more powerful odor than the flowers. 

But though we may proceed thus far, let us not 
boast of our knowledge on the subject. Here, 
as in many other cases in the survey of natural 
objects, pride should be abased. Mysteries are 




The Rose. 



constantly met with, which we can not unravel. 
Even in reference to the odor of plants much 
obscurity remains. The senses are gratified by 
the sweet perfumes of leaves and flowers, and 



160 THE SENSES. 

art employs its skill to preserve them. But as 
to the reasons why they are yielded by one flower, 
while another is scentless, or why one is so at 
noon, and odorous in the evening, we know at 
best extremely little. 

Some odors are transient. They are produced 
only during the life of a plant ; are scattered 
as soon as formed, and, when dead, leave no trace 
behind. Such are the orange and the violet. In 
general, the power of smell varies according to 
the hight of the temperature and the dampness 
of the air. When the weather is hot and dry, 
flowers lose much or all of their usual fragrance. 
Even the most odorous among them need to be 
bruised or trampled upon to yield their perfume ; 
but only let a heavy shower fall, and every 
leaf and flower will soon give forth its usual odor. 
The musk plant, for instance, will diffuse its 
peculiar perfume through the air ; and thus it 
will be found, that, when moisture is added to 
the atmosphere, a total change is produced in 
the scent-yielding organs of plants. 

So it is, too, in the driest days of autumn. 
Well has Milton said — 



SMELL. 161 

"Sweet is the breath of morn;" 
and those only who have inhaled its fragrance in 
their early walks are aware how different a well- 
stored garden is a few hours afterward. It is 
before the dew is dispersed that every herb, tree, 
and flower pours forth a stream of the most 
varied and delicious odors. Why there should 
be so great a difference between a thicket of roses, 
when visited in the morn of one day, and in 
the morning of the next, like many other things 
in the vegetable world, is utterly unknown. 

Some odors are called intermittent. Many 
plants are almost entirely without scent during the 
day, but are deliciously fragrant at night. One 
exhibits a very great peculiarity : if exposed to 
the direct rays of the sun, it exhales an aromatic 
odor, but if any thing comes between it and the 
sun, the fragrance is gone, only to return when 
the solar beams are restored. 

Odors are more durable when the volatile 
matter is so shut up in cells and concentrated 
as to be slowly dispersed. Many instances of 
this kind occur in wood and bark. Thus, res- 
inous, woods, such as cedar and cypress, are 
11 



162 THE SENSES. 

fragrant for a long time. Parts where scent 
resides in essential oil long preserve their odor, 
where the oil is but slightly volatile, or the 
wood is thick and hard. In this way, the rose- 
wood of Teneriffe continues to be fragrant, but 
it requires to be rubbed strongly, that heat may 
volatilize the matter which is lodged in its 
very compact tissue. The friction of a turner's 
lathe, in like manner, renders many woods odorous 
which are otherwise scentless. Beech is said, in 
this way, to smell like roses. In other cases, the 
scent escapes rapidly, as in cinnamon and cassia. 

Sandal-wood is highly esteemed in some parts 
of the earth. It is, for instance, the most precious 
commodity for commerce produced in the Sand- 
wich Islands. The king, at one time, monopolized 
the property of these trees, which grow on the 
highest mountains, and required his subjects to 
cut down and bring the supplies, as they were 
wanted, to the coast, at their own toil and ex- 
pense. At a later period, he permitted some of 
his more favored chiefs to share with him in 
this traffic. 

The wood which is used by the Chinese, for 



SMELL. 163 

its agreeable fragrance, in the manufacture of 
fans and other toys, as well as burned by them 
before their various idols, is exported for these 
purposes to Canton and the islands of the Eastern 
Archipelago. On one occasion, some travelers 
observed nearly two thousand persons, laden 
with fagots of sandal-wood, coming down from 
the mountains, to deposit their burdens in the 
royal storehouses. 

All vegetable odors are produced by the 
evaporation of particles of these volatile oils. 
They vary greatly as to consistence. Some of 
them are as thick as butter, whilst others are 
as fluid as water. To be prepared for perfumes, 
they are first purified, and then either mixed with 
a large proportion of water, or distilled with 
spirits of wine. Peppermint-water is often pro- 
duced by the former method, and lavender-water 
by the latter. 

