

LIBRARY 


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DICTIONARY 



OP 



THE HOLY BIBLE, 



FOR GENERAL USE 



IN 



THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPTURES; 



WITH 



ENGRAVINGS; MAPS, AND TABLES. 



V^ 



PUBLISHED BY THE 
AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY, 

NEW YORK: 150 NASSAU-STREET. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859, by the American Tract 
Society, in the Clerk's office of the District Court for the Southern District of New 
York. 



PREFACE. 



This work is based on " A Dictionary of the Holy Bible, for 
the use of Schools and Young Persons, by Edward Robinson, 
D. D.," issued in 18B3, by Messrs. Crocker and Brewster, Boston. 
The use of the copy-right of that volume having been procured 
from the publishers, about two-thirds of it are embodied in these 
pages, constituting about one-third of the whole ; but without any 
participation or responsibility on the part of Dr. Robinson, His 
own later biblical Avorks, including his Researches in Palestine, 
afford invaluable aids to the Bible student, which have been freely 
used in the preparation of the present volume. Much aid has 
also been drawn from the Bible Dictionaries of Rev. John Brown 
of Haddington, and Professor Eadie of the United Presbyterian 
church, Scotland ; Bost, of Switzerland ; Kitto, and other sources ; 
while the accuracy of all that has been inserted has been studi- 
ously tested, in every case as far as possible, by a comparison 
with the only infallible standard, the inspired word itself. 

The aim of this work and the principles on which it has been 
prepared, cannot be better expressed than in the language of 
Dr. Robinson in 1833, in his preface to the work on which it is 
based. 

'' In the present work," he says, " the Editor has aimed to give 
only the results of his previous investigations ; and to present them 
ill such a form as may be attractive and useful to the very large 
class of young persons and others, who may be supposed to take 
an interest in this species of knowledge. There are doubtless 
thousands of such persons, especially females, to whom the infor- 
mation contained in this small volume would be in a liipfh degree 

3 



PREFACE. 

interesting and instructive ; but who, nevertheless, would never 
think of seeking for it in the larger and more learned volumes in 
which it is usually contained. 

'' It has everywhere been my endeavor, not to omit any re- 
sults, or any information, which might be useful to the classes of 
readers for whom this volume is more particularly designed. The 
processes of induction and reasoning, the allusions to the original 
Hebrew and Greek of the Scriptures, have of course been passed 
by ; and also all the references to sources and authorities, except- 
ing to the Bible itself. These last I have endeavored to render 
full and correct. 

"If I may be permitted to advise in respect to the mode of 
using this little volume, I would strongly recommend that it be 
read and studied chiefly as a companion of the Bible, and always 
with the Bible in the hand ; and that every reference to the sacred 
volume be immediately looked out, and the passages, or the sense 
of them, faithfully impressed upon the memory. In this way, not 
only will a great amount of biblical knowledge be acquired by 
degrees, but the mind of the learner, by thus comparing the state- 
ments of facts with the authorities on which they rest, is ever 
gaining discipline and strength, and learning to ' prove all things, 
and hold fast that which is good.' 

" That, through this little work the Editor may be useful in 
his day and generation to his youthful friends, by enlarging and 
facilitating their acquaintance with that Holy Book in which 
alone are contained the words of eternal life, and treasures of 
wisdom that will never fail, is his sincere and fervent prayer." 
New York, 1859. 



DICTIONARY 



OP 



THE HOLY BIBLE. 



A, the first letter in almost all alpha- 
bets. In Hebrew, it is called aleph; in 
Greek, alpha, the last letter in the Greek 
alphabet being omega. Both the He- 
brews and Greeks used their letters as 
numerals ; and hence A {aleph or alpha) 
denoted one, or the first. So our Lord says, 
"I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning 
and the end, the first and the last ;" thus 
declaring his eternity, and that he is the 
cause and end of all things, Rev. 1 : 8, 
11 ; 21 : 6 ; 22 : 13. Compare Isa. 44 : 6 ; 
48 : 12 ; Col. 1 : 15-18. 

AAR'ON, the son of Amram and Joch- 
ebed, of the tribe of Levi, and brother 
of Moses and Miriam, Ex. 6 : 20 ; born 
about the year a. m. 2430 ; b. c. 1574. He 
was three years older than Moses, Ex. 
7:7; and was the spokesman and assist- 
ant of the latter in bringing Israel out 
of Egypt, Ex. 4 : 16. His wife was Eli- 
sheba, daughter of Amminadab ; and his 
sons, Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Itha- 
mar. He was 83 years old when God 
summoned him to join Moses in the des- 
ert near Horeb. Cooperating with his 
brother in the exodus from Egypt, Ex. 
4-16, he held up his hands in the bat- 
tle with Amalek, Ex. 17 ; and ascended 
mount Sinai with him to see the glory of 
God, Ex. 24:1,2, 9-11. 

Aaron's chief distinction consisted in 
the choice of him and his male posterity 
for the priesthood. He was consecrated 
the first high-priest by God's directions, 
Ex. 28, 29 ; Lev. 8 ; and was afterwards 
confirmed in his office by the destruction 
of Korah and his company, by the stay- 
ing of the plague at his intercession, and 
by the budding of his rod, Num. 16, 17. 



He was faithful and self-sacrificing in the 
duties of his office, and meekly "held his 
peace ' ' when his sons Nadab and Abihu 
were slain, Lev. 10 : 1-3. Yet he fell 
sometimes into grievous sins: he made 
the golden calf at Sinai, Ex. 32 ; he join- 
ed Miriam in sedition against Moses, 
Num. 12 ; and with Moses disobeyed God 
at Kadesh, Num. 20 : 8-12. God, there- 
fore, did not permit him to enter the 
promised land; but he died on mount 
Hor, in Edom, in the fortieth year after 
leaving Egypt, at the age of about 123 
years. Num. 20:22-29; 33:39. In 
Deut. 10 : 6, he is said to have died at 
Mosera, which was probably the station 
in the valley west of mount Hor, >vhence 
he ascended into the mount. The Arabs 
still pretend to show his tomb on the 
mount, and highly venerate it. In his 
office as high-priest, Aaron was an emi- 
nent type of Christ, being "called of 
God," and anointed; bearing the names 
of the tribes on his breast ; communicat- 
ing God's will by Urim and Thummim ; 
entering the Most Holy place on the Day 
of Atonement, "not without blood ;" and 
interceding for and blessing the people 
of God. See Priest. 

AAR'ONITES, descendants of Aaron 
the high-priest, so called 1 Chr. 12 : 27 ; 
27 : 17. Thirteen cities were assigned to 
them, in Judah and Benjamin, Josh. 
21 : 13-19 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 57-60. 

AB, father, found in many compound 
Hebrew proper names : as Abner, father 
of light ; Absalom, father of peace. 

AB. I'he fifth month of the sacred, 
and the eleventh of the civil year among 
the Jews. It began, according to the 
5 



AJ3A 



IHBLE DICTIONARY. 



ABE 



latest authorities, with the new moou 
of August. It was a sad month in the 
Jewish calendar. On its first day, a fast 
was observed for the death of Aaron, 
Num. 33 : 38 ; and on its ninth, another 
was held in memory of the divine edicts 
which excluded so many that came out 
of Egypt from entering the promised 



land ; and also, of the overthrow of the 
first and second temple. See Month. 

ABAD'DON, or Apol'lyon. The for- 
mer name is Hebrew, and the latter 
Greek, and both signify the destroyer. 
Rev. 9:11. He is called the "angel of 
the abyss," that is, the angel of death, 
or the destroying angel. 




AB'ANA, and Phar'par, rivers of Da- 
mascus, 2 Kin. 5 : 12. The Abana, (or, 
as in the margin, Amana,) Avas undoubt- 
edly the present Barada, the Chrysor- 
rhoas of the Greeks. It is a clear, cold, 
and swift mountain stream, rising in 
Anti-Lebanon, north-east of Hernion, 
flowing south-east into the plain, and 
near Damascus turning eastward, skirt- 
ing the norlhern wall of the city, and 
terminating 20 miles east in one of three 
large lakes. It is a perennial river, and 
so copious, that though no less than nine 
or ten branches or canals arc drawn off 
from it to irrigate the plain and supply 
the city and the villages around it, the 
stream is a large one to the end. 

The only other independent river of 
any size in the territory of Damascus is 
the Awaj, which crosses the plain south of 
Damascus, and enters the southernmost 
of the three lakes above referred to. This 
is supposed to be the Pharpar of the Bi- 
ble. As these rivers of Damascus were 
never dry, but made the region they wa- 
tered like the garden of Eden for fertil- 



RIVER ABAXA. NOW BARADA, AND DAMASCUS. 

[ ity and beauty, Naaman might well con- 
trast them with most of ' ' the waters of 
Israel," wdiich dry up under the summer 
sun. See Amana. 

AB'ARIM, mountains east of the Dead 
sea and the lower Jordan, "over against 
Jericho," within the territory of Moab 
and the tribe of Reuben. It is impossi- 
ble to define exactly their extent. The 
mountains Nebo, Pisgah, and Peor were 
in the Abarim, Num. 27 : 12 ; 33:47, 48 ; 
Dent. 32:49; 34:1. Ije-abarim, Num. 
21 : 11, seems to denote the southern part 
of the same chain. 

AB'BA, a Syriac word signify ing/a^^cr. 
When the Jews came to speak Greek, 
this word may have been retained from 
their ancient language, as being easier 
to pronounce, especially for children, 
than the Greek paitr. It expresses the 
peculiar tenderness, familiarity, and con- 
fidence of the love between parent and 
child, Mark 14:36 ; Rom. 8:15 ; Gal. 4:6. 

ABED'NEGO, servant of Nego ; a Chal- 
dee name given to Azariah, one of the 
three captive young princes of Judah, 



ABE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY, 



ABI 



who were Daniel's companions at the 
court of the king of Babylon, Dan. 1 : 7. 
Their virtue, wisdom, and piety secured 
their promotion at court, Dan. 1 : 3-10 ; 
2 : 17, 49 ; and their steadfastness in wit- 
nessing for God among idolaters, with 
their deliverance from the liery furnace 
by the Angel- Jehovah, led many to ac- 
knowledge the true God, and rendered 
these pious youth for ever illustrious as 
monuments of the excellence and safety 
of faith in Him, Dan. 3 ; Heb. 11 : 34. 
See FuRXACE. 

A'BEL, the second son of Adam and 
Eve. He became a shepherd, and offered 
to God a sacrifice from his flocks, at the 
same time that Cain his brother ofiered 
of the fruits of the earth. God had re- 
spect to Abel's sacrifice, and not to Cain's ; 
hence Cain in anger killed Abel, Gen. 
4. It was ' ' by faith' ' that Abel ofiered 
a more acceptable sacrifice than Cain ; 
that is, his lieart was right towards God, 
and he worsliipped Him in trustful obe- 
dience to the divine directions. His of- 
fering, made by the shedding of blood, 
was that of a penitent sinner confiding 
in the atonement ordained of God ; and 
it was accepted, "God testifying of his 
gifts," probably by fire from heaven ; 
' ' by which he obtained witness that he 
was righteous," that is, justified, Heb. 
11:4. " The blood of Abel ' ' called from 
the ground for vengeance, Gen. 4 : 10 ; 
but the blood of Christ claims forgive- 
ness and salvation for his people, Heb. 
12 : 24 ; 1 John 1:7. 

Abel is also a prefix in the names of 
several towns. In such cases it signifies 
a grassv place or meadow. 

ABEL-BETH-MAACHAH, meadoiv of 
the house of Maachah; a town in the tribe 
of Naplitali, north of lake Merom. It 
was besieged in the rebellion of Sheba, 2 
Sam. 20 : 13-22 ; eighty years afterwards 
it was taken by Ben-hadad, 1 Kiu. 15:20, 
and again, after 200 years, by Tiglath- 
pileser, 2 Kin. 15:29. It is called Abel- 
maim in 2 Chr. 16:4. Compare 1 Kin. 
15 : 20. Also simply Abel, 2 Sam. 20 : 18. 

ABEL-C APiMATM, meadoiv of vineyards ; 
a village of the Ammonites, six miles 
from Babbath-Ammon ; in the history of 
Jephthah it is called "the plain of the 
vineyards," Judg. 11 : 33. 

ABEL-MEHO'LAH, or Abel-mea, a 
town of Issachar, near the Jordan, ten 
miles south of Beth-shean. Near this 
place Gideon defeated the Mdianites, 



! Judg. 



and here Elisha was born. 



t 1 Kin. 10:16. 

ABEL-MIZRA'IM, meadoiv of the Egyp- 
i tians; so called from the seven days' lam- 
entation of Joseph and his company, on 
bringing up the body of Jacob from Egvpt 
for burial. Gen. 50: 10, 11. It lay in the 
plain of Jericho, between that city and 
the Jordan. 

ABEL-SHIT'TIM, in the plains of Mo- 
ab, east of the Jordan, and near mount 
Peor. It was one of the last encamp- 
ments of Israel before the death of Mo- 
ses, Num. 33 : 49 ; called also Shittim, 
Josh. 2:1. Here the Israelites were en- 
ticed by the women of Moab and Mid- 
ian into luicleanness and the idolatry of 
Baal-peor, and 24,000 died of the plague, 
Num. 25. 

ABI' A, in the New Testament the same 
as Abijah in the Old Testament, which 
see. 

ABIAH, second son of Samuel, Avho 
appointed his brother and him judges in 
Israel. Their corruption and injustice 
were the pretext upon which the people 
demanded a king, 1 Sam. 8 : 1-5. 

ABIATHAR, son of Ahimelech, and 
tenth high-priest of the Jews. When 
Saul sent his emissaries to Nob, to de- 
stroy all the priests there, Abiathar. who 
was young, lied to David in the w ilder- 
ness, 1 Sam. 22 : 11-23, Avith whom he 
continued in the character of priest, 1 
Sam. 23 : 9 ; 30 : 7. Being confirmed in 
; the high-priesthood on David's accession 
to the throne, he aided in bringing up 
the ark to Jerusalem, 1 Chr. 15 : 11, 12, 
and adhered to David during the rebel- 
lion of Absalom, 2 Sam. 15 : 35, but after- 
wards was led to follow^ Adonijah, thus 
strangely betraying his royal friend in 
his old age. Solomon succeeding to the 
throne, degraded him from the priest- 
hood, and sent him to Anathoth, 1 Kin. 
2 : 26, 27 ; thus fulfilling the prediction 
made to Eli 150 5'ears before, 1 Sam. 
2:27-36. Saul, it Avould appear, had 
transferred the dignity of the high-priest- 
hood from the line of Ithamar, to which 
Eli belonged, to that of Eleazar, by con- 
ferring the office upon Zadok. Thus 
there were, at the same time, tw^o high- 
priests in Israel ; Abiathar with David, 
and Zadok with Saul. This double priest- 
hood continued from the death of Ahim- 
elech till the reign of Solomon, after 
Avhich the oflice was held by Zadok and 
his race alone. 



ABI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ABI 



A difficulty arises from the circum- 
stance that, in 1 Kin. 2 : 27, Abiathar is 
said to he deprived of tlie priest's office 
hy Solomon ; while in 2 Sam. 8 : 17 ; 1 
Chr. 18 : IG ; 24 : 3, 6, 31, Ahimelech the 
son of Abiathar is said to be high-priest 
along with Zadok. The most probable 
solution is, that both father and son each 
bore the two names Ahimelech and Abi- 
athar, as was not at all unusual among 
the Jews. See under Abigail. In this 
way also we may remove the difficulty 
arising from Mark 2 : 26, where Abiathar 
is said to have given David the show- 
bread, in allusion to 1 Sam. 21 : 1-6, 
where it is Ahimelech. 

A'BIB, the first month of the ecclesi- 
astical year of the Hebrews ; afterwards 
called Nisan. It answered nearly to our 
April. Abib signifies green cars of grain, 
or fresh fruits. It was so named, be- 
cause grain, particularly barley, was in 
ear at that tune. On the tenth of this 
month the passover-lamb was set apart ; 
it was killed on the fourteenth towards 
sunset, and eaten the same evening after 
the fifteenth day had begun. The seven 
days from the fifteenth to the twenty- 
first inclusiA'e, were "the feast of unleav- 
ened bread, ' ' closing with a solemn con- 
vocation, Ex. 12, 13. 

ABIE'ZEE, great-grandson of Manas- 
seh, Num. 26 : 29, 30, and founder of the 
family to which Gideon belonged. Josh. 
17 : 2 ; Judg. 6 : 34 ; 8:2. In this last 
verse, "the vintage of Abiezer" means 
the first rout of the Midianites by the 300, 
mostly Abiezrites ; and ' ' the gleaning of 
the grapes of Ephraim ' ' means the cap- 
ture of Oreb and Zeeb, and other fruits of 
the victory, gathered by the Ephraimites. 

AB'IGAIL, I. , formerly the wife of Na- 
bal of Carmcl, and afterwards of David. 
Upon receiving information of Nabal's 
ingratitude to David, 1 Sam. 25 : 14, she 
loaded several asses with provisions, and 
attended by some of her domestics went 
out to meet him. Her manners and con- 
versation gained for her his esteem, and 
as soon as the days of mourning for Na- 
bal's death, which happened soon after- 
w'ards, were over, he made her his wife. 
The issue of the marriage was, as some 
critics suppose, two sons, Chileab and 
Daniel, 2 Sam. 3 : 3 ; 1 Clir. 3:1; but it 
is most probable that these names were 
borne by one person. 

II. A sister of David, and mother of 
Amasa, 1 Chr. 2 : 16, 17. 
8 



ABTHAIL, the wife of Rehoboam, king 
of Judah, 2 Chr. 11 : 18 ; the "daughter " 
— that is here, the descendant — of Eliab, 
David's brother. 

ABTHU, the second son of Aaron, con- 
secrated to the priesthood with his three 
brethren, Exod. 28 : 21 ; but consumed 
shortly after by fire from the Lord, with 
Nadab his brother, for burning incense 
with common fire instead of that kept 
perpetually on the altar of burnt-ofler- 
ing. Lev. 10 : 1-2 ; 16 : 12 ; Num. 16 : 46. 
As this is immediately followed by the 
prohibition of wine to the priests when 
ministering in the tabernacle, it is not 
improbable that Nadab and Abihu were 
intoxicated when thus transgressing. 
Their death is a solemn warning not to 
presume to worship God except with in- 
cense kindled at the one altar which 
Christ hath sanctified, Heb. 10 : 10-14. 
It is a dangerous thing, in the service of 
God, to decline from his own institutions. 
We have to do with a God who is wise 
to prescribe his own worship, just to re- 
quire what he has prescribed, and pow- 
erful to avenge what he has not pre- 
scribed. 

ABI' J AH, I. , called, m Luke 1 : 5, Abia ; 
founder of a family among the posterity 
of Aaron. When David divided the 
priests into twenty-four courses, to per- 
form the temple-service in turn, the 
eighth class was called after him, 1 Chr. 
24 : 10. To this class or course Zacharias 
belonged. 

II. Son of Jeroboam, the first king of 
Israel. He died yoimg, and much be- 
loved and lamented, for in him theie 
was found some good thing towards the 
Lord, 1 Kin. 14 : 1-18. 

III. Son of Echoboam, the first king 
of Judah ; called, in 1 Kin. 15:1, Abijam. 
He came to the throne a. m. 3046, and 
reigned only three years. In war with 
Jeroboam he gained a signal victory, 2 
Chr. 13; yet he followed the evil example 
of his father. His mother Maachah, or 
Michaiah, was probabl v the grand-daxigh- 
ter of Absalom, 1 Kin. 15 : 2 ; 2 Chr. 
11:20; 13:2. 

IV. The mother of king Hezekiah, 2 
Chr. 29 : 1. 

ABILE'NE, the name of a district of 
country on the eastern declivity of Anti- 
Lebanon, from twelve to twenty miles 
north-west of Damascus, towards Heli- 
opolis, or Baalbek; so called from the 
city Abila, and also called Abilene of 



ABI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ABO 



Lysanias, to distinguish it from others. 
Tliis territory, in the fifteenth year of 
Tiberius emperor of Kome, Avas governed 
as a tetrarchate by a certain Lysanias, 
Luke 3:1. 

ABIM'ELECH, I. , king of Gerar of the 
Philistines, who took Sarah into his ha- 
rem ; but being warned of God in a 
dream, he restored her to Abraham, and 
gave him 1,000 pieces of silver as a " cov- 
ering of the ej'es" for Sarah, that is, as 
an atoning present, and to be a testimo- 
ny of her innocence in the eyes of all. 
He afterwards made a league with Abra- 
ham, Gen. 20. 

II. Another king of Gerar, probably 
son of the former, and contemporary 
with Isaac. He rebuked Isaac for dis- 
simulation in regard to Rebekah, and 
afterwards made a new league with him 
at Beersheba, Gen. 26. 

III. A son of Gideon by a concubine, 
made himself king of Shcchem after his 
father's death, and slew his father's sev- 
enty sons on one stone, only Jotham the 
youngest being left. Jotham reproach- 
ed the Shechemites for their conduct, in 
his celebrated fable of the trees. Three 
years afterwards, they rose against Abim- 
elech ; he defeated them, and destroyed 
their city, but as he Avas attacking The- 
bez, a woman threw down a piece of a 
millstone on his head, which so injured 
him, that he called to his armor-bearer 
to slay him, Judg. 9. 

ABINADAB, the same as Aminadab, 
h and m being often interchanged in 
Hebrew. I. A son of Jesse, one of the 
three who followed Saul in the war with 
the Philistines, 1 Sam. 16 : 8 ; 17 : 13. 

II. A son of Saul, slain in the battle 
at Gilboa, 1 Sam. 31 : 2. 

III. A Levite of Kirjath-jearim, in 
whose house the ark of God, when re- 
stored by the Philistines, remained sev- 
enty years, 1 Sam. 7 : 1 ; 1 Chr. 13 : 7. 

ABI'RAM, a prince of Reuben, who 
with Korah, Dathan, etc., conspired to 
overthrow the authority of Moses and 
Aaron in the wilderness. Num. 16. 

AB'ISHAG, a beautiful virgin of Shu- 
nem, in Issachar, chosen to marry David 
in his old age and cherish him. After 
his death, Adonijah sought her hand to 
promote his treasonable aspirations, and 
was punished by death, 1 Kin. 1, 2. 

ABISHAI, a son of Zeruiah, David's 
sister, brother of Joab and Asahel, one 
of the bravest of David's mighty men, 
1* 



1 Chr. 2 : 16, and always faithful to his 
royal uncle. He went with him alone 
to the tent of Saul, 1 Sam. 26 : 7-11 ; and 
was a leader in the war with Ish-bosheth, 

2 Sam. 2 : 18, 24, in the war with the 
Edomites, 1 Chr. 18 : 12, 13, and with 
the Svrians and Ammonites, 2 Sam. 
10 : 10. In a battle with the Philistines, 
he rescued David, and slew Ishbi-benob 
the giant, 2 Sam. 21 : 16, 17. He lift- 
ed up his spear against three hundred, 
and slew them, 2 Sam. 23 : 18 ; and was 
with David in the affairs of Shimei, Ab- 
salom, and Sheba, 2 Sam. 16 : 9 ; 18 : 2 ; 
20 : 6, 7. 

ABISH'UA, son of Phinehas, and 
fourth high-priest, 1 Chr. 6 : 50. He was 
probablv a contemporary of Eglon and 
Ehud. Judg. 3. 

AB'NER, the son of Ner, Saul's uncle, 
and the general of his armies, 1 Sam. 
14:50. For seven years after Saul's 
death, he supported Ish-bosheth ; but 
being reproved by him for his conduct 
towards Rizpah, he undertook to unite 
the whole kingdom under David. He 
was, however, treacherously slain by 
Joab, either to revenge the death of 
Asahel, Joab's brother, whom Abner had 
formerly killed, or more probably from 
jealousy. David abhorred this perfid- 
ious act, and composed an elegv on his 
death, 2 Sam. 2 : 8 ; 3 : 33. He also 
charged Solomon to punish the crime of 
Joab with death, 1 Kin. 2:5, 6. 

ABOMINATION, a term applied in 
Scripture to objects of great detestation. 
Idols and their worship were so named, 
because they robbed God of his honor, 
while the rites themselves were impure 
and cruel, Deut. 7 : 25, 26 ; 12 : 31. The 
term was used respecting the Hebrews in 
Egypt, Gen. 43 : 32, Ex. 8 : 26, either 
because they ate and sacrificed animals 
held sacred by the Egyptians, or be- 
cause they did not observe those cere- 
monies in eating which made a part of 
the religion of Egypt ; and in Gen. 46 : 34, 
because they were ' ' wandering shep- 
herds," a race of whom had grievously 
oppressed Egypt. 

The Abomination of Desolation fore- 
told by Daniel, 9 : 27, denotes, probably, 
the image of Jupiter, erected in the tem- 
ple of Jerusalem by command of Antio- 
chus Epiphanes, 2 Mac. 6 : 2 ; 1 Mac. 6 : 7. 
But by the Abomination of Desolation 
spoken of by our Lord, Matt. 24 : 15 ; 
Mark 13 : 14, and foretold as about to be 
9 



ABR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ABR 



seen at Jerusalem during the last siege 
of that city by the Eomans under Titus, 
is probably meant the Roman army, 
whose standards had the images of their 
gods and emperors upon them, and were 




worshipped in the precincts of the tem- 
ple when that and the city were taken. 
Luke 21:20. See Armor. 

A'BRAM, high father, afterwards named 
ABRAHAM, father of a multitude, Gen. 
17:4, 5 ; the great founder of the Jewish 
nation. He was a son of Tcrah, a de- 
scendant of Shem, and born in Ur, a city 
of Chaldea, a. m. 2008, b. c. 1996, Gen. 
11:27, 28. Here he lived seventy years, 
when at the call of God he left his idol- 
atrous kindred, and removed to Haran, 
in Mesopotamia, Acts 7:2-4, accompa- 
nied by his fatlier, his wife Sarai, his 
brother Nahor, and his nephew Lot. A 
few years after, having buried his father, 
he again removed at the call of God, 
with his wife and nephew, and entered 
the land of promise as a nomadc or Avan- 
dering shepherd. Sojourning for a time 
at Shechem, he built here, as Avas his cus- 
tom, an altar to the Lord, who appeared 
to him, and promised that land to his 
seed. Removing from place to place for 
convenience of water and pasturage, he 
was at length driven by a famine into 
Egypt, where he dissembled in calling 
his wife his sister. Gen. 12. Returning 
to Canaan rich in flocks and herds, he 
left Lot to dwell in the fertile valley of 
the lower Jordan, and pitched his own 
tents in Mamre, Gen. 13. A few years 
after, he rescued Lot and his friends from 
10 



captivity, and received the blessing of 
Melchizedek, Gen. 14. Again God ap- 
peared to him, promised that his seed 
should be like the stars for number, and 
foretold their oppression in Egypt 400 
years, and their return to possess the 
promised land, Gen. 15. But the prom- 
ise of a son being yet imfulfdled, Sarai 
gave him Hagar her maid for a second- 
ary wife, of whom Ishmael was born, 
Gen. 16. After thirteen years, God again 
appeared to him, and assured him that 
the heir of the promise should yet be 
born of his wife, whose name was then 
changed to Sarah. He established also 
the covenant of circumcision, Gen. 17. 
Here, too, occurred the visit of the three 
angels, and the memorable intercession 
with the Angel-Jehovah for the inhabit- 
ants of Sodom, Gen. 18. After this, Abra- 
ham journeyed south to Gerah, where he 
again called Sarah his sister. In this re- 
gion Isaac was born ; and soon after, Ha- 
gar and Ishmael were driven out to seek 
a new home, Gen. 21. About twenty-five 
years after, God put to trial the faith of 
Abraham, by commanding him to sacri- 
fice Isaac, his son and the heir of the 
promise, upon mount Moriah, Gen. 22. 
Twelve years after, Sarah died, and the 
cave of Machpelah was bought for a bur- 
ial-place. Gen. 23. Abraham sent his 
steward, and obtained a Avife for Isaac 
from his pious kindred in Mesopotamia, 
Gen. 24. He himself also married Ke- 
turah, and had six sons, each one the 
founder of a distinct people in Arabia. 
At the age of 175, full of years and hon- 
ors, he died, and Avas buried by his sons 
in the same tomb Avith Sarah, Gen. 25. 

The character of Abraham is one of 
the most remarkable in Scripture. He 
Avasa genuine oriental patriarch, a prince 
in the land ; his property Avas large, his 
retinue very numerous, and he com- 
manded the respect of the neighboring 
people : and yet he Avas truly a stranger 
and a pilgrim, the only land he pos- 
sessed being the burial-place he had pur- 
chased. Distinguished by his integrit)'', 
generosity, and hospitality, he Avas most 
of all remarkable for his simple and un- 
Avavering faith, a faith that obeyed Avith- 
out hesitation or delay, and recoiled not 
from the most fearful trial ever imposed 
upon man, so that he is justly styled 
"the father of the faithful," that is, of 
believers. No name in history is ven- 
erated by 80 large a portion of the hu- 



ABS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ACH 



man race, Mohammedans as well as Jews 
and Christians. As the ancestor of Christ, 
in whom all the nations are blessed, and 
as the ftither of all believers, the cove- 
nant is abundantly fulfilled to him : his 
seed are as the stars of heaven, and with 
them he shall inherit the heavenly Ca- 
naan. 

Abraham's Bosom. In Luke 16 : 22, 
Lazarus is said to have been carried to 
Abraham's bosom, that is, to the state 
of bliss in paradise which the father of 
the faithful was enjoying. This is often 
represented by a feast, by sitting down 
to a banquet. Matt. 8:11 ; Luke 13:29. 
To lie on ones bosom refers to the oriental 
mode of reclining at table, John 13:23. 
See Eating. 

AB'SALOM, only son of David by Ma- 
acah, 2 Sam. 3:3. He was remarkable for 
his beauty and for his fine head of hair, 
2 Sam. 14:25, which being cut from time 
to time when it incommoded him, used 
to weigh 200 shekels by the king's stand- 
ard, that is, probably about thirty ounces, 
an extraordinary, but not incredible 
weight. Amnon, another of the king's 
sons, having violated his sister Tamar, 
Absalom caused him to be slain, and 
then fied to Geshur, where Talmai his 
grandfather was king. After three years, 
at the intercession of Joab, David per- 
mitted him to return to Jerusalem, and 
at length received him again into favor, 
2 Sam. 14. Absalom, hoAvever, grossly 
abused his father's kindness ; he soon 
began to play the demagogue, and In- 
many artful devices ' * stole the hearts of 
the people," and got himself proclaimed 
king in Hebron. David retired from Je- 
rusalem ; Absalom followed him ; and in 
the battle which ensued, the troops of 
the latter were defeated, and he himself, 
being caught by his head in a tree, was 
found and slain by Joab. David was 
much affected by his death, and uttered 
bitter lamentations over him, 2 Sam. 
18:33. 

His history affords instructive lessons 
to the young against the sins to which 
they are prone, particularly vanity, am- 
bition, lawless passions, and filial diso- 
bedience. 

AC'CAD, one of the four cities built in 
the plain of Shinar by Nimrod, founder 
of the Assyrian empire, Gen. 10:10. Its 
site is identified by some travellers with 
ruins which lie from six to nine miles 
west of Bagdad. There is here a ruin- 



ous structure called Tell-i-nimrood, Hill 
of Nimrod, consisting of a mass of brick- 
work 400 feet in circumference at the 
base, and 125 feet high, standing on a 
mound of rubbish. More recently. Col. 
Rawlinson claims that the site of Accad 
was at a place now called Niffer, amid 
the marshes of Southern Babylonia. 

AC'CHO, a city of the tribe of Asher, 
Judg. 1:31. In the New Testament, Ac- 
cho is called Ptolemais, Acts 21:7, from 
one of the Ptolemies, who enlarged and 
beautified it. The crusaders gave it the 
name of Acre, or St. John of Acre. It 
is still called Akka by the Turks. It sus- 
tained several sieges during the crusades, 
and was the last fortified place wrested 
from the Christians by the Turks. 

The town is situated on the coast of the 
Mediterranean sea, thirty miles south of 
Tyre, on the north angle of a I ay to which 
it gives its name, and which extends in 
a semicircle of three leagues, as far as 
the point of mount Carmel, south-west 
of Acre. After its memorable siege by 
Buonaparte, when he was repulsed by Sir 
Sidney Smith, in 1799, Accho was much 
improved and strengthened, and its pop- 
ulation was estimated at from 18,000 to 
20,000. It has since then sufl'ered great- 
ly, having been besieged six months by 
Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832, and bombarded 
by an English fleet in 1840. Present 
population, (1859,) 10,000 or 12,000. 

Accho, and all the sea-coast beyond it 
northwards, was considered as the hea- 
then land of the Jews. 

ACELDAMA, field of blood, a small 
field south of Jerusalem, which the 
priests purchased with the thirty pieces 
of silver that Judas had received as the 
price of our Saviour's blood, Matt. 27:8 ; 
Acts 1:19. Pretending that it was not 
lawful to appropriate this money to sa- 
cred uses, because it was the price of 
blood, they purchased with it the so 
called potter's field, to be a burying- 
place for strangers. Judas is said. Acts 
1:8, to have purchased the field, because 
it was bought with his money. Tradi- 
tion points out this field on the steep 
side of the hill of Evil Counsel overhang- 
ing the valley of Hinnom on the south. 
It appears to have been used, since the 
time of the crusaders, as a sepulchre for 
pilgrims, and subsequently by the Ar- 
menians. At present it is not thus used. 

ACHATA is used in the New Testament 
for the whole region of Greece south of 
11 



ACH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ACT 



Macedonia, including the Peloponnesus, 
or Morea, and some territory north of 
the gulf of Corinth, Acts 18:12 ; 19:21 ; 
2 Cor. 11 : 10. Achaia Proper, however, 
was a province of Greece, of which Cor- 
inth was the capital, and embraced the 
north-western part of the Peloponnesus. 
See Greece. 

A'CHAN, the son of Carmi, who diso- 
beyed the strict charge of the Lord, and 
purloined some of the spoils of Jericho 
which were doomed to destruction. This 
brought a curse and defeat upon the peo- 
ple. He was discovered by lot, and ston- 
ed with all his family in the valley of 
Achor, north of Jericho, Josh. 6 : 18 ; 
7 : 1-26. He is called Achar in 1 Chr. 2:7. 

A'CHISH, king of Gath, a city of the 
Philistines, to whom David twice fled for 
protection from Saul. On the first occa- 
sion, being recognized by the king's offi- 
cers, and thinking his life in danger, he 
feigned madness, and by this device es- 
caped, 1 Sam. 21:10. Several years af- 
ter, he returned with a band of 600 men, 
and was welcomed by Achish as an ene- 
my of Saul and of Israel. Achish gave 
him Ziklag for a residence ; and being 
deceived as to the views and operations 
of David, expected his assistance in a war 
with Israel, but was persuaded by his 
ofificers to send him home to Ziklag, 1 
Sam. 27-29. 

ACH'METHA, Ezra 6 : 2, supposed to 
mean Ecbatana, a city of Media, inferior 
to none in the East but Babylon and Nin- 
eveh. It was surrounded by seven walls, 
of different heights and colors, and was 
a summer residence of the Persian kings 
after Cyrus. Travellers identify it with 
the modern Hamadan, in which many 
Jews still reside, and where they profess 
to point out the tomb of Mordecai and 
Esther. 

ACHOR, trouble, a valley north of Jeri- 
cho ; so called, perhaps, from the troubles 
occasioned by the sin of Achan, who was 
here put to death. Josh. 7 : 26. The 
prophets allude to it with promises of 
hope and joy in the gospel era, Isa. 
65:10; Hos. 2:15. 

ACH'SAH, the daughter of Caleb, giv- 
en in marriage Avith a large dowry to his 
nephew Othniel, as a prize for taking the 
city Debir, Josh. 15 : 15-17 ; Judg. 1 : 12,18. 

ACH'SHAPH, a royal city of tlie Ca- 
naanites. Josh. 11:1, conquered by Josh- 
ua, and assigned to the tribe of Asher, 
Josh. 12:20; 19:25. 
12 



ACH'ZIB, a city of Asher, from which, 
however, the Jews were unable to expel 
the Canaanites, Judg. 1:31. It was af- 
terwards called by the Greeks, Ecdippa, 
and is now named Zib ; it lay on the sea- 
coast, ten miles north of Acre. 

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, a canonical 
book of the New Testament, written by 
Luke as a sequel to his gospel, and a his- 
tory in part of the early church. It is 
not, however, a record of the acts of all 
the apostles, but chiefly of those of Peter 
and Paul. In his gospel, Luke described 
the founding of Christianity in what 
Christ did, taught, and suffered: in the 
Acts he illustrates its diffusion, selecting 
what was best fitted to show how the 
Holy Spirit guided and blessed the first 
followers of Christ in building up his 
church. Beginning where his gospel 
ended, he narrates the ascension of the 
Saviour and the conduct of the disciples 
thereupon ; the outpouring of the Holy 
Spirit according to Christ's promise ; the 
miraculous preaching of the apostles, 
their amazing success, and the persecu- 
tions raised against them ; Avitli other 
events of moment to the church at Jeru- 
salem, till they were scattered abroad. 
He then shows how Judaism was super- 
seded, and how Peter was led to receive 
to Christian fellowship converts from the 
Gentiles. The remainder of the narra- 
tive is devoted to the conversion and 
calling of the apostle Paul, his mission- 
ary zeal, labors, and suflerings, and ends 
with his two years' imprisonment at 
Rome. 