Vegetable odors are usually agreeable to the 
senses; but there are some curious exceptions. 
There are flowers, for instance, of a deep livid 
color, which have a smell so much like that of 
putrid meat, that flies actually deposit their eggs 



164 THE SENSES. 

in them by mistake. Some perfumes act power- 
fully on the nerves, and even the most prized, 
when concentrated, prove offensive. A per- 
fumers shop, although the repository of the 
sweetest essences, is by no means an agreeable 
place. Few persons can bear the fragrance of 
the lilac, especially in a room ; and the jonquil 
and tuberose have proved insupportable when 
the nerves were delicate. De Candolle states, 
that he has seen many ladies faint from carrying 
too large a number of violets on their persons, or 
placing them too near their beds. Many physi- 
cians will not allow flowers in the sick-room on 
account of the supposed injurious effect of the 
perfume upon the patient. 

Odors, it should be remarked, may have an 
animal as well as a vegetable origin, of which 
two examples must now suffice. The civet, 
which is a native of the hottest parts of Africa, 
is celebrated for its musky perfume, which 
is the product of a peculiar apparatus. This 
substance was formerly in great repute ; it was 
an article of commerce, and, to a considerable 
extent, was imported into Europe by way of 



SMELL. 165 

Alexandria and Venice. At a town in Abyssinia, 
great numbers of these animals were kept for 
the purpose of supplying the markets ; and a 
similar practice has prevailed in Holland. In 
certain parts of the East, they are also much 
valued. Some travelers observed, in the palace 
of the ranee, or sovereign princess at Trivan- 
deram, several of them, which were caught in 
the jungles among the mountains. They were 
carefully kept in cages, having a bamboo placed 
perpendicularly in them. Against these they 
rubbed the parts from which the perfume oozes, 
and thus their royal mistress was supplied with 
what she required for her own use, in native 
purity. 

Another creature, remarkable in the same way, 
is the musk deer, which is confined to the con- 
tinent of Asia. It is as large as a roebuck, and 
is a wild, solitary, timid animal, dwelling among 
broken crags and mountain precipices, and ever 
watchful against surprise. It is eagerly pursued 
for the sake of its perfume, which is peculiar 
to the male alone. As soon as the hunter has 
killed one of these animals, he removes the musk 



166 THE SENSES. 

pouch, which is situated on the abdomen, and ties 
it up to be ready for sale. Tt usually contains 
about two drachms. The highest scented musk is 
imported from Thibet and Tonquin. As we pass 
northward, it becomes inferior in quality, and 
almost inodorous. 

In the diffusion of odors, there is a remarkable 
proof of the divisibility of matter. Let, for 
example, the stopper be taken out of a bottle 
of attar of roses, and the scent spreads itself 
through the room. In this case, very minute 
particles escape. Some idea of their extreme 
smallness may be formed from the immense 
number that must be released to perfume the 
whole room. And yet the liquid is really, 
though not sensibly, diminished. 

The duration of some perfumes is, also, remark- 
able. The Empress Josephine, the first wife 
of Napoleon Bonaparte, was extremely partial 
to the smell of musk, and with this substance 
her private apartments were highly perfumed. 
Many years after her death the scent remained, 
and its power, after that lapse of time, produced 
among visitors no little surprise. It is, however, 



SMELL. 167 

more astonishing, that if a small quantity of musk 
be inclosed for only a few hours in a gold box, 
and then taken out, and the box cleaned as care- 
fully as possible with soap and water, it will retain 
the odor for many years, though the nicest 
balance will not be able to detect the slightest 
addition to its weight. 

Most animal and vegetable bodies appear to be 
continually emitting a subtile effluvia, of which 
our own organs do not apprise us, except when 
the odor is highly concentrated. A dog it is well 
known will follow his master through the lanes 
and turnings of a crowded city, and accurately 
distinguish his track from that of any other 
passenger. 