Luke himself witnessed, to a great ex- 
tent, the events he narrates. Ilis Greek 
is the most classical in the New Testa- 
ment ; and the view he gives of the 
spirit of the early church, so many of 
whose members had "been with the 
Lord," is invaluable. The book was 
probably written about a. d. 64, that is, 
soon after the time at which the narra- 
tion terminates. The place where it Avas 
written is not known. 

In order to read the Acts of the Apos- 
tles with intelligence and profit, it is 
necessary to have a sufficient acquaint- 
ance with geography, with the manners 
of the times and people referred to, and 
with the leading historical events. The 
power of the Romans, with the nature 
and names of the public offices they es- 
tablished, and the distinctions among 
them, must be understood, as well as the 



ADxi 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ADA 



disposition and political opinions of the 
unconverted Jewish nation, Avhich Avere 
too prevalent among the Christianized 
Hebrews. 

AD'AM, the progenitor and representa- 
tive head of our race ; formed of the dust 
of the ground, and made a living soul by 
the Creator's breath. He was the last 
work of the creation, and received do- 
minion over all that the earth contained. 
That he might not be alone, God provid- 
ed Eve as a helpmeet for him, and she 
became his wife. Marriage is thus a 
divine institution, first in order of time, 
as well as of importance and blessedness 
to mankind. Adam was made a perfect 
man — <;omplete in every physical, men- 
tal, and spiritual endowment ; and placed 
in the garden of Eden on probation, holy 
and happy, but liable to sin. From this 
estate he fell by breaking the express 
command of God, through the tempta- 
tions of Satan and the compliance of 
Eve ; and thus brought the curse upon 
himself and all his posterity. Sovereign 
grace interposed ; a Saviour was revealed, 
and the full execution of the curse stayed ; 
but Adam was banished from Eden and 
its tree of life, and reduced to a life of 
painful toil. His happiness was farther 
imbittercd by witnessing the fruits of 
his fall in his posterity. Cain his first- 
born son, and Abel the second, born in 
the likeness of their fallen parents, were 
ere long lost to them — the one slain, 
and the other a fugitive. They proba- 
bly had many other sons and daugh- 
ters, but the name of Setli alone is 
given. Adam lived to the age of nine 
hundred and thirty years, and saw the 
earth raj^idly peopled by his descend- 
ants ; but ' ' the wickedness of man was 
great upon the earth. ' ' At the time of 
his death, Lamech, the father of Noah, 
was fifty-six years of age ; and being 
in the line of those who ' ' walked with 
God," had probably heard the early 
history of the race from the lips of the 
penitent Adam. 

The curse pronounced on man in- 
cludes not only physical labor and toil 
on a barren and thorny earth, and the 
physical dissolution of the body, but also 
the exposure of the soul, the nobler part, 
to "everlasting death." In that very 
day he should lose the moral image of his 
Maker, and become subject not only to 
physical death, but also to God's eternal 
wrath and curse, which is death in the 



highest sense of the word, and is the 
doom which has fallen iipon all his race. 
Such is the view of the apostle Paul ; who 
everywhere contrasts the death introduced 
into the world through Adam, with the 
l/fe which is procured for our race through 
Jesus Christ, Rom. 5. This life is spirit- 
ual ; and the death, in its highest sense, 
is also spiritual. So far as the penalty 
is temporal and physical, no man is or 
can be exempt from it ; but to remove 
the spiritual and eternal punishment, 
Christ has died ; and he who comes to 
him in penitence and faith will avoid 
the threatened death, and enter into life 
eternal, both of the body and the soul. 

The Redeemer is called ' ' the second 
Adam," 1 Cor. 15 : 45, as being the head 
of his spiritual seed, and the source of 
righteousness and life to all believers, as 
the first Adam was the source of sin and 
death to all his seed. 

II. A city near the Jordan, towards 
the sea of Tiberias, at some distance from 
which the waters of the Jordan were 
heaped up for the passage of the Jews, 
Josh. 3 : 16. 

AD'AMANT, a name anciently used 
for the diamond, the hardest of all min- 
erals. It is used for cutting or writing 
upon glass and other hard substances, 
Jer. 17 : 1. It is also employed figura- 
tively, Ezek. 3:9; Zech. 7 : 12. Others 
suppose the smiris, or emery, to be meant. 

AD'DER, a species of serpent, more 
commonly called viper. The word adder 



^^tel''^ 




is used five times in the Bible, as a trans- 
lation of four different Hebrew words, 
denoting different serpents of the venom- 
ous sort. In Gen. 49 : 17, it seems to 
mean the cerastes, or horned viper, of 
the color of sand, and very deadly bite ; 
accustomed to lie hidden in the tracks in 
13 



ADA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ADO 



the sand, and dart np on the nnwary 
traveller. In Psa. 58:4; 91:13, it is 
probably the asp. In Psa. 140 : 3 per- 
haps the tarantula, or some serpent that 
strikes backward. Sec Serpext, Viper. 
A'DAPt, the twelfth month of the Pie- 
brew ecclesiastical year, and the sixth of 
the civil year. In this month occurred 
the celebrated feast of Purim. It nearly 
answers to our March. As the lunar 
year, which the Jews follow, is shorter 
than the solar year by eleven days, 
which, after three years, make about a 
month, they then insert a thirteenth 
month, which they call Ve-Adar, or a 
second Adar. See Month. 

AD']\IAPI, one of the four cities in the 
plain of Siddim, destroyed by lire from 
heaven and covered by the Dead sea. 
Gen. 14 ; 2 ; 19 : 24, 25 ; Hos. U : 8. 

ADONI-BE'ZEK, lurd of Bezek, a Ca- 
naanite tyrant of Bezek, east of Shechem. 
Having taken seventy of the neighboring 
petty chiefs, he disabled them by cutting 
off their thiimbs and great toes, and fed 
them like dogs. The same barbarous 
treatment was meted out to him, Avhen 
defeated at the head of an army of Ca- 
naanites and Perizzites, by Judah and 
Simeon, Judg. 1:4-7. 

ADONl'JAH, the fourth son of David, 
by Haggith, 2 Sam. 3:4. After the 
death of Amnon and Absalom, he as- 
pired to the throne, although it was 
promised to Solomon, his younger broth- 
er. Having gained over Joab and Abia- 
thar and other adherents, he at length 
openly revolted and claimed the crown 
while David was yet living. The news 
of this revolt being brought to the king, 
he caused Solomon to be crowned king 
at once ; upon which the friends of Adoni- 
jah dispersed, and he took refuge at the 
horns of the altar. Solomon dismissed 
him with only an admonition. But soon 
after the death of David, he applied for 
the liand of Abishag, thus renewing his 
pretensions to the throne, for which he 
was put to death, 1 Kin. 1, 2. 

ADONI-ZE'DEK, a king of Jerusalem, 
•vvho made an alliance with four other 
kings against Joshua. A great battle 
was fought at Gibeon, where the Lord 
aided Israel by a terrific hailstorm, and 
by miraculously prolonging the day. 
The five kings Avere utterly routed, and 
hid themselves in a cave at Slakkedah ; 
but were taken by Joshua, and put to 
death, Josh. 10. 
14 



ADONI'RAM, a receiver of tributes 
under David and Solomon, and director 
of the thirty thousand men sent to Leba- 
non to cut timber, 1 Kin. 5 : 14. The 
same person is also called Adoram, by 
contraction, 2 Sam. 20:24 ; 1 Kin. 12:18 ; 
and also Hadoram, 2 Chr. 10:18. He 
was stoned to death by the revolted ten 
tribes, having been sent to them by Re- 
hoboam, either to induce them to re- 
turn, or to test them by gathering the 
taxes. 

ADOP'TION is an act by which a per- 
son takes a stranger into his family, 
acknowledges him for his child, and con- 
stitutes him heir of his estate. Jacob's 
adoption of his two grandsons, Ephraim 
and Manasseh, Gen. 48:5, was a kind of 
substitution, whereby he intended that 
these his grandsons should have each his 
lot in Israel, as if they had been his own 
sons : ' ' Ephraim and ilanasseh are mine ; 
as Reuben and Simeon, they shall be 
mine." As he gives no inheritance to 
their father Joseph, the effect of this 
adoption was simply the doubling of 
their inheritance. 

But Scripture affords instances of an- 
other kind of adoption — that of a father 
having a daughter only, and adopting 
her children. Thus, 1 Chr. 2 : 21, Ma- 
chir, grandson of Joseph, and father of 
Gilead, Num. 26 : 29, gave his daughter 
to Hezron, "who took her; and he was 
a son of sixty years," sixty years of age, 
' ' and she bare him Segub ; and Segub 
begat Jair, who had twenty-three cities 
in the land of Gilead," Josh. 13:30; 
1 Kin. 4 : 13. However, as well he as 
his posterity, instead of being reckoned 
to the family of Judah, as they would 
have been by their paternal descent from 
Hezron, are reckoned as sons of Ma- 
chir, the father of Gilead. Nay, more, 
it appears. Num. 32:41, that this Jair, 
who was in fact the son of Segub, the 
son of Hezron, the son of Judah, is ex- 
pressly called "Jair, the son of Manas- 
seh," because his maternal great-grand- 
father was Machir the son of Manasseh. 
In like manner we read that Mordecai 
adopted Esther, his niece ; he took her 
to himself to be a daughter, Esth. 2:7. 
So the daughter of Pharaoh adopted Mo- 
ses; and he became her son, Ex. 2:10. 
So we read, Ruth 4:17, that Naomi had 
a son — a son is born to Naomi ; when in- 
deed it was the son of Ruth. 

At the present day, adoption is not 



ADO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ADU 



uncommon in the East, where it is made 
before a public oiiicer with legal forms. 

In the New Testament, adoption de- 
notes that act of God's free grace by 
wliich, on being justified through faith, 
\fe are received into the family of God, 
and made heirs of the inheritance of 
heaven. It is " in Christ, ' ' and through 
his atoning merits, that believers "re- 
ceive the adoption of sons," Gal. 4:4, 5. 
Some of the privileges of this state are, 
deliverance from a fearful and servile 
spirit ; the special love and care of our 
heavenly Father ; conformity to his im- 
age ; a filial conlidence in him ; free ac- 
cess to. him at all times; the witness of 
the Holy Spirit, whereby we cry, "Abba, 
Father;" and a title to our heavenly 
home, Rom. 8:14-17; Eph. 1:4, 5. 

ADORATM, a town in the south of 
Judah, fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 
11:9. Robinson has identified it with 
the modern Dura, a large village five 
miles west by south from Hebron. 

ADO'RAM, see Adoniram. 

ADRAM'MELECH, I., son of Sennach- 
erib, king of Assyria, Isa. 37:38, 2 Kin. 
19:37, who, upon returning to Nineveh 
after his fatal expedition against Heze- 
kiah, was killed by his two sons, Adram- 
melech and Sharezer, through fear, ac- 
cording to a Jewish tradition, of being 
sacrificed to his idol Nisroch. They then 
fled to the mountains of Armenia, b. c. j 
713. I 

II. One of the gods adored by the in- 
habitants of Sepharvaim, who settled in ! 
Samaria, in the stead of those Israelites i 
•who were carried beyond the Euphrates. ! 
They made their children pass through 
fire, in honor of this false deity, and of an- 
other called Anammelech, 2 Kin. 17:31. 
Some think that Adrammelech represent- 
ed the sun, and Anammelech the moon. 

ADRAMYT'TIUM, a maritime town 
of Mysia, in Asia Minor, opposite to the 
island of Lesbos, Acts 27 : 2. It is now 
called Adramyt. 

A'DRIA, in Acts 27:27, is the Adriatic 
sea. This term now denotes only the 
Gulf of Venice ; but in St. Paul's time it 
included the whole sea lying between i 
Italy and Greece, and extending on the | 
south from Crete to Sicily, within which 
the island of Malta or Mclita lies. So j 
Ptolemy and Strabo. 

A'DRIEL, a son of Barzillai, married 
Merab, daughter of Saul, who had been j 
promised to David, 1 Sam. 18:19. Adri- I 



el had five sons by her, who Avere deliv- 
ered up to the Gibeonites, to be put to 
death before the Lord, to avenge the cru- 
elty of Saul their grandfather against 
the Gibeonites. In 2 Sam. 21:8, these 
are said to be the sons of Michal, whom 
she "brought up" for Adriel ; but un- 
less this is a copyist's error, Michal had 
adopted the children of her sister JMcrab, 
who was perhaps dead ; or possibly both 
sisters may have borne the name Michal. 
Compare under Abiathar. 

ADUL'LAM, an ancient city in the 
plain of Judah, south-west of Jerusalem, 
Gen. 38:1; Josh. 15:35. Its king was 
slain by Joshua, Josh. 12 : 15. It was 
one of the cities rebuilt and fortified by 
Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:7 ; Mic. 1:15, and 
was reoccupied by the Jews after the 
captivity, Neh. 11:30. 

When David withdrew from Achish, 
king of Gath, he retired to the "cave of 
Adullam," 1 Sam. 22:1 ; 2 Sam. 23:13. 
The location of this cave, however, is 
uncertain. Tradition places it in the 
hill country, about six miles south-east 
of Bethlehem, the city of David ; a large 
and fine cave, visited by many travellers. 
It is capable of holding thousands. 

ADUL'TERY is a criminal connection 
between persons who are engaged, one or 
both, to keep themselves Avholly to oth- 
ers ; and thus it exceeds the guilt of for- 
nication, which is the same intercourse 
between immarried persons. As the 
highest sin of its kind, and so including 
all other sins of the flesh, it is forbidden 
in the seventh commandment. Where 
polygamy was allowed, as among the an- 
cient Jews, illicit intercourse between a 
married man and a woman who was not 
married, nor betrothed, constituted not 
adultery, but fornication. 

Fornication may be, in some sense, 
covered by a subsequent marriage of the 
parlies ; but adultery cannot be so healed. 
Hence God often compares himself to a 
husband jealous of his honor, Jcr. 31:32 ; 
and hence the forsaking of the true God 
is compared to fornication and adultery 
of the vilest kind, Jer. 3:9; Ezek. 
23:30-49. 

B}' the law of Moses, both the man 
and the Avoman who had committed 
adultery were punished with death. Lev. 
20 : 10 ; 21 : 9 ; John 8:5. A Avoman sus- 
pected of this crime might, in order to 
clear herself, drink the "water of jeal- 
ousy," as prescribed in Num. 5. 
15 



ADU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



AHA 



ADUM'MIM, a border town of Benja- 
min and Judah, not far from Jericho on 
the road to Jerusalem. This road ascends 
through a desolate and rocky region, ' ' the 
ascent of Adummim," Josh. 15:7 ; 18:17; 
it furnished many lurking places for rob- 
bers, and was the scene of our Saviour's 
parable, The good Samaritan, Luke 10. 

AD'VOCATE, or Par'aclete, one that 
pleads the cause of another. In its tech- 
nical sense, the office was imknown to 
the Jews till they became subject to the 
Romans. It is applied to Christ as our 
intercessor, 1 John 2:1; compare Rom. 
8 : 34 ; Heb. 7 : 25 ; and to the Holy Spir- 
it, as our teacher and comforter, John 
14:16; 15:26. 

^'NON, see Enon. 

AFFIN'ITY, 1 Kin. 3:1 ; relationship 
by marriage ; as consanguinity is rela- 
tionship by blood. The degrees within 
which relatives were forbidden by the 
Levitical law to intermarry, may be 
found in Lev. 18. 

AG'ABUS, "a prophet" of the early 
church, perhaps one of "the seventy" 
disciples of Christ. He foretold the fam- 
ine, of which Suetonius and others speak, 
in the days of Claudius, a. d. 44. It was 
very severe in Judca ; and aid was sent 
to the church at Jerusalem from Antioch, 
Acts 11:27. Many years after, Agabiis 
predicted the sufferings of Paul at the 
hands of the Jews, Acts 21 : 10. 

A'GAG, a general name of the kings 
of the Amalekites ; apparently like Pha- 
raoh for the Egjq^tian kings. Num. 
24:7 ; 1 Sam. 15:'8. The last one men- 
tioned in Scripture was "hewed in 
pieces" by Samuel, before the Lord, be- 
cause Saul had sinfully spared him and 
the flocks and herds, when ordered utter- 
ly to exterminate them. He seems to 
have incurred an uncommon punishment 
by infamous cruelties, 1 Sam. 15:33. 

'Agagite, in Esther 3:1, 10; 8:3, 5, is 
used to mark the nation whence Haman 
sprung. Josephus explains the word by 
Amalekite. 

AGATE, a precious stone, said to take 
its name from the river Achates in Sic- 
ily, where it abounded. Agates, which 
are of several kinds, are likewise pro- 
cured in India, in various parts of Eu- 
rope, and at the Cape of Good Hope. 
They are semi-transparent, and often are 
beautifully veined and cloiidcd, and pre- 
sent in miniature the picture of many 
natural objects. The agate was the scc- 
16 



ond stone in the third row of the high- 
priest's breastplate, Ex. 28:19; 39:12. 

AGRIP'PA, see Herod III., IV. 

A'GUR, an inspired Hebrew, author of 
the thirtieth chapter of Proverbs, incor- 
porated with those of Solomon. 

AHAB, I., the sixth king of Israel, 
succeeded his father Omri b. c. 918, and 
reigned twenty-two years. His wife was 
Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal king of 
Tyre ; an ambitious and passionate idol- 
atress, through whose influence the wor- 
ship of Baal and Ashtoreth Avas intro- 
duced in Israel. Ahab erected in Sama- 
ria a house of Baal, and set up images of 
Baal and Ashtoreth ; idolatry anjj wick- 
edness became fearfully prevalent, and 
the king ' ' did more to provoke the Lord 
to anger than all the kings that were be- 
fore Iiim." In the midst of this great 
apostasy, God visited the land with three 
years of drought and famine ; and then, 
at mount Carmel, reproved idolatry by 
fire from heaven, and by the destruction 
of four himdred and fifty prophets of Baal. 
About six years later, Ben-hadad, king of 
Syria, invaded Israel with a great army, 
but was ignominiously defeated ; and still 
more disastrously the year after, when 
Ahab took him captive, but soon released 
him, and thus incurred the displeasure 
of God. In spite of the warnings and 
mercies of Providence, Ahab went on in 
sin ; and at length, after the murder of 
Naboth, his crimes and abominable idol- 
atries were such that God sent Elijah to 
denounce judgments upon him and his 
seed. These were in part deferred, how- 
ever, by his apparent humiliation. Soon 
after, having gone with Jehoshaphat, 
king of Judah, to regain Ramoth-gilead 
from the Syrians, and joined battle with 
them in defiance of Jehovah, he was 
slain, and dogs licked up his blood at the 
pool of Samaria, 1 Kin. 16:29 to 22:40. 

II. A false prophet, who seduced the 
Israelites at Babylon, and was denounced 
by Jeremiah, Jer. 29:21, 22. 

AHASUE'RUS, a royal title, common 
to several Median and Persian kings nam- 
ed in Scripture. I. The father of Darius 
the Mede, Dan. 9:1. The most proba- 
ble opinion is, that the name here desig- 
nates Astyages, the grandfather of Cyrus. 
See below, and Darius I. 

II. Mentioned Ezra 4:6, the son and 
successor of Cyrus ; probably Cambyses, 
who reigned seven and a half years from 
D. c. 629. 



AHA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



AH I 



III. Tlie husband of Esther, most 
probably Xerxes. Commentators have 
been much divided, and have understood 
under this name all the Persian kings in 
succession. But the other kings of Per- 
sia are all mentioned in Scripture by 
their own names, or at least definitely 
pointed out ; while Xerxes is not men- 
tioned, unless under this name. Besides, 
recent researches show that the Hebrew 
word for Ahasuerus is readily formed 
from the Persian name of Xerxes, the 
name Xerxes being only a Greek corrup- 
tion of the Persian. See Esther. 

AHA'VA, a town in Chaldea, w^hich 
gave name to the stream on the banks of 
which the exiled Jews assembled their 
second caravan under Ezra, when re- 
turning to Jerusalem, Ezra 8 : 15, 21, 
31. It may be the modern Hib on the 
Euphrates, in the latitude of Bagdad. 

A'HAZ, son of Jotham, and twelfth 
king of Judah. He ascended the throne 
at twenty vears of age, and reigned six- 
teen years,' 2 Kin. IG:I, 2, 20. b. c. 738. 
He was distinguished for his idolatry and 
contempt of the true God; and against 
him many of the prophecies of Isaiah 
are directed, Isa. 7. He made his own 
children pass through the fire to idols; 
he introduced the Syrian gods into Jeru- 
salem, altered the temple after the Syri- 
an model, and even closed it altogether. 
Having thus forfeited the aid of Jeho- 
vah, he met various repulses in battle 
with Pekali and Ptezin; the Edomites 
revolted, and the Philistines harassed his 
borders. He turned yet more away from 
God -in his distress, and sought aid from 
Pul, king of Assyria. This fatal step 
made him tributary to Pul, and to Tig- 
lath-pileser his successor. Ahaz was re- 
duced to great extremities, in buying off 
the Assyrians ; but became more infatu- 
ated still in idolatry, and dying in his 
impiety at the age of thirty-six, was re- 
fused a burial with the kings his ances- 
tors, 2 Chr. 28. 

AHAZIAH, I., son and successor of 
Ahab, king of Israel, I Kin. 22:40, 51; 
2 Kin. I. He reigned two years, alone 
and with his father, who associated him 
in the kingdom the year before his 
death, b. c. 894. Ahaziah imitated 
Ahab's impiety, and worshipped Baal 
and Astarte, whose rites had been intro- 
duced into Israel by Jezebel his mother. 
During his reign the IMoabites revolted. 
Having joined king Jehoshaphat in a 



commercial enterprise on the Red sea, 
his impiety blasted the whole. After a 
fall from the gallery of his house, he 
sent to consult a god of the Philistines 
as to his recovery. Elijah the prophet 
foretold his speedy death — first to the 
messengers, and again to Ahaziah him- 
self, after two companies of fifty had 
been consumed by fire from heaven. 

II. Otherwise Jehoahaz, or Azariah, 
king of Judah, son of Jehoram and Ath- 
aliah ; he succeeded his father b. c. 881, 
2 Kin. 8:25 ; 2 Chr. 22:2. *He was twen- 
ty-two years of age when he ascended 
the throne, and reigned but one year at 
Jerusalem. He followed the house of 
Ahab, to which he was allied by his 
mother, and did evil. He met his death 
at the hand of Jehu, while in company 
with Joram, son of Ahab. 

AHIAH, son of Ahitub, and high- 
priest in the reign of Saul, I Sam. 14:3. 
He was probably the brother of his suc- 
cessor Ahimelech, slain by Saul, 1 Sam. 
22:9. 

AHI'JAH, a prophet and chronicler of 
the times of Solomon and Jeroboam, 
1 Kin. 1 1 :29 ; 2 Chr. 9:29. He is thought 
to be the person who spoke in God's name 
to Solomon while building the temple, 

1 Kin. 6:11 ; and again after he fell into 
sin, 1 Kin. 11:11. He notified Jeroboam 
of the separation of Israel from Judah, 
and of the foundation of his house — the 
ruin of which he afterwards foretold, 1 
Kin. 14:1-14. 

AHPKAM, sent by Josiah to Huldah 
the prophetess, when the book of the 
law was found in the temple, 2 Kin. 
22:12. He afterwards nobly befriended 
the prophet Jeremiah, Jer. 26:24; 39:14. 

AHIMAAZ, the son and successor of 
Zadok, became high-priest in the reign of 
Solomon. During the reign of David, 
he revealed to him the counsels of Absa- 
lom and his advisers in rebellion, 2 Sam. 
17 : 15-21 ; and conveyed to him also the 
tidings of Absalom's defeat and death, 

2 Sam. 18. 

AHIM'ELECH, I., son of Ahitub, and 
brother of Ahiah, whom he succeeded in 
the high-priesthood. Some think, how- 
ever, that both names belong to the 
same person. During his priesthood the 
tabernacle Avas at Nob, where Ahimelech 
dwelt, with many priests. Here he re- 
ceived David when tleeing from Saul, and 
gave him the show-bread and Goliath's 
sword. This act, as reported by Doeg 
17 



AHI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



ALA 



tlie Edomite, Saul viewed as treasonous ; 
and by tlie hand of this idolatrous and 
malignant foreigner, he put Ahinielech 
and eighty-five other priests of Jehovah 
to death, 1 Sam. 22 — a crime sufficient 
of itself to forfeit the throne and the 
favor of God. 

II. Also called Ahimelech, 1 Chr. 
18:16, probably the same as Abiathar, 
which see, 1 Chr. 24:3, G, 31. 

AHIN'OAM, I., daughter of Ahimaaz 
and wife of Saul, 1 Sam. 14:50. 

II. A woman of Jezrcel, wife of David 
and mother of Amnon. She was taken 
captive by the Amalekites, at Ziklag, 

1 Sam. 30:5; but was recovered by Da- 
vid, and accompanied him to Hebron, 

2 Sam. 2:2; 3:2. 

AHI'O, a son of Abinadab, who went 
before the ark of God on its way to Je- 
rusalem from his father's house ; tlius 
escaping the fate of Uzzali his brother, 
2 Sam. 6:3-7. 

AHITII'OPHEL, a native of Giloh, 
originally one of David's most intimate 
and valued friends ; bat upon the defec- 
tion and rebellion of Absalom, he espous- 
ed the cause of that prince, and became 
one of David's bitterest enemies. Being 
disappointed that Absalom did not follow 
his sagacious advice, and foreseeing the 
issue of the rebellion, he hanged him- 
self, 2 Sam. 15:12 ; ch. 17 ; Psa. 55:12-14. 
Ahithopliel seems to have been the 
grandfather of Bathsheba. 2 Sam. 23 : 34, 
compared with 11:3. 

AHI'TUB, I., grandson of Eli, and son 
of Pliinehas, in whose place he succeeded 
to the high-priesthood on the death of 
Eli, Pliinehas having perished in battle, 
B. c. 1141, 1 Sam. 4:11. 

II. Son of Amariah, and father of Za- 
dok, 2 Sam. 8:17; 1 Chr. 6:8. 

AHO'LAH, and AliOL'IBAII, two 
symbolical names, adopted by Ezekiel, 
2;'> : 4, to denote the two kingdoms of Ju- 
dah and Samaria. They are represented 
as sisters, and of Egyptian extraction. 
Aholah stands f^a• Samaria, and Ahol- 
ibah for Jcruialem. The allegory is a 
history of the Jewish church. 

AT, called also Hai, Gen. 12:8; Aija, 
Neh. 11:31; and Aiath, Isa. 10:28. A 
royal city of the Canaanites, east of Beth- 
el, near which Abraham once sojoin-ned 
and built an altar. Gen. 12:8; 13:3. 
It is memorable for Joshua's defeat on 
account of Achan, and his subsequent 
victory. Josh. 7 : 2-5 ; 8 : 1-2J. It was 
IS 



j rebuilt, and is mentioned by Isaiah. Its 
ruins are spoken of by Eusebius and Je- 
rome, but the exact site cannot now be 
fixed with certainty. 

ATN, fountain, spelt En in the English 
Bilile, in compound words, as En-rogel. 
It is the name of a city of Judah, after- 
wards assigned to Simeon, Josh. 15:32; 
1 Chr. 4 : 32. Also of a place in the north 
of Canaan, Num. 34:11. 

AIR. The air or atmosphere surround- 
ing the earth is often denoted by the 
word heaven ; so " the fowls of heaven ' ' 
means the birds of the air. 

To "beat the air," and to "speak in 
the air," I Cor. 9:26; 14:9, arc modes 
of expression used in most languages, 
signifying to speak or act without judg- 
ment or understanding, or to no pur- 
pose. "The jiowers of the air," Eph. 
2:2, prokibly means devils. 

AJALON, or Aijalon. I. A town in 
the tribe of Dan, assigned to the Levites. 
sons of Kohath, Josh. 21 :24. It was not 
far from Timnath, and was taken l)y the 
Philistines from Ahaz, 2 Chr. 28 : 18. It 
lay in or near a valley, not far from the 
valley of Gibeon, and is recognized in the 
modern village of Yalo. The valley lies 
towards the north, and is the place where 
Joshua commanded the sun and moon to 
stand still, and they obeyed him. Josh. 
10:12. 

II. A town in Benjamin, some three 
miles east of Bethel. It was fortified bv 
Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:10. 

III. In the tribe of Zebulun, the place 
of Elon's burial, Judg. 12:12. 

AKBAB'BIjM, scorpions, a point in the 
frontier line of the promised l:\nd, Judg. 
1:36, and in a region infested with ser- 
pents and scorpions, Deut. 8 : 15. It is 
to be found probably in the mountains 
near the Dead sea, on its south-west side. 
In Josh. 15:3, it is translated Maaleh- 
akrabbim, the ascent of Akrabbim. 

AL'ABASTER, a sort of stone, of fine 
texture, either the white gypsum, a sul- 
phate of lime, or the onyx-alabaster, a 
hard carbonate of lime, having the color 
of the human nail, and nearly allied to 
marble. This material being very gener- 
ally used to fabricate vessels for holding 
unguents and perfumed liquids, many 
vessels were called alabaster though made 
of a different substance, as gold, silver, 
glass, etc. In Matt. 26 : 6, 7, we read 
I that Mary, sister of Lazarus, John 12:3, 
j poured an alabaster box of precious oint- 



ALA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



ALE 



ment on Christ's head. Murk says "she 
brake the box," signifying- probably, that 
the seal upon the box, or i:pon the neck 
of the vase or bottle, which kept the per- 
fume from evaporating, liad never been 
removed ; it was on tills occasion first 
opened. See Spikenard. 

AL'xVMOTH, a musical term, indicat- 
ing probablv music for female voices, 
Psa. 40, title; 1 Chr. 15:20. 

ALEXAX'DER, I., the Great, the fa- 
mous son and successor of Philip, king 
of Macedon. He is alluded to in Dan. 
7:6 ; 8:4-7, under the figures of a leop- 
ard with four wings, and a one-horned 
he-goat, representing the swiftness of his 
conquests and his great strength. He 
was appointed by God to destroy the 
Persian empire and substitute the Gre- 
cian. In the statue seen by Nebuchad- 
nezzar in his dream, Dan. 2:39, the belly 
of brass was the emblem of Alexander. 
He succeeded his father b. c. 336, and 
within twelve years overran Syria, Pal- 
estine, and Egypt, founded Alexandria, 
conquered the Persians, and penetrated 
far into the Indies. He died at the age 
of thirty-two, from the efi"ects of intem- 
perance, and left his vast empire to be 
divided among his four generals. 

II. Son of Simon the Cyrcnian, Mark 
15 : 21 , apparently one of the more prom- 
inent early Christians. 

III. One of the council who condemned 
Peter and John, Acts 4:6. 

IV. A Jew of Ephcsus, who sought in 
vain to quiet the popular commotion re- 
specting Paul, Acts 10:33. 

Y. A coppersmith, and apostate from 
Christianitv, 1 Tim. 1:20 ; 2 Tim. 4:14. 

ALEXAN'DPvIA, a celebrated city in 
Lower Egypt, situated between the Med- 
iterranean sea and the lake Mareotis, not 
far from the most Avesterly mouth of the 
Nile. It was founded by Alexander the 
Great, b. c. 332, and peopled by colo- 
nies of Greeks and Jews. Alexandria 
rose rapidly to a state of prosperity, be- 
coming the centre of commercial inter- 
course between the East and the West, 
and in process of time was, in point both 
of magnitude and Avealth, second only to 
Ptome itself. The ancient city was about 
fifteen miles in circuit, peopled by 300,- 
000 free citizens and as many slaves. 
From the gate of the sea ran one mag- 
nificent street, 2,000 feet broad, through 
the entire length of the city, to the gate 
of Canopus, aifordmg a view of the ship- 



ping in the port, whether north in the 
Mediterranean, or south in the noble 
basin of the Mareotic lake. Another 
street of equal width intersected this at 
right angles, in a square half a league in 
circumference. 

Upon the death of Alexander, whose 
body Avas deposited in this new city, Al- 
exandria became the regal capital of 
Egypt, under the Ptolemies, and rose to 
its highest splendor. During the reign 
of the first three princes of this name, its 
glory was at the highest. The most cel- 
1 ebratcd philosophers from the East, as 
' well as from Greece and Home, resorted 
[ thither for instruction ; and eminent 
I men, in every department of knowledge, 
were found within its walls. Ptolemy 
i Soter, the first of that line of kings, form- 
i ed the museum, the library of 700,000 vol- 
j umes, and several other splendid works. 
i At the death of Cleopatra, b. c. 26, Alex- 
! andria passed into the hands of the Ro- 
mans ; and after having enjoyed the high- 
est fiime for upwards of a thousand years, 
it submitted to the arms of the caliph 
Omar, a. d. 646. 

The present Alexandria, or according 
to the pronunciation of the inhabitants, 
Skanderia, occupies only about the eighth 
part of the site of the ancient city. The 
splendid temples have been exchanged 
for wretched mosques and miserable 
churches, and the magnificent palaces 
for mean and ill-built dwellings. The 
city, which was of old so celebrated for 
its commerce and navigation, is now 
merely the port of Cairo, a place where 
ships may touch, and where wares may 
be exchanged. The modern city is built 
with the ruins of the ancient. The 
streets are so narrow, that the inhabit- 
ants can lay mats of reeds from one roof 
to the opposite, to protect them from the 
scorching sun. The population consists 
of Turks, Arabs, Copts, Jews, and Arme- 
nians. Many Europeans have counting- 
houses here, where the factors exchange 
European for oriental merchandise. 

The Greek or Alexandrine version of 
the Scriptures was made here by learned 
Jews, seventy-two in number, and hence 
it is called the Septuagint, or version of 
the Seventy. The Jews established them- 
selves in great numbers in this city A-ery 
soon after it was founded. Josephus says 
that Alexander himself assigned to them 
a particular quarter of the city, and al- 
lowed them equal rights and privileges 
19 



ALG 



BIBLE DICTION AKY. 



ALO 



with the Greeks. Philo, who himself 
lived there in the time of Christ, affirms 
that, of live parts of the city, the Jews 
inhahited two. According to his state- 
ments, also, there dwelt in his time, in 
Alexandria and the other Egyptian cit- 
ies, not less than a million Jews ; but 
this would seem exaggerated. 

AL'GUM, the same as Almug, whicli 
see. 

AL'LEGORY, a figurative mode of dis- 
course, w'hich employs terms literally 
belonging to one thing, in order to ex- 
press another. It is strictly a prolonged 
metaphor. Such are Nathan's address 
to David, 2 Sam. 12 : 1-14, Psa. 80, and 
our Lord's parable of the sower, Luke 
8:5-15. The expression, "which things 
are an allegory," Gal. 4:24, means that 
the events in the life of Isaac and Ish- 
mael, mentioned in previous verses, have 
been allegorically applied. 

ALLELUTA, see Hallelu'jah. 

AL'LON-BACHUTH', oak of wseping ; 
the spot where Rebekah's nurse was bur- 
ied. Gen. S5:8. 

AL'MON-DIBLATHA'IM, one of the 
encampments of the Israelites on their 
way from mount Hor to the plains of 
Moab ; location unknown, Num. 33:46. 




ALMOND-TREE. This tree resembles 
a peach-tree, but is larger. In Pales- 
20 



tine, it blossoms in January, and in 
March has fruit. Its blossoms are white. 
Its Hebrew name signifies a watcher, and 
to this there is an allusion in Jer. 1:11. 
In Eccl. 12 : 5, the hoary head is beauti- 
fully compared with the almond-tree, 
both on account of its snowy whiteness 
and its winter blossoming. 

AL'MUG, a kind of tree or wood, whicli 
Hiram brought from Ophir for the use of 
Solomon in making pillars for the tem- 
ple and his own house, and also musical 
instruments, 1 Kin. 10:11; 2 Chr. 2:8. 
The rabbins call it coral ; but it could not 
be this. It w^as more probably the tree 
which furnishes what is now commonly 
called Brazil wood, which is also a native 
of the East Indies, Siam, the Molucca 
islands, and Japan, and has several spe- 
cies. Its wood is very durable, and is 
used in fine cabinet work. It yields also 
a dye of a beautiful red color, for which 
it is much used. Its resemblance in color 
to coral may have given occasion for the 
name almug, which in rabbinic still sig- 
nifies coral ; and thus the meaning of 
the name would be coral- wood. 

AL'OES, or more properly. Aloe, an 
East Indian tree, that grows about eight 
or ten feet high, and yields a rich per- 
fume, Psa. 45:8 ; Prov. 7:17 ; Song 4:14. 
This tree or Avood was called by the 
Greeks Agallochon, and has been known 
to moderns by the names of lign-aloe, 
aloe-wood, paradise- wood, eagle-wood, 
etc. Modern botanists distinguish two 
kinds : the one grows in Cochin-China, 
Siam, and China, is never exported, and 
is of so great rarity in India, as to be 
worth its weight in gold. The tree is 
represented as large, with an erect trunk 
and lofty branches. The other or more 
common species is called garo in the East 
Indies, and is the Avood of a tree grow- 
ing in the Moluccas, the Exca-caria Agal- 
locha of Linnaeus. The leaves are like 
those of a pear-tree ; and it has a milky 
juice, which, as the tree grows old, hard- 
ens into a fragrant resin. The trunk is 
knotty, crooked, and usually hollow. 
Aloe-wood is said by Herodotus to have 
been used by the Egyptians for embalm- 
ing dead bodies, and Nicodemus brought 
it, mingled witli myrrh, to embalm the 
body of our Lord, John 19 : 39. This 
perfume, it will be seen, is something 
altogether different from the aloes of the 
apothecaries, which is a bitter resin, ex- 
tracted from a low herb. 