The minuteness of the particles of scent 
which animals are able to detect is most surpris- 
ing. Hundreds of hares have been taken by one 
person, after a chase of two, three, four, or five 
hours : and yet, he says, he " could never perceive 
the least difference in bulk or weight from those ho 
has seized or snapped in their forms." Suppos- 
ing, however, as he says, an abatement were 
made of two or three grains, or even drachms, 



168 THE SENSES. 

after so much fatigue, yet how minute must be 
the division of so small a quantity of matter, 
when it affords a share to so many couples of dogs, 
for eight, ten, or twelve miles successively ! The 
fact is still more curious, when it is considered, 
that a large number of these particles must be 
dissipated in the air, obscured by the perspira- 
tions of the dogs and other animals, or by the 
exhalations of the earth. It is also observable, 
that there is no small difference in the very 
particles of this animal's scent. Sometimes 
they are stronger, sweeter, or more easily dis- 
tinguishable, than they are at others. Nor is 
this difference found only in various animals, but 
often in the same creature, according to the 
changes of the air or the soil, as well as of its 
own conditions and motions. 



CHAPTER XI. 

The Organ of Smell. — Nostrils of the Human Nose- — Tur- 
binated Bones of the Sheep and of the Seal. — Scent of 
Hounds, of the Deer, and of the Camel. — Remarkable 
Provision. — Scent of Smell in various Animals. — in 
the Vulture, in Fishes, and in Insects. 

Civilization appears to have had an effect 
on the power of smell. The organ for this sense 
is smaller in Europeans and similar races of 
people, than in those but little removed from a 
savage state. Thus, in the negro, the nasal 
cavities are larger, and the sense of smell more 
acute, than in the people of our own land; and 
the native American and Ethiopian have a scent 
which can distinguish between a negro and a 
European. The internal nostrils of a chief 
among the North American Indians, mentioned by 
Blumenbach, were of a most extraordinary size. 
The sense of smell is certainly much less devel- 
oped in man than in most quadrupeds ; but it is 



170 THE SENSES. 

well known that the keenest-scented hounds have 
the largest nostrils ; and to this there is a resem- 
blance among human beings, when the power 
is remarkable. 

In all vertebrated animals living upon the land 
the cavity of the nostrils is divided into two, by a 
vertical partition. The whole of its internal 




Section of one of the Nostrils of the Human Nose, showing the 
large cavities over which the pituitary, or moist membrane, the 
blood-vessels, and olfactory nerves are spread. The curved lines 
in the center of the figure represent the cut edges of the moist 
membrane, at the points, when, to secure a larger surface for its 
display, it is spread over several duplications of the nasal carti- 
lages. The passage leading to the eye lies under the lower one. 



SMELL. 171 

surface is lined by a soft membrane, constantly- 
kept moist, and supplied with numerous blood- 
vessels, upon which are spread the ultimate fil- 
aments of the olfactory nerves, or nerves of 
smell. These nerves are much larger in meat- 
eating animals than in those which subsist on veg- 
etables. In quadrupeds, as well as in man, they 
are not collected into a single trunk, but com- 
pose a great number of fibers, which pass sepa- 
rately through minute perforations in a plate of 
bone before they enter the cavity of the skull. 

The surface of the membrane which receives 
impression from odors is considerably increased 
by several thin plates of bone, which project into 
the cavity of the nostrils, and are called the tur- 
binated bones. These bones are curiously folded, 
and often receive a spiral form, with the evident 
design of obtaining as large an extent of surface 
as possible in the given space. 

As the hog in its natural state subsists wholly 
on vegetable food, it resembles herbivorous tribes 
in the form and size of the turbinated bones. But 
they are more simple in structure, being formed 
of single, and slightly convoluted plates, without 



172 THE SENSES. 

partitions or perforations. Here there is a re- 
semblance to the human structure, which ap- 
proaches more nearly to vegetable than to animal 
feeders. Man, indeed, distinguishes more ac- 
curately vegetable odors than those proceeding 
from animal substances ; it is the contrary with 
quadrupeds, which are decidedly carnivorous. 

The spiral-shaped bones are chiefly found 
among herbivorous quadrupeds : the horse, for 
example, has them of a large size, and extending 
the whole length of the prolonged nostrils. Their 
structure is intricate. While they have exter- 
nally the general shape of an oblong spiral shell, 
they are pierced freely on all their internal sides. 
The membrane, with the fine branches of the 
nerves, passes through these perforations from one 
side to the other. The cavities resulting from the 
convolutions are intersected by partitions, which 
are not perforated, serving both to support the 
arches of bone, and to furnish a still greater 
surface for the extension of the membrane. 