ALP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ALT 



AL'PHA, see the letter A. 

ALPH^'US, I., father of James the 
Less, Matt. 10:3, Luke 6:15, and hus- 
band of the Mary usually regarded as 
sister to the mother of Christ, John 
19:25. See Mary, I. and III. By com- 
paring John 19:25 with Luke 24:18 and 
Matt. 10:3, it is evident that Alphaeus is 
the same as Cleophas ; Alphteus being his 
Greek name, and Cleophas his Hebrew or 
Syriac name. 

II. Father of Matthew, or Levi, the 
evangelist, Mark 2 : 14. 

AL'TAR, a table-like structure on 
which sacrifices and incense were offer- 
ed, built of various materials, usually of 
stone, but sometimes of brass, etc. It 
is evident that sacrifices were offered 
long before the flood ; but the first men- 
tion of an altar in Scripture is when 
Noah left the ark. Mention is made of 
altars reared by Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, 
and Moses. The latter was commanded 
to build an altar of earth, Ex. 20 : 24. 
If stone was employed, it must be rough 
and unhewn, probably lest the practice 
of sculpture should lead them to violate 
the second commandment. It was not 
to be furnished with steps, Deut. 27 : 2-6. 

The altars in the Jewish tabernacle, 
and in the temple at Jerusalem, were the 
following : 1. The altar of burnt-offer- 
ings. 2. The altar of incense. 3. The 
table of show -bread, for which see 
Bread. 




Ex. 27, 38. It Avas placed in the court 
before the tabernacle, towards the east. 
The furniture of the altar was of brass, 
and consisted of a pan, to receive the 
ashes that fell through the grating ; 
shovels ; basins, to contain the blood 
with which the altar Avas sprinkled ; and 
forks, to turn and remove the pieces of 
flesh upon the coals. The fire was a per- 
petual one, kindled miraculously, and 
carefully cherished. Upon this altar the 
lamb of the daily morning and evening 
sacrifice was oflered, and the other stated 
and voluntary blood-sacrifices and meat 
and drink-offerings. To this also certain 
fugitives were alloAved to flee and find 
protection. The altar in Solomon's tem- 
ple was larger, being about thirty feet 
square and fifteen feet high, 2 Chr. 4:1. 
It is said to have been covered with thick 
plates of brass and filled with stones, 
with an ascent on the east side. It is 
often called " the brazen altar." 




1. The Altar of Burxt-offerings was 
a kind of coffer of shittim-wood covered 
with brass plates, about seven feet six 
inches square, and four feet six inches in 
lieight. At the four corners were four 
horns, or elevations. It was portable, 
and had rings and staves for bearing it, 



2. The Altar of Incense was a small 
table of shittim-wood, covered with 
plates of gold ; it was eighteen inches 
square, and three feet high, Ex. 30; 
37 : 25, etc. A t the four corners were four 
^ horns, and all aroimd its top was a little 
border or croAvn. On each side were two 
rings, into which staves might be insert- 
ed for the purpose of carrying it. It 
stood in the Boli/ place ; not in the Ho- 
ly of Holies, but before it, between the 
golden candlestick and the table of show- 
bread, and the priests burned incense 
upon it every morning and evening. So 
Zacharias, Luke 1:9, 11. See Temple. 

Altar at Athens, inscribed "to the 
unknown God," Acts 17:23. It is cer- 
tain, both from Paul's assertion and the 
21 



AMA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



AMA 



testimony of Greek writers, that altars 
to an unknown god or gods existed at 
Athens. But the attempt to ascertain 
definitely whom the Athenians worship- 
ped under this appellation, must ever 
remain fruitless for want of sufficient 
data. The inscription afforded to Paul a 
happy occasion of proclaiming the gos- 
pel ; and those who emhraced it found 
indeed that the Being whom they had 
thus ignorantly worshipped was the one 
only living and true God. 

AM'ALEK, son of Eliphaz, and grand- 
son of Esau, Gen. 36 : 12. It is not cer- 
tain that any distinct mention is made 
in the Bible of his posterity, people call- 
ed Amalekites being in existence long 
before. Gen. 14 : 7 ; Num. 24 : 20. 

AM'ALEKITES, a powerful people, 
who dwelt in Arabia Petrffia, between 
the Dead sea and the Red sea, perhaps 
in moving troops. We cannot assign the 
place of their habitation, except in gen- 
eral it is apparent that they dwelt south 
of Palestine, between mount Seir and the 
border of Egypt ; and it docs not appear 
that they possessed many cities, though 
one is mentioned in 1 Sam. 15 : 5. They 
lived generally in migrating parties, in 
caves or in tents, like the Bedaween 
Arabs of the present day. The Israelites 
had scarcely passed the Red sea, when 
the Amalekites attacked them in the 
desert of Rephidim, and slew those who, 
tlirough fatigue or weakness, lagged be- 
hind ; and for this unprovoked assault 
on the people of God, the doom of ex- 
termination was passed upon them, Ex. 
17 : 8-16. They came again into conflict 
with a part of the Israelites on the bor- 
der of the promised land. Num. 14 : 45 ; 
and after 400 years, Saul attacked and 
destroyed them at the command of the 
Lord, 1 Sam. 15. A remnant, however, 
escaped and subsisted afterwards ; David 
defeated them on several occasions, 1 
Sam. 27 : 8 ; 30 : 1 ; 2 Sam. 8:12; and they 
Averc finally blotted out by the Simeon- 
ites, in the time of Hezekiah, 1 Chr. 
4 : 43, thus fulfilling the prediction of 
Balaam, Num. 24 : 20. Haman, the last 
of the race mentioned in Scripture, per- 
ished like his fathers, in conflict Avith 
the Jews. See the book of Esther. 

AM'ANA, the southern part or sum- 
mit of Anti-Lebanon, adjacent to and 
north of Hermon, from which the river 
Amana or Abana poured down towards 
Damascus, Song 4:8. 
22 



I AI\IARI'AH, I., son of Meraioth, a de- 
scendant of Aaron in the line of Elea- 
! zar. He was the father of Ahitub, (II.,) 
and grandfather of Zadok, in whose per- 
I son the high-priesthood was restored to 
[ that line, 1 Chr. 6 : 7. 
j II. High-priest at a later period, a son 
of Azariah, and father of another Ahi- 
tub, 1 Chr. 6 : 11. In like manner, in 
! the same list there are three persons 
I named Azariah. 

I AM' ASA, I., David's nephew, the son 

j of Abigail, David's sister, and Jether an 

j Ishmaelite. His parentage may have led 

Da-vdd to show him less favor than his 

I other nephews, and this may have dis- 

i posed him to join in the rebellion of Ab- 

I salom. He was the general of Absalom's 

! army, and was defeated by his cousin 

, Joab, 2 Sam. 17, 18. David afterwards 

j offered him a pardon and the command 

j of his troops in the place of Joab, whose 

overbearing conduct he could no longer 

j endure, 2 Sam. 19 : 13. But in the con- 

i fusion of Sheba's rebellion, Amasa was 

treacherously murdered bv his powerful 

rival, 2 Sam. 20 : 4-10. b. c. 1022. 

II. A chief of Ephraim, who opposed 
retaining as bondsmen the men of Judah 
taken captive in a war with Pekah king 
of Israel, 2 Chr. 28 : 12. 

AMASAI, a Levite, who joined David 
j with thirty gallant men, while in the 
i desert flying from Saul, 1 Chr. 6 • 25 ; 
! 12 : 16-18. 

j AMAZI'AH, 1. , eighth king of Judah, 
j son of Joash, began to reign b. c. 835, 
I and reigned twenty-nine years in Jeru- 
j salem. He did good in the sight of the 
! Lord, but not with a perfect heart. Hav- 
i ing established himself in his throne and 
.slain the murderers of his father, he mus- 
tered a host of 300,000 men of Judah, 
and hired 100,000 men of Israel, for a 
war upon Edom. These hired forces he 
reluctantly dismissed at the command of 
God, who gave him the victory without 
their aid. But this did not prevent him 
from carrying home with him the idols 
of Edom, and setting them up to be his 
gods. For this defiance of Jehovah, he 
was threatened with destruction by a 
prophet of the Lord ; and soon after, 
Avent headlong into war with Israel, in 
Avhich he was defeated and humbled. 
Fifteen years after, he Avas slain by con- 
spirators, after flving to Lachish to es- 
cape them, 2 Kin. 14 : 1-20 ; 2 Chr. 25. 
II. A priest of the golden calf at Beth- 



AMB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



A MM 



el, who denounced the prophet Amos to 
Jeroboam, and sought to banish hhn into 
Judah for his fidelity, Amos 7 : 10-17. 

AM'BER is a yellow or straw-colored 
gummy substance, originally a vegetable 
production, but reckoned in the mineral 
kingdom. It is found in lumps in the sea 
and on the shores of Prussia, Sicily, Tur- 
key, etc. Externally it is rough ; it is 
very transparent, and on being rubbed, 
yields a fragrant odor. It was formerly 
supposed to be medicinal, but is now em- 
ployed only in the manufacture of trin- 
kets, ornaments, etc. 

The Hebrew ^vord chasmil is translated 
by the Septuagint and Vulgate eledrum, 
that is, amber, because the Hebrew de- 
notes a very brilliant amber-like metal, 
composed of silver and gold, which was 
much prized in antiquity, Ezek. 1 : 4, 
27 ; 8:2. Others, as Bochart, refer here 
to the mixture of gold and brass, of 
Avhich the ancients had several kinds, 
some of which exhibited a high degree 
of lustre. Something similar to this was 
probablv also the "line brass," in Ezra 
8 : 27 ; llev. 1 : 15. 

AMEN is strictly an adjective, signi- 
fying lirm, and by a metaphor, faithful. 
So inKev. 3 : 14, our Lord is called "the 
Amen, the faithful and true "Witness," 
where the last words explain the pre- 
ceding appellation. In its adverbial use 
it means certainly, truly, surely. It is 
used at the bcgmning of a sentence by 
Avay of emphasis, frequently by our Sav- 
iour, and is there commonly translated 
Verily. In John's gospel alone, it is 
often used by him in this way double. 
Verily, verily. At the end of a sentence it 
is often used, singly or repeated, especial- 
ly at the end of liymns and jorayers ; as, 
' ' Amen and Amen, ' ' Psa. 41 : 13 ; 72:10; 
89 : 52. The proper signilication of it 
here is, to conhrm the Avords which have 
preceded, assert the sincerity and invoke 
the fuhilment of them : so it is, so be it, 
let it be done. Hence, in oaths, after 
the priest has repeated the words of the 
covenant or imprecation, all those who 
pronounce the Amen, bind themselves 
by the oath, Num. 5 : 22 ; Deut. 27 : 15, 
etc. ; Nch. 5:13; 8:6; 1 Chron. 16:36. 
Compare Psa. 106 : 48. 

AM'ETHYST, a precious stone of a 
violet blue color, verging towards a blu- 
ish or reddish wliite. It is seldom imi- 
form in color, and is generally cloudy 
and spotted with zigzag stripes. The 



most beautiful specimens come from 
Ceylon, the East Indies, Siberia, and 
Saxony. It is very highly prized, Ex. 
28:19; Rev. 21:20. 

AMMINADxVB, I., a son of Aram, of 
the tribe of Judah, and father of Naa- 
shon. He Avas one of the ancestors of 
Christ; and his daughter Elisheba Avas 
the Avife of Aaron, Ex. 6 : 23 ; Ruth 
4 : 20 ; Matt. 1:4. "The chariots of Am- 
minadib," Song 6:12, were A^ery light 
and swift, in allusion perhaps to some 
noted charioteer of that day. 

II. A son of Kohath, 1 Chr. 0:33. 

AM'MONITES, the descendants of Am- 
nion, or Ben-Ammi, a son of Lot. They 
destroyed an ancient race of giants called 
Zamzummim, and seized their country, 
AA'hich lay east of Judca, Deut. 2:19-21. 
Their territory extended from the Arnon 
to the Jabbok, and from the Jordan a 
considerable distance into Arabia. Their 
capital city Avas Rabbali, (also called Rab- 
bath Amnion, and afterAvards Philadel- 
phia, ) Avhich stood on the Jabbok . Yet in 
the time of Moses they had been driven 
out of this region, towards the east, by 
the Amorites, Num. 21:21-35; 32:33. 
Moses AA^as forbidden to assail them, 
Deut. 2:19. They Avere gross idolaters ; 
their chief idol being Moloch, supposed 
to be the same Avith Saturn, 1 Kin. 
11:5-7; 2 Kin. 23 : 13. They oppressed 
Israel in the time of Jephthah, and 
AA-ere defeated by him Avith great slaugh- 
ter, Judg. 11. The children of Amnion 
aftcrAvards, at various times, troubled the 
Israelites, for Avhich the prophets threat- 
ened them Avith divine judgments, Jer. 
49:1-6; Ezek. 25:2-10; and they were 
at last totally subdued by Judas Macca- 
beus, 1 Mace. 5:6-44. 

AM'MON, or No-Ammon, or No, a city 
of Egypt. Tlie name of the city is prop- 
erly No-Ammon, that is, the seat or 
dAvelling of the god Ammon, Nah. 3:8, 
in the HebrcAv. Similar is its Greek 
name Diospolis, thedhj of Jupiter- Ammon. 
In Ex. 30:14, 15, 16, it is called simply 
No ; and in Nah. 3:8 and Jer. 46:25, the 
English version has also only No. In 
the latter passage, "the multitude of 
No ' ' Avould be better ' ' Ammon of No. ' ' 
Tlie name designates, beyond all reason- 
able doubt, the city of Thebes, the an- 
cient and renoAvned capital of Upper 
Egypt. Homer describes her as 

" The world's great empress on the Egyptian 
plains, 

23 



AMN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



AMO 




LUXOK, FROM THE KIVER NILE. 



That spreads her conquests o'er a thousand 

states, 
And pours her heroes through a hundred 

gates." 

The vast ruins of the temples of Luxor 
and Carnac still proclaim the grandeur 
and magnificence with which the wor- 
ship of Jupiter-Ammon was conducted. 
The ruins of the ancient city of Thebes 
are the wonder and delight of modern 
travellers, for their extent, their vast- 
ness, and their sad and solitary gran- 
deur. They are covered with ancient 
hieroglyphics and historical sculptures, 
among which one interesting scene is 
thought to record the exploits of Shishak 
against Jerusalem in the fifth year of 
Eehohoam, 1 Kin. 14:25. See Wilkin- 
son, Robinson, and Olin. Also Mission- 
ary Herald, 1823, p. 347, and Siiishak. 

AM'NON, the eldest son of David, by 
Ahinoam of Jezreel. He is known only 
by his guilt in violating his sister ; for 
which Absalom, two years after, caused 
him to be assassinated, 2 Sam. 13. 

A'MON, the fourteenth king of Judah, 
son of Manasseh, began to reign b. c. 
639, at the age of twenty-two, and reign- 
ed only two years at Jerusalem. He did 
evil in the sight of the Lord, as his father 
Manasseh had done, by forsaking Jeho- 
vah and worshipping idols. His servants 
24 



conspired against him, and slew him in 
his own house ; but the people killed all 
the conspirators, and established his son 
Josiah on the throne. He was buried in 
the garden of Uzzah, 2 Kin. 21:18-26 ; 
2 Chr. 33:21-25. 

AM'OPiITES, a people descended from 
Emer, the fourth son of Canaan, Gen. 
10:16. They first peopled the mountains 
west of the Dead sea, near Hebron ; but 
afterwards extended their limits, and 
took possession of the finest provinces of 
Moab and Ammon, on the east between 
the brooks Jabbok and Arnon, Num. 
13:29 ; 21:21-31 ; Josh. 5:1 ; Judg. 11:13. 
Moses took this country from their king, 
Sihon. The lands which the Amorites 
possessed on this side Jordan were given 
to the tribe of Judah, and those beyond 
the Jordan to the tribes of Reuben and 
Gad. The name Amorite is often taken 
in Scripture for Canaanite in general, 
Gen. 15:16; Amos 2:9. See Canaanites. 

By the expression, "Thy father was 
an Amorite and thy mother a Hittite," 
Ezek. 16:3, God reminds the Jews that 
they were naturally no more worthy of 
divine favor than the worst of the hea- 
then Canaanites. 

AMOS, the fourth of the minor proph- 
ets, was a herdsman of Tekoah, a small 
town of Judah, about twelve miles south 



AMO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



ANA 



of Jerusalem. He prophesied, however, 
concerning Israel, at Bethel, in the days 
of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam 
II., king of Israel, about B. c. 787, and 
was thus a contemporary of Hosea, Joel, 
and Isaiah. The first two chapters con- 
tain predictions against the surrounding 
nations, enemies of the people of God. 
But the ten tribes of Israel were the 
chief subjects of his prophecies. Their 
temporary prosperity imdcr Jeroboam 
led to gross idolatry, injustice, and cor- 
ruption ; for which sins he denounces the 
judgments of God upon them: but he 
c'os:s with cheering words of consolation. 
His holy boldness in reproving sin drew 
on him the wrath of the priests, who la- 
bored to procure his banishment, Amos 
7 : 10-17. In regard to style, Amos takes 
a high rank among the prophets. He is 
full "of imagery, concise, and yet simple 
and perspicuous. 

II. One of the ancestors of our Lord, 
Luke 3:25. 

A'MOZ, the father of Isaiah, 2 Kin. 
19:2; Isa. 1:1. 

AMPHIP'OLIS, a city of Macedonia, 
situated not far from the mouth of the 
river Strymon, which flowed ' ' around the 
city, ' ' and thus occasioned its name. The 
village which now stands upon the site 
of the ancient city is called Empoli or 
Yamboli, a corruption of Amphipolis. 
It was visited by Paul and Silas, Acts 
17:1. 

AM'KAIil, the father of Aaron, Miri- 
am, and Moses. He died in Egypt, aged 
one hundred and thirty-seven, Exod, 
6:18, 20. 

AM'RAPHEL, king of Shinar in the 
time of Abraham. With three other 
petty kings, he made war vipon the 
trihes around the Dead sea, and the cities 
of the plain. Gen. 14:1. 

A'NAH, the father of Aholibamah, one 
of Esau's wives. While feeding his 
father's asses in the desert, he is said to 
have found the "mules," Gen. 36:24. 
But the Hebrew word is supposed to 
mean rather " warm springs ;" and such 
springs are found on the eastern coast of 
the Dead sea, which was not far from 
the dwelling of the Seirites, to whom 
Anah belonged. In this region was a 
place afterwards celebrated among the 
Greeks and Romans for its warm springs, 
and called by them Callirrhoe. 

A'NAK, plural An'akim, famous giants 
in Palestine, descended from Arba, found- 



er of the city Hebron. They spread them- 
selves over the south of Judah, the hill 
country, and several cities of the Philis- 
tines. The Hebrew spies were terrilicd 
at their sight. Num. 13 : 33 ; but in the 
conquest of Canaan they were destroyed 
or expelled, Josh. 11:22; 15:14; Judg. 
1:20. 

ANAM'MELECH, see Adrammelecii. 

ANANIAS, I., a Jew of Jerusalem, 
the husband of Sapphira, who attempted 
to join the Christians, and pretended to 
give them the entire price of his lands, 
Ijut died instantly on being convicted of 
falsehood by Peter, Acts 5 : 1-10. 

II. A Christian of Damascus, who re- 
stored the sight of Paul, after his vision 
of the Saviour, Acts 9 : 10-17 ; 22 : 12. 

III. A high-priest of the Jews, the son 
of Nebeda3us. He was sent as a prisoner 
to Rome by Quadratus, the governor of 
Syria, and Jonathan was appointed in 
his place ; but being discharged by the 
emperor Claudius, he returned to Pal- 
estine, and Jonathan being murdered 
through the treachery of Felix, Ananias 
appears to have performed the functions 
of the high-priest as a substitute, until 
Ismael was appointed by Agrippa. It 
was he before whom with the Sanhedrim 
Paul was summoned, under Felix, and 
who ordered an attendant to smite Paul 
on the mouth. The apostle's prophetic 
denunciation in reply seems to have 
been fullilled when, in the commence- 
ment of the siege of Jerusalem, the as- 
sassins burned the house of Ananias, and 
afterwards discovered his place of retreat 
in an aqueduct, and slew him, Acts 
23:2; 24:1. 

ANATH'EMA, that is, a curse, a ban, 
signifies properly something set apart, 
separated, devoted. It is understood 
principally to denote the absolute, irre- 
vocable, and entire separation of a per- 
son from the communion of the faithful, 
or from the number of the living, or 
from the privileges of society ; or the 
devoting of any man, animal, city or 
thing, to be extirpated, destroyed, con- 
sumed, and, as it were, annihilated, 
Lev. 27. Thus Jericho, Josh. 6 : 17-21, 
and Achan Avere accursed, Josh. 7. 

Another kind of anathema, very pe- 
culiarly expressed, occurs 1 Cor. 16 : 22 : 
' ' If any man love not the Lord Jesus 
Christ, let him be Anathema, Maran- 
atha." This last word is mare up of 
two Syriac words, signifving, "The Lord 
25 



ANA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ANG 



cometh," that is, tbe Lord will surely- 
come, and will execute this curse, by 
condemning those who love him not. 
At the same time, the opposite is also 
implied, that is, the Lord cometh also 
to reward those who love him. Sec 
Excommunication. 

AN'ATHOTH, one of the cities given 
to the priests, in Benjamin ; identified 
by Robinson m Anata, some four miles 
north by east of Jerusalem, Josh. 21 : 18 ; 
1 Chr. h : GO. It was the lurthplace of 
the prophet Jeremiah, Jer. 1:1; 32 : 7. 
Its people, however, rejected his words, 
and sought his life, Jer. 11 : 21. 

AN'DPiEW, one of the twelve apostles, 
was of Bethsaida, and the brother of 
Peter, John 1 : 40, 4-4. Being a disciple 
of John the Baptist, he understood the 
intimations of his master as to the Lamb 
of God, and was the first of the apostles 
to follow him, John 1 : 35-40, and come 
to the knowledge of the Messiah. Com- 
pare Jas. 4:8. He was afterwards called 
as an apostle, on the shore of the sea of 
Galilee, Matt. 4:18; and thenceforth 
followed Christ to the end, Mark 13 : 3 ; 
John 6:7; 12 : 22. Of his later history 
nothing is laiown with certainty. It 
seems probable, howe^^'cr, that after 
preaching the gospel in Greece, and per- 
liaps Thrace and Scythia, he suffered 
crucifixion at Patras in Achaia, on a 
cross of peculiar form (X,) hence com- 
monlv known as " St. Andrew's cross." 

xV^'DEOXPCUS, a Jewish Christian, 
and fellow-prisoner of Paul, Piom. 16 : 7. 

A'NER, I., one of Abraham's allies m 
the pursuit of Cliedorlaomer and the 
rescue of Lot, Gen. 14 : 13. 

II. A Levitical city, in Manasseh, 1 
Chr. 6 : 70. 

AX'GEL. The original word, both in 
Hel-rew and Greek, means messenger, 
and is so translated. Matt. 11 : 10 ; Luke 
7 : 24, etc. It is often applied to an 
ordinary messenger, Job 1 : 14 ; 1 Sam. 
11:3; Luke 9:52; to prophets, Isa. 
42:19; Hag. 1:13; to priests, Eccl. 
5:6; Mai. 2:7; and even to inanimate 
objects, Psa. 78:49; 104:4; 2 Cor. 
12 : 7. Under the general sense of mes- 
senger, the term angel is properly ap- 
plied also to Christ, as the great Angel 
or Messenger of the covenant, Mai. 3:1, 
and to the ministers of his gospel, the 
overseers or angels of the churches. Rev. 
2:1, 8, 12, etc. In 1 Cor. 11 : 10, the 
best interpreters understand by the term 
26 



! "angels" the holy angels, who were 

: present in an especial sense in the Chris- 
tian assemblies ; and from reverence to 
them it w^as proper that the women 
should have power (veils, as a sign of 

i their being in subjection to a higher 
power) on their heads. See under Veil. 
But generally in the Bible the word is 
applied to a race of intelligent beings, of 
a higher order than man, who surround 
the Deity, and whom he employs as his 

1 messengers or agents in administering the 
affairs of the world, and in promoting 
the welfare of individuals, as well as of 
the whole human race. Matt. 1 : 20 ; 
22 : 30 ; Acts 7 : 30, etc. Whether pure 
spirits, or having spiritual bodies, they 

! have no bodily organization like ours, 

j and are not distinguished in sex. Matt. 
22 : 30. They were doubtless created 

I long before our present world was made, 

i Job 38: 7. The Bible represents them as 

j exceedingiv numerous, Dan. 7 : 10 ; Matt. 

i 26 : 53 ; Luke 2 : 13 ; Heb. 12 : 22, 23 ; 
as remarkable for sire7iffth, Psa. 103 : 20 ; 

; 2 Pet. 2:11; Rev. 5 : 2 ; 18 : 21 ; 19 : 17 ; 
and for activiii/, Judg. 13 : 20 ; Isa. 6 : 2-6 ; 
Dan. 9 : 21-23 ; Matt. 13 : 49 ; 26 : 53 ; 
Acts 27 : 23 ; Rev. 8 : 13. They appear 
to be of divers orders, Isa. 6 : 2-6 ; Ezek. 
10:1; Col. 1:16; Rev. 12:7. Their 
name indicates their agency in the dis- 

! pensations of Providence towards man, 
and the Bible abounds in narratives of 
events in which they have borne a visi- 
ble part. Yet in this employment they 

' act as the mere instruments of God, and 
in fulfilment of his commands, Psa, 
91 : 11 ; 103 : 20 ; Heb. 1 : 14. We are 
not therefore to put trust in them, .pay 
them adoration, or pray in their name, 
Rev. 19:10; 22:8, 9. Though Scripture 
does not warrant us to believe that each 
individual has his particular guardian 
angel, it teaches very explicitly that the 
angels minister to every Christian, Matt, 
18 : 10 ; Luke 16 : 22 ; Heb. 1 : 14. They 
are intenselv concerned in the salvation 
of men, Luke 2:10-12 ; 15:7, 10; 1 Pet. 
1 : 12 ; and will share with saints the 
blessedness of heaven for ever, Heb. 
12 : 22. 

Those angels ' ' who kept not their first 
estate, ' ' but fell and rebelled against G od , 
are called the angels of Satan or the 
devil. Matt. 25 : 41 ; Rev. 12 : 9. These 
are represented as being ' ' cast down to 
hell, and reserved unto judgment, ' ' 2 Pet. 
2 : 4, See Synagogue, Arcuangel, 



A N (I 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ANO 



ANGEL OF THE LORD, the Angel- 
Jehovau, the usual title of Christ in the 
Old Testament. Compare Gen. 16 : 7-13 ; 
22:11-18; 31:11-13; 32:24-30; Ex. 
3 : 2-6, U ; 23 : 20 ; Judg. 2 ; 13 : 16-22 ; 
Acts 7 : 30-38. Christ thus appears in 
the Patriarchal, the Mosaic, and the 
Christian dispensation as the same Jeho- 
vah, revealing the Father to men, and 
carrying forward the same great plan for 
the redemption of his people, Isa. 63 : 9. 

AN'GER, a violent emotion of a pain- 
ful nature, sometimes arising spontane- 
ously upon just occasion, hut usually 
characterized in the Bible as a great sin. 
Matt. 5 : 22 ; Eph. 4 : 31 ; Col. 3 : 8. Even 
when just, our anger should be mitigated 
by a due consideration of the circum- 
stances of the ofience and the state of 
mind of the offender ; of the folly and 
ill-results of this passion ; of the claims 
of the gospel, and of our own need of 
forgiveness from others, but especially 
from God, Matt. 6 : 15. Anger is in 
Scripture frequently attributed to God, 
Psa. 7 : 11 ; 90 : 11 ; not that he is lia- 
ble to those violent emotions which this 
passion produces, but figuratively speak- 
ing, that is, after the manner of men ; 
and because he punishes the wicked with 
the severity of a superior provoked to 
anger. 

AXTSE, a well-known plant, resem- 
bling dill, carraway, etc., but more fra- 
grant. The seeds are kept by apothe- 
caries. The plant mentioned in Matt. 
23 : 23 was no doubt the diU, which 




grows in Palestine, and was tithed by 
the Jews. 

AN'NA, a daughter of Phanuel, of the 
tribe of Asher, early married, but left a 
widow after seven years, and thenceforth 



devoted to the service of God. She was 
constant in attendance at the morning 
and evenhig sacrifices at the temple ; 
and there, at the age of eighty-four 
years, was blessed with a sight of the 
infant Saviour, and inspired to announce 
the coming of the pronused Messiah to 
many who longed to sec him, Luke 
2 : 36-38. • 

AN'NAS, a high-priest of the Jews, 
Luke 3:2; John 18 : 13, 24 ; Acts 4 : 6. 
He is mentioned in Luke as being high- 
priest along with Caiaphas, his son in- 
law. He was first appointed to that 
ofiice by Cyrenius, or Quirinus, procon- 
sul of Syria, about a. d. 7 or 8, but was 
afterwards deprived of it. After various 
changes, the office was given to Joseph, 
also called Caiaphas, the son-in-law of 
Annas, about a. d. 2-3, who continued 
in office until a. d. 35 or 36. In the 
passages of the ISTcav Testament above 
cited, therefore, it is apparent that Caia- 
phas was the only actual and proper 
high-priest ; but Annas being his father- 
in-law, and having been formerly him- 
self high-priest, and being also perhaps 
his substitute, had great infiuence and 
authority, and could with propriety be 
still termed high-priest along with Caia- 
phas. It was before him that Christ was 
first taken on the night of his seizure. 
He also assisted in presiding over the 
Sanhedrim which sat in judgment upon 
Peter and John, Acts 4 : 6. 




=^-^^:§S^'<c^ 



ANOINT'ING was a custom in general 
use among the Hebrews and other ori- 
ental nations, and its omission was one 



ANS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



ANT 



sign of mourning, Isa. Gl : 3. They 
anointed the hair, head, and beard, 
Psa. 104 : 15 ; 13o : 2. At their feasts 
and rejoicings they anointed tlie 
Avhole body ; but sometimes only 
the head or the feet, Psa. 23:5; 
Matt. 6:17; John 12:3. It was 
a customary mark of respect to 
guests, Luke 7 : 38, 4G. The use of 
oil upon the skin ^vas thought to 
be conducive to health. Anoint- 
ing was then used, and is still, me- 
dicinally, Mark 6 : 13 ; Jas. 5 : 14 ; but 
the miraculous cures thus wrought 
by the apostles furnish no warrant 
f()r the ceremony just before de/iih 
called "extreme unction." The 
anointing of dead bodies was also 
practised, to preserve them from 
corruption, Mark 14 : 8 ; 10 : 1 ; 
Luke 23 : 5G. They anointed kings 
and high-priests at their inaugura- 
tion, Ex. 29:7, 29, Lev. 4:3, Judg. 
0:8, 1 Sam. 9:1G, livings 19:15, 
IG, as also the sacred vessels of the tab- 
ernacle and temple, Ex. 30:2G. This 
anointing of sacred persons and objects 
signified their being set apart and conse- 
crated to the service of God ; and the 
costly and fragrant mixture appointed for 
this purpose was forbidden for all others, 
Ex. 30 : 23-33 ; Ezek. 23 : 41. 

The custom of anointing Avith oil or 
perfume was also common among the 
Greeks and Komans ; especially the 
anointing of guests at feasts and other 
entertainments. 

AN'SWEPt. Besides the common use 
of this word in the sense of to reply, it is 
very often used in the Bible, following 
the Hebrew and Greek idioms, in the 
yense of to speak; meaning simply that 
one begins or resumes his discourse, 
Zech. 3:4; 6:4; Matt. 11 : 25 ; 12 : 38 ; 
Luke 7 : 40. It also means, to sing in 
choruses or responses, 1 Sam. 18 : 7 ; and 
to give account of one's self in judgment, 
Gen. 30 : 33 ; Job 9 : 3. 

ANT, a small insect, famous for its 
industry and economy, for its social hab- 
its and skill in building. Some species 
build habitations truly immense com- 
pared with themselves, and able to con- 
tain a dozen men. Their roofs are imper- 
vious to rain, and they contain numer- 
ous stories, galleries, etc., the result of 
skilful and incessant labor. Ants lav- 
ish the utmost care and pains upon their 




state The terrmtes or white ants are 
large and very destructive. Most vari- 
eties of ants are known to choose animal 
or saccharine food ; and no species has 
yet been found laying up stores of grain 
for winter use, for while the frost con- 
tinues they all lie torpid. The language 
of Solomon, Pro v. 6:6, commends them 
for toiling as soon and as long as the 
season permits and rewards their labor, 
and bids us make the same diligent use 
of life and opportunities, Prov. 30 : 24, 
25. The inferior animals are in many re- 
spects wiser than sinful man, Job 12:7, 8. 

AN'TELOPE, sec under PvOE. 

AN'TICHPJST strictly means one 
opposed to Christ. In this sense, John 
says there were already in his time many 
antichrists, many having the spirit of an- 
tichrist; unbelievers, heretics, and per- 
secutors, 1 John 2:18; 4:3. They were 
characterized by the denial of the Father 
and the Son, and of Christ's coming in 
the flesh, 1 John 2 : 22 ; 4 : 3. But the 
apostles and early Christians seem to have 
looked forward to some one great anti- 
christ, who should precede the second 
coming of our Lord, and whom Paul 
calls "the man of sin, the son of per- 
dition," 2 Thess. 2:3. To this passage 
John alludes, 1 John 2 : 18. Able inter- 
preters agree that antichrist denotes an 
organized body of men, perpetuated from 
age to age, opposed to Christ, and which 



younf 



both in the ej 

28 



and the crysalis ] he wall destroy, Rev. 11 ; 13 ; 17. 



ANT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



APE 




ANTIOCH IN SYRIA. ON TflK (IRONIES. 



AN'TIOCH, the name of two cities 
mentioned in the New Testament. The 
first Avas situated on the river Orontes, 
twenty miles from its month, and was 
the metropolis of all Syria. It was 
founded by Scleuciis Nicator, and called 
by him after the name of his father An- 
tiochus. This city is celebrated by Cice- 
ro, as being opulent and abounding in 
men of taste and letters. It was at one 
time a place of great wealth and refine- 
ment, and ranked as the third city in 
the Roman empire. Its situation, amid 
innumerable groves and small streams, 
midway between Alexandria and Con- 
stantinople, rendered it a place of great 
beauty and salubrity, as well as commer- 
cial importance. It was also a place of 
great resort for the Jews, and afterwards 
for Christians, to all of whom invitations 
and encouragements were held out by 
Seleucus Nicator. The distinctive name 
of "Christians " was here first applied to 
the followers of Jesus, Acts 11 : 19, 2G ; 
13 : 1 ; Gal. 2:11. Antioch was highly 
favored by Vespasian and Titus, and be- 
came celebrated for luxury and vice. 
Few cities ha^-e sntfered greater disasters. 
Many times it has l)een nearly ruined by 
earthquakes, one of which, in 1822, de- 
stroyed one-fourth of its population, then 
about twenty thousand. It is now called 
Antakia. 

The other city, also founded by Seleu- 



cus Nicator, was called Antioch of Pisid- 
ia, because it Avas attached to that prov- 
ince, although situated in Phrvgia, Acts 
13:14; 14:19, 21 ; 2 Tim. 3:11. 

AN'TIPAS, I. See Herod Antipas. 

II. A faithful martyr, in Pergamos, 
Kev. 2 : 13. 

ANTIPATPJS, the name of a city of 
Palestine, situated seven or eight miles 
from the coast, in a fertile and well 
watered plain between Cc>?sarea and Je- 
rusalem, on the site of the former city 
Caphar-Saba. It was founded by Herod 
the Great, and called Antipatris, in hon- 
or of his father Antipater. This place 
was visited by Paul, Acts 23 : 31. An 
Arab village, called Kefr Saba, now 
occupies its site. 

ANTONIA, a sqiiarc fortress on the 
east side of Jerusalem, north of the tem- 
ple area, with which it had a covered 
commimication. There was a tower at 
each corner, and it Avas isolated by high 
walls and trenches. It Avas rebuilt l)y 
Herod the Great, and named after Mark 
Antony. Josephus often speaks of it. 
It Avas ' ' the castle ' ' from Avhich soldiers 
came down to rescue Paul from the Jews 
in the temple ; and from its staiis he 
addressed the multitude. Acts 21 : 31-40. 

APE, an animal rudely resembling the 
human race. The trilje may be famil- 
iarly distinguished as monkeys, apes, 
and baboons. Solomon imported them 
29 



APH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



APO 



from OpMr, 1 Kin. 10 : 22 ; 2 Chr. 9 : 21. 
They were at one time worshipped in 
Egypt ; and still are adored in some 
parts of India, where one traveller de- 
scribes a magniticent temple dedicated 
to the monkey. There may be an allu- 




sion to large apes or baboons, literally 
' ' hairy ones," in Lev. 17 : 7 ; Isa. 13 : 21 ; 
34 : 14. 

APHAR'SACHITES, etc., Ezra 4:9; 
5 : G ; named aiaong the heathen subjects 
of the king of Assyria, transplanted into 
Samaria. The Apharsites, also named 
in Ezra 4 : 9, are regarded by Luther as 
Persians. 