In carnivorous or meat-eating quadrupeds, the 
structure of these bones is still more intricate. It 
is calculated to afford a far more extensive 



SMELL. 173 

surface for the distribution of the olfactory nerve. 
In the seal this may be particularly observed ; 
here the bony plates spread out in many branches. 
Eight or more principal branches arise from the 
main trunk ; and each of these is afterwards di- 
vided and subdivided, with such extreme minute- 
ness, as to form, in all, many hundred plates. 
The olfactory membrane, with all its nerves, is 
closely attached to every one of these plates, as 
well as to the main trunk, and to the inner surface 
of the surrounding cavity. Its extent is said to 
be — marvelous to tell — not less than 120 
square inches in each nostril. An organ so ex- 
clusively sensitive requires an extraordinary 
power for excluding noxious vapors at will ; and 
this has been provided by the benevolent Creator. 
The animal can close at pleasure the opening 
of the nostril. 

The qualities of the blood-hound are well 
known. Most remarkable are the acuteness and 
certainty of its scent, and no less so the saga- 
city and perseverance with which it will track 
any object it has been trained to pursue. This 
propensity was, originally, adapted to the chase ; 



174 THE SENSES. 

but, in after-times, it has been applied to the 
tracking of offenders. " In this occupation," says 
the eminent naturalist, Mr. T. Bell, " the intelli- 
gence, acuteness, and determined purpose which 
these animals evinced, were almost incredible ; 
and numerous instances are recorded in which, 
after the lapse of a considerable time, the hound, 
being put upon the scent, followed the wretched 
fugitive for hours, and even days, with a search- 
ing and unflinching pertinacity, which, at length, 
overcame all impediments, and insured the cap- 
ture of his unhappy quarry." In our own country, 
at the South, advantage has been taken of the 
acute scent of the blood-hound in catching the poor 
fugitive slaves who endeavor to escape from their 
masters. Let us hope that this barbarous practice 
will soon pass for ever away with the wicked 
system of slavery. 

The fox-hound will distinguish the scent of the 
fox he is pursuing from that of another fox which 
crosses his path. The red deer have, also, a 
strong sense of smell. Great care is taken, 
therefore, by sportsmen, in their pursuit, to 
advance against the wind, so that their approach 



SMELL. 175 

may not be so easily known. The reindeer has a 
power still more remarkable. The traveler at 
times finds the flatness of Lapland increase as he 
proceeds, and it is difficult to tell whether he 
is moving on land or water, from the uniformity 
of the white surface around. The deer, however, 
are far better judges than he ; for though there 
may be a depth of some feet of snow above 
the ice, wherever he stops for a few minutes on 
any lake, in no one instance have they been 
observed to commence their usual search after 
their food. But when on land, their natural 
quickness of smell enables them to ascertain, with 
almost unerring certainty, whether there is any 
moss growing beneath, which, during the winter, 
is their sole food. It is by the fineness of the 
sense of this animal, that the Laplanders are 
chiefly guided in fixing their different winter- 
quarters. Never do they remain in those parts 
which they know with certainty produce but 
little moss, from the indifference of their deer, 
and the few attempts made by them in remov- 
ing the snow. 

The dogs of the convent of the Great St. 



176 THE SENSES. 

Bernard deserve to be mentioned, from that ex- 
traordinary sagacity which often enables them 
to rescue the traveler from destruction. Ex- 
hausted in the vain search for a lost track, and 
benumbed with cold, 

"He sinks 
Beneath the shelter of the shapeless drift, 
Thinking o'er all the bitterness of death, 
Mixed with the tender anguish Nature shoots 
Through the wrung bosom of the dying man, 
His wife, his children, and his friends unseen." 

But though the snow-drift should cover him 
from human sight, and even rise far above him, 
such is the delicacy of smell in these animals, that 
they will discover him, scratch away the snow 
with their feet, and by their hoarse and solemn 
bark bring the inmates of the convent to the 
rescue of the perishing. 

Travelers tell us that no idea can be formed 
by Europeans of the quantity of water necessary 
for drinking, cooking, and washing, during a 
journey through the countries of Asia with a 
caravan. More especially is it necessary to allay 
the thirst of the traveler, whose palate is con- 




Dog of St. Bernard. 



12 



SMELL. 179 

tinuallj parched by the effects of the fiery ground 
and air ; and who, in addition to having for several 
days a short allowance of water, lives on food 
which is calculated to produce extreme thirst. 
In such circumstances, the extraordinary scent of 
the camel enables him to discover water at a 
great distance; and thus, in the wildest regions 
of the desert, the caravan is often preserved from 
destruction by this remarkable instinct. 