A'PHEK, strength, I., a city m Leb- 
anon, assigned to the tribe of Asher, 
Josh. 13:4; 19:30; but not subdued, 
Judg. 1 : 31. Its site may be still found 
in mount Lebanon, called Aphka. 

II. A city of the tribe of Issachar, in 
the valley of Jczreel, noted in the wars 
with the Philistines, 1 Sam. 4 : 1 ; 29 : 1. 

III. A city five miles east of the sea 
of Galilee, the walls of which fell upon 
twenty-seven thousand Syrians under 
Benhadad, after his defeat by the Israel- 
ites, 1 Kin. 20 : 26-34. 

APOCALYPSE signifies revelation, 
but is particularly referred to the reve- 
lations which John had in the isle of 
Patmos, whither he Avas banished by 
Domitian. Hence it is another name for 
30 



the book of Revelation. This book be- 
longs, in its character, to the prophetical 
writings, and stands in intimate relation 
with the prophecies of the Old Testa- 
ment, and more especially with the writ- 
ings of the later prophets, as Ezekiel, 
Zechariah, and particularly Daniel, in- 
asmuch as it is almost entirely symbol- 
ical. This circumstance has suiToundcd 
the interpretation of this book with diffi- 
culties, which no interpreter has yet been 
able fully to overcome. As to the au- 
thor, the weight of testimony through- 
out all the history of the church is in 
favor of John, the beloved apostle. As 
to the time of its composition, most 
commentators suppose it to have been 
written after the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem, about A. D. 96 ; while others assign 
it an earlier date. 

It is an expanded illustration of the 
first great promise, '"The seed of the 
woman shall bruise the head of the 
serpent." Its figures and symbols are 
august and impressive. It is full of pro- 
phetic grandeur, and awful in its hiero- 
glyphics and mystic symbols: seven seals 
opened, seven trumpets sounded, seven 
vials poured out ; mighty antagonists 
and hostile powers, full of malignity 
against Christianity, and for a season 
oppressing it, but at length defeated and 
annihilated ; the darkened heaven, tem- 
pestuous sea, and convulsed earth fight- 
ing against them, while the issue of the 
long combat is the universal reign of 
peace and truth and righteousness — the 
whole scene being relieved at intervals 
by a choi-al burst of praise to God the 
Creator, and Christ the Redeemer and 
Governor. Thus its general scope is 
intelligible to all readers, or it could not 
yield either hope or comfort. It is also 
full of Christ. It exhibits his glory as 
Redeemer and Governor, and describes 
that deep and universal homage and 
praise which the ' ' Lamb that was slain ' ' 
is for ever receiving before the throne. 
Either Christ is God, or the saints and 
angels are guilty of idolatry. 

''To explain this book perfectly," 
says Bishop Kewton, "is not the work 
of one man, or of one age ; probably it 
never will be clearlv understood till it is 
all fulfilled." 

APOCRYPHA signifies properly hid- 
den, concealed ; and as applied to books, 
it means those which assume a claim to 
a sacred character, but are really unin- 



APO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



APO 



spired, and have not been publicly admit- 
ted into the canon. These are of two 
classes : namely, 

1. Those which were in existence in 
the time of Christ, but were not admit- 
ted by the Jews into the canon of the 
Old Testament, because they had no He- 
brew orip:inal and were regarded as not 
divinely inspired. The most important 
of these are collected in the Apocrypha 
often bound up with the English Bible ; 
but in the Septuagint and Vulgcite they 
stand as canonical. 

These apocryphal writings are ten in 
number : namely, Baruch, Ecclesiasticus, 
Wisdom of Solomon, Tobit, Judith, two 
books of the Maccabees, Song of the 
Three Children, Susannah, and Bell and 
the Dragon. Then- style proves that 
they were a part of the Jewish-Greek 
literature of Alexandria, within three 
hundred years before Christ ; and as the 
Septuagint Greek version of the Hebrew 
Bible came from the same quarter, it 
was often accompanied by these unin- 
spired Greek writings, and they thus 
gained a general circulation. Josephus 
and Philo, of the lirst century, exclude 
them from the canon. The Talmud con- 
tains no trace of them ; and from the 
various lists of the Old Testament Scrip- 
tures in the early c(;nturies, it is clear 
that then as now they formed no part of 
the Hebrew canon. None of them are 
quoted or endorsed by Christ or the apos- 
tles ; they were not acknowledged by 
the Christian fathers ; and their own 
contents condemn them, abounding with 
errors and absurdities. Some of them, 
however, are of value for the historical 
information they furnish, for their moral 
and prudential maxims, and for the illus- 
trations they atibrd of ancient life. 

2. Those which were written after the 
time of Christ, but were not admitted 
by the churches into the canon of the 
New Testament, as not being divinely 
inspired. These are mostly of a legen- 
dary character. They have all been col- 
lected by Fabricius in his Codex Apoc. 
New Testament. 

APOLLO'NIA, a city of Macedonia, 
situated between Amphipolis and Thes- 
salonica, about a day's joiu'ney on foot 
from the former place. Acts 17 : 1. 

APOL'LOS, a Jew of Alexandria, a 
learned and eloquent man, who through 
the Scriptures and the ministry of John 
the Baptist became a Christian. He 



visited Epliesus about a. d. 54, and pub- 
licly proclaimed his faith in Christ ; 
whereupon he was further instructed in 
gospel truth. Passing thence into Acha- 
ia, he preached with great power and 
success, especiallv among the Jews, Acts 
18 : 24-28. At Corinth, he for a time 
watered what Paul had planted. Acts 
19 : 1 ; 1 Cor. 3 : G. His character was 
not imlike that of Paul ; they were 
equally grieved at the dissensions of the 
Corinthians, and at those personal par- 
tialities which led many away from 
Christ, 1 Cor. 3 : 4-22 ; IG : 12 ; and they 
cooperated to the end in serving him, 
Titus 3 : 13. Jerome is of opinion that 
Apollos afterwards returned to Corinth 
from Crete. 

APOL'LYON, see Abaddon. 

APOS'TLE, a messenger or envoy. 
The term is applied to Jesus Christ, who 
was God's envoy to save the w<u-ld, Heb. 
3:1; though, more commonly, the title 
is given to persons who Avere envoys 
commissioned by the Saviour himself. 

The apostles of Jesus Christ were his 
chief disciples, whom he invested with 
authority, tilled with his Spirit, entrust- 
ed particularly with his doctrines and 
services, and chose to raise the editice of 
his church. They were twelve in num- 
ber, answering to tiie twelve tribes. 
Matt. 19:28, and were plain, unlearned 
men, chosen from the common people. 
After their calling and charge, Matt. 
10:5-42, they attended their divine 
Master, witnessing his works, imbibing 
his spirit, and gradually learning the 
fiicts and doctrines of the gospel. After 
his resurrection, he sent them into all 
the world, commissioned to preach, to 
baptize, to work miracles, etc. See 
John 15 : 27 ; 1 Cor. 9:1; 15:8; 2 Cor. 
12 : 12 ; 1 Thess. 2 : 13. The names of 
the twelve are, Simon Peter ; Andrew, 
his brother ; James, the son of Zebedee, 
called also "the greater;" John, his 
brother ; Philip ; Bartholomew ; Thom- 
as ; Matthew, or Levi ; Simon the Ca- 
naanite ; Lebbeus, surnamed Thaddeus, 
also called Judas or Jude ; James, ' ' the 
less," the son of AlpluBus ; and Judas 
Iscariot, Matt. 10:2-4; Mark 3 : IG ; 
Luke 6:14. The last betrayed his Mas- 
ter, and then hanged himself, and j\lat- 
thias was chosen in his place, Acts 
l:l(i-2G. In the Acts of the Apostles 
ai'e recorded the self-sacriticing toils and 
sufferings of these Christlike men, who 
.SI 



AFP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY.. 



ARA 



did that which was "right in the sight [ 
of God ' ' from love to their Lord ; and 
gave themselves wholly to their work, j 
with a zeal, love, and faith Christ de- | 
lighted to honor — teaching us that apos- i 
folic graces alone can secure apostolic j 
successes. j 

APPIII'A, Phile. 2, supposed hy some i 
to have been the wife of Philemon. I 

AP'PLE-TREES, i 

mentioned in Song 
2:3; 8:5; Joel 1:12. 
Many suppose the 
cilron-tree to be here 
meant. The rich 
color, fragrant odor 
and handsome ap- 
pearance of this 
tree, both in flower 
and in fruit, agree 
well with the above 
passages. Thoughts 
of wise men, well 
expressed, are like 
' ' apples of gold in 
pictures of silver, ' ' 
that is, like ripe 
and golden fruit in ^,^^^ ,. 

finely wrought sil- 
ver baskets, Prov. 25 : 11. 

AP'PII-FO LUM, market-ptace ofAppiiis, 
a village or market-town, founded by 
Appius Claudius on the great road (via 
Appia) which he constructed from Rome 
to Capua. It is most probably to be 
found in the present Casarillo di Santa 
Maria, situated forty miles from Rome, 
in the l)orders of the Pontine marshes, 
where are the remains of an ancient town. 
Three Taverns was a village about ten 
miles nearer Rome, Acts 28 : 15. 

AQ'UILA, a Jew born in Pontus, a 
tent-maker by occupation, who with his 
wife Priscilla joined the Christian church 
at Rome. When the Jews were banished 
from that city by the emperor Claudius, 
Aquila and his wife retired to Corinth. 
They afterwards became the companions 
of Paul in his labors, and are mentioned 
by him with much commendation, Acts 
18 : 2, 3, 24-26 ; Rom. 16 : 3, 4 ; 1 Cor. 
16 : 19 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 19. 

AR, called also Rabbah and Rabbath- 
Moab, the capital of Moab, Num. 21 : 28 ; 
Dent. 2 ; Isa. 15 : 1. Its site, still called 
Rabbah, is found upon a hill some fifteen 
miles east of the Dead sea, and south of 
the Amon, midway between it and Kir 
Moab. 

H2 




ARA'BIA is a country of Western Asia, 
lying south and east of Judea. It extends 
1,500 miles from north to south, and 
1,200 from east to west. On the north 
it is bounded by part of Syria, on the 
east by the Persian gulf and the Eu- 
phrates, on the south by the Arabian sea 
and the straits of Babelmandel, and on 
the west by the Red sea, Egypt, and Pal- 
estine. Arabia is distinguished by ge- 
ographers into three parts — Deserta, Pe- 
traja, and Felix. 

Arabia Deser'ta, the desert, a vast 
steppe, or elevated expanse of sand, with 
occasional hills and a sparse vegetation. 
It has the mountains of Gilead on the 
west, and the river Euphrates on the 
east, and extends far to the south. It 
comprehends the country of the Iture- 
ms, the Ishmaelite3, the people of Ke- 
ilar, and others, who led a wandering 
life, having no cities, houses, or fixed hab- 
itations, but wholly dwelling in tents ; 
in modern Arabic, such are called Beda- 
uin. When Paul says he ' ' went into 
Arabia and returned again to Damas- 
cus," he meant doubtless the northern 
part of Arabia Deserta, which lay adja- 
cent to the territories of Damascus, Gal. 
1:17. 

Arabia Petr-e'a lies south of the Holy 
Land, and had Petra for its capital. See 
Sela. This region contained the south- 
ern Edomites, the Amalekites, the Hi- 
vites, etc., people at present known un- 
der the general name of Arabs. In this 
country was Kadesh-barnea, Gerar, Beer- 
sheba, Paran, Arad, Hasmona, Oboth, 
Dedan, etc., also the peninsula of mount 
Sinai and the land of Midian. This por- 
tion of Arabia, though smaller than the 
others, is rich in historical associations. 
The patriarch Job was familiar with its 
scenery. At Horeb, Moses saw the burn- 
ing bush, and Elijah heard the "still 
small voice. ' ' In this ' ' great and terri- 
ble wilderness," from mount Sinai to 
the promised land, the Hebrews spent 
their forty years of wanderings. 

Arabia Fe'lix, the happy, lies still far- 
ther south and east, being bounded east 
by the Persian gulf, south by the ocean 
between Africa and India, and west by 
the Red sea. As this region did not im- 
mediately adjoin the Holy Land, it is not 
so frequently mentioned as the former 
ones. The queen of Sheba, w^ho visited 
Solomon, 1 Kings 10:1, was probably 
queen of part of Arabia Felix. This 



AEA BIBLE DICTIONARY. APtA 




A SCENE IN ARABIA. 



country abounded with riches, and par- 
ticularly with spices, and is now called 
Hedjaz, Yemen, etc. It is much cele- 
brated in modern times by reason of the 
cities of Mecca and Medina being situ- 
ated in it. 

There are, according to native histo- 
rians, two races of Arabs : those who de- 
rive their descent from tbe primitive in- 
habitants of the land, Joktan, etc., and 
those who claim Ishmael as their ances- 
tor. Southern Arabia was settled in 
part by Cush and his sons, descendants 
of Ham, who also peopled the adjoining 
coast of Africa, and in part by descend- 
ants of Shem, particularly Joktan, Gen. 
10 : 25, 26. Ishmael, Gen. 25 : 13-15, 
and the six sons of Abraham by Ketu- 
rah. Gen. 25 : 2, together Avith the seed 
of Esau and of Lot, occupied the parts of 
Arabia nearer Judea. The changes of 
forty centuries render it impossible to 
2* 



distinguish either of these parent sources 
in the numerous Arab tribes descended 
from them. Tliese tribes have traditions 
and peculiarities of their own, and inces- 
sant feuds ; yet as a whole they are but 
one people, distinct from all others. The 
only general division is into those who 
dwell in cities, as in Southern Arabia, 
and those who live in the lields and des- 
erts. The latter are migratory, dwelling 
in tents and removing according to the 
convenience of water and pasturage, and 
are often robbers. Each tribe is divided 
up into little communities, of which a 
sheikh or patriarch is the head. Such are 
the Bedaiceen. 

In ancient times the Arabs were idol- 
aters and star-worshippers. They are 
now nominally Mohammedans, but their 
religion sits but lightly on them. Iso- 
lated from other nations, and with slight 
exceptions free from all foreign control, 
33 



ARA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ARA 



they preserve their ancient manners with 
singular fidelity, and the study of these 
throws much light upon Bible narratives. 
Their language also is still spoken with 
great purity ; and as it is near akin to 
the Hebrew, it furnishes invaluable aid 
in the study of the Old Testament. 

A'RAD, a Canaanitish city on the ex- 
treme south of Judea, the inhabitants of 
which drove back the Hebrews as they 
attempted to enter the promised land 
from Kadesh, Num. 21 : 1 ; it was after- 
wards subdued, Josh. 10:41; 12:14; 
Judg. 1 : IG. liobinson found its site on 
a hiil about fifteen miles south of Hebron. 

A'RAM, I., the name of three men in 
the Bible : a son of Shem, Gen. 10 : 22, 
a grandson of Nahor, Gen. 22:21, and 
an ancestor of our Lord, Ruth 4 : 19 ; 1 
Chr. 2 : 10 ; Matt. 1:3; Luke 3 : 33. 

II. Nearly synonymous with Syria ; 
the Hebrew name of the whole region 
north-east of Palestine, extending from 
the Tigris on the east nearly to the Med- 
iterranean on the west, and to the Tau- 



rus range on the north. It was named 
after Aram the son of Shem. Thus de- 
fined, it includes also Mesopotamia, 
which the Hebrews named Aram-naha- 
raim, Aram of the two rivers, Gen. 24 : 10, 
or Padan-aram, the plain of Aram, Gen. 
25 : 20 ; 48 : 7. Various cities in the west- 
ern part of Aram gave their own names 
to the regions around them : as Damas- 
cus, (Aram-Dammesek,) 2 Sam. 8:0; 
Maachah, near Bashan, 1 Chr. 19 : 6 ; 
Geshur, Josh. 12 : 5 ; 2 Sam. 15 : 8 ; Zo- 
bah, and Beth-rehob, 2 Sam. 10 : G, 8. 
Several of these were powerful states, 
and often waged war against Israel. Da- 
vid subdued them and made them trib- 
utaries, and Solomon preserved this su- 
premacy. After him it was lost, except 
perhaps under Jeroboam II. See Syria, 
Padan-aram. The Aramican language, 
nearly resembling the Hebrew, gradual- 
ly supplanted the latter as a spoken lan- 
guage, and was in use in Judea at the 
time of Christ. It is still used by Syrian 
Christians around Mosul. 





MOUNT ARARAT, IN ARMENIA. 



ARARAT, the name of a province in I miah, 2 Kings 19 : 37, Isa. 37 : 38, and 
the centre of Armenia, between the river | sometimes used to denote the whole 
Araxes and the lakes Van and Ooroo- | country, Jer. 51 ; 27. On the mountains 
34 



All A 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ARE 



of Ararat the ark rested, Gen. 8:4. In 
1831, Messrs. Smith and Dwight, Amer- 
ican missionaries, visited Armenia, and 
traversed the province of Ararat. Mr. 
Smith describes the momitains as fol- 
lows : 

' ' We passed very near the base of that 
noble mountain, which is called by the 
Armenians Masis, and by Europeans gen- 
erally Ararat ; and for more than twenty 
days had it constantly in sight, except 
when obscured by clouds. It consists of 
two peaks, one considerably higher than 
the other, and is connected with a chain 
of mountains running off to the north- 
west and west, which, though high, are 
not of sufiicient elevation to detract at 
all from the lonely dignity of this stu- 
pendous mass. From Nakhchewan, at 
the distance of at least 100 miles to the 
south-cast, it appeared like an immense 
isolated cone, of extreme regularity, ris- 
in2: out of the vallev of the Araxes. Its 
height is said to be 16,000 feet. The 
eternal snows upon its summit occasion- 
ally form vast avalanches, Avhich precip- 
itate themselves down its sides with a 
sound not unlike that of an earthquake. 
When we saw it, it was white to its very 
base with snow. And certainly not 
among the mountains of Ararat or of 
Armenia generally, nor those of any part 
Df the world where I have been, have I 
ever seen one whose majesty could plead 
half so powerfully its claims to the honor 
of having once been the stepping-stone 
between the old Avorld and the new. I 
gave myself up to the feeling, that on 
its summit were once congregated all the 
inhabitants of the earth, and that, while 
in the valley of the Araxes, I was pay- 
ing a visit to the second cradle of the 
human race." 

Mount Ararat was visited in 1829 by 
Prof. Parrot, Avho after several attempts 
reached the summit, more than 17,200 
feet above the level of the sea. It bears 
traces of volcanic action, and in 1840 
was shaken by a disastrous earthquake. 

AHAU'XAH, a Jebusite, residing on 
mount Moriah after the Jebusites were 
dispossessed bv David, 2 Sam. 5:6; 
24 : 18. In 1 Chr. 21 : 18, he is called 
Orxax. The divine choice of his land 
for the temple site, 2 Chr. 3:1, and his 
readiness to give it freely for this pur- 
pose, suggest the probability that he was 
a convert to the true religion. 