Some animals, it is worthy of remark, have 
a special provision to enable them to breathe when 
drinking, and to assist them when pursued. 
When deer are thirsty, they plunge their noses, 
like some horses, very deep under water while 
in the act of drinking, and keep them there for 
a considerable time. But, to prevent inconven- 
ience, they can open two vents, one at the inner 
corner of each eye, having a communication with 
the nose. Mr. Pennant, to whom Mr. White, 
of Selborne, communicated this fact, replies : " I 
was much surprised to find, in the antelope, some- 
thing similar to what you mention as so re- 
markable in deer. This animal also has a long 
slit beneath each eye, which can be opened and 



180 



THE SENSES. 



shut at pleasure. On holding an orange to one, 
the creature made as much use of these orifices as 
of his nostrils, applying them to the fruit, and 
seeming to smell it through them." 

In some instances, a peculiar form of the nose 
may at once be observed. Such is the case with 
the animal of which a representation is annexed. 




North American Mole. 

Animals which have to pursue their prey 
require larger olfactory nerves, and a more ex- 
tensive surface for their distribution, than the 
vegetable-eaters. As the food of the latter is 
generally near, and as they have only to select 
the plants which are wholesome, they are pre- 
pared to catch odors immediately as they arise. 
The former have often to search out the distant 
lurking-places of their prey, and are, therefore, 



SMELL. 181 

rendered more sensitive as to smell than others. 
Odorous particles widely diffused through the air, 
or adhering to the substances with which their 
prey has come in contact, are, for them, a 
sufficient guide. 

The same rule applies to birds. The olfactory 
nerves of birds of prey are much larger than 
those of birds that feed on grain. Hence the 
latter may easily be deceived in reference to food. 
It is related, for instance, that some poultry, 
usually fed with a mixture of barley-meal and 
water, were found to have swallowed, by mistake, 
nearly the whole contents of a pot of white paint. 
Two of the fowls died, and two others became 
paralytic. 

In reference to the vulture's sense of smell 
there has been some difference of opinion. Mr. 
Waterton says, that a man whose powers of 
scent are by no means remarkable will some- 
times smell a putrid carcass at a great distance. 
And hence he reasons fairly, that as the air 
produced by putrefaction is lighter than com- 
mon air, it will ascend in the atmosphere, and 
as it will be gathered to and fro through the 



182 THE SENSES. 

expanse of heaven, by every gust of wind, so 
the vulture, soaring above, and coming in con- 
tact with this tainted current, will instinctively 
follow it down to its source, and there find that 
which an all-wise Providence has designed for 
its support and nourishment. 

At the South the presence of carrion is often 
first known by observing the turkey-buzzards 
sailing round in circles high up in air over some 
particular spot, and at last descending to the car- 
cass which their acute senses have discovered. 

Mr. Waterton tells us, that he is intimately 
acquainted with the common vulture of the 
West Indies, the Vultur aura of Guiana, the 
king of the vultures of Terra Firma, and the 
vulture which is found in European Andalusia. 
And yet he has never known any of them to 
kill the food on which they feed, or when free 
from the restraint or allurements of man, ever 
feed on that which was not putrid. On one 
occasion he killed a large serpent, and, aided 
by others, carried the body into a forest. The 
foliage of the trees, where the dead serpent 
was laid, was impervious to the sun's rays, and, 



SMELL. 183 

had any vultures passed over it, he thinks they 
could not have seen the remains of the reptile 
through the shade. For the first two days not 
a vulture made its appearance at the spot, 
though here and there, as usual, a Vultur aura 
was gliding, at a moderate hight, over the tops 
of the forest trees. But, during the afternoon 
of the third day, when the carcass of the ser- 
pent had become putrid, more than twenty of 
the common vultures perched upon the neigh- 
boring trees, and the next morning, a little 
after six o'clock, Mr. Waterton saw a magnifi- 
cent king of the vultures. He killed this bird, 
which had taken its station on the topmost 
branch of a stupendous tree, before he had 
descended to partake of the savory food that 
had attracted him to this spot. Soon after 
another king came, and when he was satiated, 
the rest pounced down on the remains of the 
serpent, and stayed till they had devoured the 
last morsel. 

This naturalist confirms his opinion by various 
facts, which show that these birds clearly dis- 
tinguish between dead and living animals. In 
Andalusia, he stood, one day in particular, to 



184 THE SENSES. 

watch the vultures feeding on the putrid remains 
of a mule. Kids and lambs were reposing and 
browsing up and down in the neighborhood, but 
the vultures touched them not. Nor did the 
shepherds seem to consider their flocks in danger- 
ous company, or they might have despatched 
the birds with little trouble, as they were so 
gorged with carrion that they seemed unwilling 
to move from the place. 

An objection has been raised to his conclusion, 
from the idea that putrid effluvia would always 
be driven to one quarter in the tropics, where the 
trade-winds prevail. But to this Mr. Waterton 
replies, that often, at the very time that the clouds 
are driving from the north-east up above, there is 
a lower current of air coming from the quarter 
directly opposite. In Guiana there is a tree 
called hay-awa, which produces a deliciously 
smelling resin ; it is found in a hardened lumpy 
state, all down the side of the tree, out of which it 
has oozed. It is also seen on the ground, at the 
foot of the tree, mixed with the sand. When the 
Indians stop on the bank of a river for the night, 
they frequently burn this resin for its fine and 
wholesome scent. " When," says Mr. Waterton, 



SMELL. 185 

" we had taken up our nightly quarters on the 
banks of the Essequibo, many a time we per- 
ceived this delightful fragrance of the hay-awa, 
which came down the bed of the river to the place 
where we were, in a direction quite opposite to 
the trade-wind. My Indians knew by this that 
other Indians were encamped for the night on the 
river-side above us." 

It has been doubted whether fishes and other 
aquatic animals have the sense of smell. In 
some of the whale tribe, indeed, neither the organ 
of smell nor the olfactory nerves are found ; and 
yet, in a large number of instances, the power 
of smell must be possessed. Water is certainly a 
vehicle of odors. The baits of anglers are ren- 
dered more attractive by perfumes. A gland, 
secreting an unctuous matter, of a very strong 
musky odor, has been discovered by Mr. T. Bell, 
situated beneath the lower jaw, on each side, 
in the crocodile and alligator. The external 
opening of this gland is a small slit ; the cavity 
containing the odorous substance is surrounded 
by two delicate bands of muscular fibers. These 
appear to be provided to bring the gland into 
a proper position, and then, by compression, to 



186 THE SENSES. 

discharge its contents. It is supposed by the 
discoverer, that the secretion is used as a bait 
for attracting fish towards the sides of the mouth, 
where they can be readily seized, as the alligator 
snaps sideways at its prey. Other facts show 
that fishes have the power of smell, while an 
appropriate organ may be frequently observed, 
varied in its structure according *to circumstances. 

The experiments of Huber proved that the 
organ of scent in bees (and there is no reason 
to think that other insects do not follow the same 
law) is in or near the mouth, and above the 
proboscis. Kirby found, on dissection of the 
common burying beetle, Necrophorus vespillo, 
under the nose, and partly under the space which 
he called the nostril piece, a pair of circular pulpy 
cushions, covered by a membrane, which he con- 
sidered to be the organ of smell, and which 
remained distinctly visible in a specimen he 
had by him more than fifteen years. 

Some insects discharge offensive odors, it would 
seem, to annoy and frighten their enemies. A 
familiar instance of this appears in the large 
family of bugs the fetor of which is always 
similar, though their food is various. A small 



SMELL. 



187 



green beetle, Anchomenus prasinus, is remarkable 
for its repeated discharges of smoke and noise. 
But it is not so well known as another, the 
bombardier, Brachinus crepitans, whose discharge 
resembles a popgun, accompanied by a sort of 
smoke. It is said to have a bladder sufficiently 




The Bombardier and its Enemy 

furnished to fire off twenty shots in succession. 
A beetle, larger than itself, Calasoma inquisitor. 
is its chief enemy. The little creature, unable 
to escape by fleetness, stops short on its way, 
and just as its adversary is about to seize it, a 
discharge takes place, and, while it is stupefied 
by surprise, the wished-for prey escapes. 



CHAPTER XII. 

The Benevolence of God. — A Child with only one Sense. 
— Preparation for Eternity. 

Insensible must be that person who can take 
a rose into his hand, without adoring the Giver, 
as he admires his gift. What a combination is 
here ! With form and color of beauty the most 
exquisite, with odors sweet, delicate, and never 
wearying, this flower appears adapted to all 
climes, and is a favorite wherever it grows. 
Nor is it only when arrayed in all its charms that 
it yields us pleasure. If we say with the poet — 

" The leaves are beginning to fade in an hour, 
And they wither and die in a day;" 

we must add with him — 

" Yet the rose has one powerful virtue to boast 
Above all the flowers of the field, 
When its leaves are all dead, and fine colors are lost, 
Still how sweet a perfume it will yield!" 

The objects about which the sense of smell 



SMELL. 189 

is employed are manifestly no casual productions. 
No power but that which created the light could 
have produced aught so incomprehensible. Of 
this there seems, too, to have been required a very 
specific exercise. In the case of inferior animals, 
we discover a wise and benevolent adaptation to 
particular purposes. In reference to ourselves, 
the scent is as constant and precise as the very 
form of the plant, and the seed by which it is 
to be continued; and as it is superfluous to the 
vegetable product, and a source of pleasure to us, 
it is beyond all doubt that odors were created 
for our enjoyment, and are proofs of the purest 
beneficence. 

Of this source of pleasure we may speak more 
freely than of that which concerns the organ of 
taste. " It is at least," says a writer, " the poetry 
of sense ; and whatever impressions the other 
animals may receive from the same sources, we 
are sure, that in all its variety and delicacy, 
and power of influencing the mind, it has been 
reserved for us ; a truly mental enjoyment, akiw 
to those of poetry and music." 

Another fact is equally worthy of remark. A 



190 THE SENSES. 

person determines to look at a certain star 
through a telescope, or to play on a piano, of 
which he has heard. But is this determination 
formed by the eye, or the hand ? Assuredly not. 
Neither do they put the determination into 
practice. They are only the instruments by 
which the star is seen, or the melody produced. 
The power of determination, and also of action, 
is in the mind, — the soul, which is distinct 
from all the senses. A most interesting case that 
occurred in Boston illustrates this. A child lost, 
as the consequence of serious illness, all her senses 
but one, — that of touch. Dr. Howe took her 
under his care, and tried various means for her 
benefit. The first experiments were made by 
taking such articles as knives and forks, spoons 
and keys, and pasting on them labels with their 
names printed in raised letters. These she felt 
very carefully, and soon distinguished that the 
crooked lines spoon, differed as much from the 
crooked lines k e y, as the spoon differed from the 
key in form. 

After a while, instead of labels, the individual 
letters were given to her, on detached bits of 



SMELL. 191 

paper : they were arranged side by side, so as 
to spell booh, key, etc. ; then they were mixed 
up in a heap, and a sign was made for her to 
arrange them herself, so as to express the words 
book, key, etc. : and she did so. 

" Hitherto," says her benevolent teacher, " the 
process had been mechanical, and the success 
about as great as teaching a knowing dog a 
variety of tricks. She, poor child, had sat in 
mute amazement, and patiently imitated every- 
thing her teacher did ; but now the truth began to 
flash on her ; her intellect began to work ; she 
perceived that here was a way by which she 
could make up a sign of any thing that was in her 
own mind, and show it to another mind ; and 
at once her countenance lighted up with a human 
expression : it was no longer a dog or a parrot ; it 
was an immortal spirit, eagerly seizing upon a new 
link of union with other spirits ! I could almost 
fix upon the moment when this truth dawned 
upon her mind, and spread its light over her 
countenance." 

How striking is this proof of the independence 
of the soul of all that is material, — the soul which 



192 THE SENSES. 

should be the object of our first and chief care ! 
While dwelling in the body, it is preparing for 
an eternal state. Passing into the unseen world 
in its native defilement, it must be miserable ; and, 
as no change can pass on it there, it must be 
wretched for ever and ever. Who, then, can 
estimate the value of " the blood of Christ," and 
of the purifying operation of the Holy Spirit ? 
Who can describe the importance of faith, by 
which alone the soul can be justified and sancti- 
fied? To every reader, then, the question is sol- 
emnly proposed : " Dost thou believe on the Son 
of God ? " It is only as the soul relies entirely 
on Him, and is conformed to His image, that it is 
prepared for eternal blessedness. 



THE END. 



CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY H. O. HOUGHTON. 