APt'BA, an ancestor of Ihe Anakim, 



and founder of Hebron, to which he gave 
its ancient name. Josh. 15 : 13. 

AFiCHAN'GEL. This Avord is only twice 
used in the Bible, 1 Thess. 4 : 16 ; Jude 
9. In this last passage it is applied to 
Michael, who, in Dan. 10 : 13, 21 ; 12 : 1, 
is described as having a special charge of 
the Jewish nation, and in Ptcv. 12 : 7-9 
as the leader of an angelic army. So 
exalted are the position and offices as- 
cribed to Michael, that many think the 
Messiah is meant. 

ARCHELA'US, a son of Herod the 
Great, by his Samaritan wife Malthace. 
He was educated with his brother Anti- 
pas at Rome, and after his father's death 
was placed over Judea, Idumea, and Sa- 
maria, (the cities Gaza, Gadara, and Hip- 
po excepted,) with the title of ethnarch or 
tetrarch; whence he is said to reign, Matt, 
2 : 22. This passage implies that he in- 
herited the tyrannical and cruel disposi- 
tion of his father ; and history informs 
us that after enjoying his power for ten 
years, he was accused before the emperor 
on account of his cruelties, and banished 
to A'ienne on the Rhone, in Gaul, where 
he died. 

ARCHIP'PUS, saluted by Paul as his 
"fellow-soldier," Phile. 2, and exhorted 
to take heed to his ministry at Colossc, 
and fulfil it. Col. 4 : 17. 

ARCTU'RUS signifies, properly, tlLe 
Bear's Tail, and denotes a star in the 
tail of the Great Bear, or constellation 
Ursa Major. The "sons" of Arcturus 
are probablv the smaller stars adjacent, 
Job 9 : 9 ; 38 : 32. 

AREOPAGUS, the hill of Mars, the seat 
of the ancient and venerable supreme 
court of Athens, called the Areopagites, 
Acts 17 : 19-34. It was composed en- 
tirely of cx-archons, of grave and blame- 
less character, and their Avise and just 
decisions made it famous far beyond 
the bounds of Greece. Their numbers 
and authority A'aried greatly from age 
to age. They held their sessions by 
night. They took cognizance of murders, 
impieties, and immoralities ; punished 
vices of all kinds, idleness included ; re- 
warded or assisted the virtuous ; and 
Avere peculiarly attentive to blasphemies 
against the gods, and to the performance 
of the sacred mysteries. The case of 
Paul, therefore, Avould naturally come 
before them, for he sought to subvert 
their whole system of idolatry, and es- 
tablish Christianitv in its place, llie 
35 



ARE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ARI 



Bible narrative, however, rather de- 
scribes an informal popular movement. 
Having heard Paul discoursing from day 
to day in the market-place, the philo- 
sophic and inquisitive Athenians took 
him one day up into the adjacent hill, 
for a more full and quiet exposition of 
his doctrine. The stone seats of the Are- 




KUINS OF THE AREOPAGUS AND ACROPOLIS. 

opagus lay open to the sky ; in the court 
stood Epicureans, Stoics, etc. ; around 
them spread the city, full of idolaters 
and their temples; and a little south' 
east rose the steep height of the Acropo- 
lis, on whose level summit were croAvded 
more and richer idolatrous structures 
than on any other equal space in the 
world. Amid this scene, Paul exhibit- 
ed the sin and folly of idol-Avorship with 
such boldness and power, that none could 
refute him, and some were converted. 

APt'ETAS, the name of several kings 
of north-western Arabia. The only one 
mentioned in Scripture gave his daugh- 
ter in marriage to Herod Antipas ; but 
she being repudiated by Herod, Aretas 
made war upon him and destroyed his 
army. In consequence of this, the em- 
peror Tiberius directed Vitellius, then 
proconsul of Syria, to make war upon 
the Arabian king, and bring him alive 
or dead to Rome. But while Vitellius 
was in the midst of preparation for the 
war, he received intelligence of the death 
of Tiberius, a. d. 37 ; on which he im- 
mediately recalled his troops, dismissed 
them into winter quarters, and then left 
the province. Aretas, taking advantage 
3G 



of this supineness, seems to have madq 
an incursion and got possession of Da- 
mascus, over which he appointed a gov- 
ernor or ethnarch, who, a. d. 89, at the 
instigation of the Jews, attempted to put 
Paul in prison, 2 Cor. 11 : 32. Compare 
Acts 9 : 24, 25. 

APt'GOB, a city in Bashan and Manas- 
seh east of the Jordan ; also the region 
around it. This was very fertile, and 
contained at one time sixty walled 
towns, which were taken by Jair the 
- son of Manah ssh, and called after him, 
Deut. 3:4, 13, 14; 1 Kin. 4:13. 

A'PIEL, the lion of God, one of Ezra's 
chief men, Ezra 8:16. This Avord is 
used, in 2 Sam. 23 : 20, 1 Chr. 11 : 22, 
as a descriptive or perhaps a family 
name of two lion-like men of Moab. 
In another sense, Ezekiel applies it to 
the altar of God, Ezek. 43:15, and 
Isaiah to Jerusalem, as the hearth on 
which both the burnt-offerings and the 
enemies of God should be consumed, 
Isa. 29 : 1, 2, 7. See also Gen. 49 : 9. 
AniMATHEA, orPtA'MAH,(dual, Ra- 
mathaim,) a city whence came Joseph 
the counsellor, in Avhose ncAv tomb the 
body of Jesus was laid, Matt. 27:57 ; 
John 19 : 38. M'^e learn from Eusebius 
and Jerome that this city was near Lyd- 
da, a toAvn twenty -four miles north-Avest 
of Jerusalem. It has generally been lo- 
cated at the modern Ptamlch, a toAvn 
near Lydda, of 3,000 inhabitants, in 
Avhich the route from Egypt to Syria 
crosses that from Jerusalem to Joppa. 
But its site is rather to be sought a fcAV 
miles east of Lydda, in the hills Avhich 
skirt the plain of Sharon. The first book 
of Maccabees, 11:34, speaks of it as 
transferred, together Avith Lydda, from 
Samaria to Judea, Avhich may account 
for Luke's calling it "a city of the 
JcAvs," Luke 23:51. It has been sup- 
posed to be the same place as the Eamah 
of mount Ephraim, the birthplace and 
residence of Samuel. This AA'as called 
also Ramathaim-Zophim, 1 Sam. 1:1, 
19, from Avhich name the form Arima- 
thea is readily deriA^ed. See Ramaii. 

A'RIOCH, I., king of Ellasar, and ally 
of Chedorlaomer, Gen. 14:1. 

II. A captain of Nebuchadnezzar's 
guard, Dan. 2 : 14. 

ARISTAR'CHUS, a native of Thessalo- 
nica, a faithful felloAv-laborer Avith Paul, 
Acts 20 : 4 ; 27 : 2 ; Phile. 24. His life 
Avas endangered in the riot at Ephesus, 



AUK 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



AUK 



excited by the silversmiths, Acts 19 : 29 ; 
hut having escaped, he continued^ with 
Paul, and was a prisoner with him at 
Home, Col. 4 : 10. 

ARK OF Noah, the vessel in which 
the family of Noah was preserved during 
the deluge, when all the rest of our race 
perished for their sins. The ark is called 
in Hebrew, in the Septuagint, and by Jo- 
sephus, a chest; and the same word is 
used in the history of the infant Moses, 
Ex. 2:3. So far as this name affords any 
evidence, it goes to show that the ark of 
Noah was not a regular sailing-vessel, 
but merely intended to float at large 
upon the waters. We may therefore re- 
gard it as a large, oblong, floating house, 
with a roof either flat or only slightly in- 
clined. It was construct- 
ed with three stories, and 
had a door in the side. 
There is no mention of 
windows in the side, but 
* ' above, ' ' probably in the 
roof, where Noah was com- -^ 

manded to make them of -^ ^ 

a cubit in height, Gen. 
5:16; 8:13. 

The dimensions of the 
ark, taking the cubit as 
eighteen inches, were 450 
ft. in length, 75 in breadth 
and 45 in height. It was 
built of gopher- wood, and 
made water-proof with 
bitumen, and was no doubt 
large enough to accom- 
modate the eight persons 
of Noah's family and the 
animals to be saved in it — 
namely, of all birds and 
clean beasts seven each, and of unclean 
beasts two each, male and female. Many 
questions have been raised, and discussed 
at great length by sceptics and others, re- 
specting the form and dimensions of the 
ark -, the number of animals saved in it — 
whether including all species then exist- 
ing in the world, except such as live in 
water or lie dormant, or only the species 
living in the parts of the world then peo- 
pled by man ; arid as to the possibility of 
their being all lodged in the ark, and their 
food during the year, etc. Some of these 
questions the Bible clearly settles. Oth- 
ers it is vain to discuss, since we have no 
means of deciding them. Certain it is, 
that while the Bible eulogizes the faith 
and obedience of Noah, it shows that his 



salvation was a miracle of Providence. 
It was by miracle that he was forewarn- 
ed, and directed to prepare for the flood; 
and the same miraculous power accom- 
plished all that Noah was unable to do in 
designing, building, and fllling the ark, 
and preserving and guiding it through 
the deluge. It has been commonly sup- 
posed that the warning came to Noah 120 
years before the flood. Compare Gen. 5 : 32 
with 7:6, and Gen. 6:3 with 1 Pet. 3:20. 
Traditions of the ark are found in most 
nations all over the globe. See Deluge. 
AKK OF THE Covenant, the sacred 
chest or cofl"er in which the tables of the 
law were deposited, written by the finger 
of God, and witnessing to his covenant 
with his people, Ex. 25:22; 34:29. It 




was of shittim-wood, covered within and 
without with plates of gold, nearly four 
feet in length, and two feet three inches 
in width and height. On the top of it, 
all around, ran a kind of gold crown. It 
had four rings of gold, two on each side, 
through which staves were put, by which 
it was carried. These also were overlaid 
with the finest gold, and were not to be 
removed from the rings, Ex. 25:10-22. 
The lid of the ark, all of gold, was called 
the mercy-seat ; and upon its opposite ends 
were two golden cherubim, fronting each 
other and the mercy-seat, which they 
covered with their outspread wings, Ex. 
37 : 1-9. Here God specially dwelt. 2 
Kin. 19:15, 1 Chr. 13:6, and shone forth, 
perhaps by some sensible manifestations, 
37 



AKK 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ARM 



Lev. 16:2 ; Psa. 80:1. Here he received 
the homage of his people, and dispensed 
his living oracles, Num. 7 :89. The great 
yearly sacrifice of expiation was here of- 
fered by the high-priest, Heb. 9:7, in the 
Holy of Holies. Hence there was no ob- 
ject held more sacred by the Jews than 
"the ark of God." During their jour- 
neys in the wilderness, it was borne by 
the priests under a purple canopy and 
with great reverence before the host of 
Israel, Num. 4:5, 6. Before it the Jor- 
dan was divided, and behind it the wa- 
ters flowed on again. Josh. 3, 4. The 
walls of Jericho fell down before it. 
Josh. 6:4-12. 

After this, the ark continued some 
time at Gilgal, whence it was removed 
to Shiloh, Josh. 4:19; 10 : 43 ; 18 : 1. 
Hence the Israelites took it to their 
camp ; but when they gave battle to the 
Philistines, it was taken by the enemy, 
1 Sam. 4. The Philistines, oppressed by 
the hand of God, returned the ark, and 
it was lodged at Kirjath-jearim, 1 Sam. 
7:1. It was afterwards, in the reign of 
Saul, at Nob. David conveyed it from 
Kirjath-jearim to the house of Obed- 
Edom, and from thence to his palace on 
Zion, 2 Sam. 6 ; and lastly, Solomon 
brought it into the temple at Jerusalem, 
2Chr. 5:2. It remained in the temple, 
with all suitable respect, till the times 
of the later idolatrous kings of Judali, 
who profaned the Most Holy place by 
their idols, when the priests appear to 
have removed the ark from the temple. 
At least, Josiah commanded them to 
bring it back to the sanctuary, and for- 
bade them to carry it about, as they had 
hitherto done, 2 Chr. 35:3. The ark ap- 
pears to have been destroyed at the cap- 
tivity, or perhaps concealed by pious 
Jews in some hiding-place afterwards 
midiscoverable, as we hear nothing more 
of it ; and the want of it made the sec- 
ond temple less glorious than the first. 

Besides the tables of the covenant, 
placed by Moses in this sacred coffer, God 
appointed the blossoming rod of Aaron 
to be lodged there. Num. 17:10; Heb. 
9:4; a golden vase of manna gathered in 
the wilderness, Ex. 16:33, 34, and a copy 
of the book of the law, Deut. 31 :26. 

AR'KITES, descendants of Canaan, of 
the Zidonian branch, who settled a town 
called Arka, at the north-west foot of 
mount Lebanon, Gen. 10 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 
1 : 15. The ruins of Arka have been 
38 



found by Burckhardt and others about 
fourteen miles north-east of Tripolis. 

APtMAGED'DON, mountain of Megiddo, 
a place mentioned Eev. 16:16. Megiddo 
is a city in the great plain at the foot of 
mount Carmel, which had been the scene 
of much slaughter. Under this charac- 
ter it is referred to in the above text as 
the place in which God will collect to- 
gether his enemies for destruction. 

APtME'NIA, a large country of Asia, 
having Media on the east, Cappadocia on 
the west, Colchis and Iberia on the north, 
Mesopotamia on the south, and the Eu- 
phrates and Syria on the southwest. It 
is an elevated table-land, with a cool and 
salubrious climate. Lying between the 
Caucasus and the Tauriis range, with 
mount Ararat towering in its central 
province, it gives rise to three notable 
rivers, the Euphrates, Tigris, and Araxes. 
It is only named in Scripture as the 
place of refuge of two Assyrian parricides, 
2 Kin. 19:37. The modern Armenian 
church resembles strongly the Greek 
church, and is sadly debased and corrupt. 
See Ararat, Minni, and Togarmah. 




AKMS and ARMOK. The Hebrews 
used in war offensive arms of the same 
kinds as were employed by other people 
of their time and of the East — swords, 
lances, spears, darts, javelins, bows, ar- 



ARM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ARO 



rows, and slings. For defensive armor, 
they used helmets, cuirasses, bucklers, 
armor for the thighs, etc. See War. 

In the accompanying engravings are 
represented specimens of the various 
weapons anciently used ; also of the sev- 







eral parts of the armor for defence, and 
the manner in which they were worn: 1. 
the cuirass, or defence of the body — this 
is called in Scripture the coat of mail, ha- 
bergeon, and breastplate ; it appears to 
have been made of leather or some pliant 
material, sometimes covered with metal- 
lic scales, and capable of taking the form 
ofthe parts ofthe body it protected ; 2. the 
helmet, usually of metal, with its flowing 
crest ; 3. the shield, target, or buckler, 
either of wood covered with tough hides. 




or of metal ; 4. the leg-pieces, or greaves, 
of thick leather or brass : also the bow 



and arrow; the battleaxe ; the spear, dart,' 
and javelin or short spear ; and the sword 
with its sheath, the ancient sword being 
short, straight, and twoedged. 

Each JcAvish tribe had its own banner. 
Under Abomixation is a cut represent- 
ing the ensigns of the Roman legions, 
which the Jews regarded as idolatrous, 
not only because they had been conse- 
crated to idols, and by heathen priests, 
but as they had images on them, and 
were objects of adoration. Exod. 20:4. 
AR'NON, a river rising in the moun- 
tains east of the Dead sea, into which it 
flows. It is now called Wady Modjeb, 
and anciently divided the territories of 
the Moabites in turn from those of the 
Ammonites, Amorites, and Reubenites, 
Num. 21:13; Josh. 13:16. It flows in 
a deep and wild ravine of the same 
name. Buickhardt, after reaching the 
ruins of Aroer, v,'hich stand on the edge 
of the precipice at the foot of which the 
Arnon flows, says, ' ' From hence a foot- 
path leads down to the river. The view 
which the Modjeb presents is very strik- 
ing. From the bottom, where the river 
runs through a narrow stripe of verdant 
level about forty yards across, the steep 
and barren banks arise to a great height, 
covered with immense blocks of stone 
which have rolled down from the upper 
strata ; so that, when viewed from above, 
the valley looks like a deep chasm, form- 
ed by some tremendous convulsion of 
the earth, into which there seems to be 
no possibility of descending to the bot- 
tom. The distance from the edge of one 
precipice to that of the opposite one, is 
about two miles in a straight line." 

He was thirty-five minutes in descend- 
ing to the river bed. Here the heat of 
midsummer is extreme, and the river 
becomes almost dried up ; but in the 
rainy season there is an impetuous tor- 
rent. 

AR'OER, I., an ancient city on the 
north side of the Arnon, in the south- 
ern border ofthe tribe of Reuben, Deut. 
2 : 36 ; 4 : 48 ; Josh .13:9. It was in the 
territory ofthe Amorites, Josh. 12:2, 
but seems to have fallen at a later day 
into the hands of Moab, Jer. 48: 19. See 
Arnon. 

II. A town in the tribe of Gad, proba- 
ably eastofRabbath-Ammon, Josh. 13:25, 
and perhaps on the Jabbok, 2 Sam. 24:5. 
It is mentioned in Judg. 11:33. 

III. A town of Judah, to which David 

30 



ARP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ASA 



sent presents, 1 Sam. 30:28 ; 1 Chr. 11:44. 
Ecbinson found traces of it about sixteen 
miles south by west from Hebron. 

AR'PAD, a Syrian city, associated with 
Hamath, 2 Kin. 18:34; 19; Isa. 10:9; 
36:19, and with Damascus, Jer. 49:23. 
Its site is unknown. 

AUPHAXAD, a son of Shem, two 
years after the flood, Gen. 10:22 ; 11:10. 
Seven generations followed him before 
Abraham, while he lived till after the 
settlement of Abraham in the land of 
promise and the rescue of Lot from the 
four kings. He died a. m. 2096, aged 
four hundred and thirty-eight. 

AR'ROW, used by the Jews both in 
hunting and in war ; sometimes merely 
a sharpened reed, sometimes feathered, 
barbed, and even poisoned , Job 6:4. The 
bow was of various forms and materials, 
and many could be used only by the 
strongest'men, Psa. 18:34. Arrows were 
used to convey fire to an enemy's house, 
and for divination, Ezek. 21:21. The 
word is applied symbolically to children, 
Psa. 127 : 4, 5 ; to the lightning, Psa. 
18:14; Hab. 3:11; to sudden calamities, 
Job 6 : 4 ; Psa. 38 : 2 ; 91 : 5 ; Ezek. 5: 15 ; 
and to the deceitful and bitter words of 
an evil tongue, Psa. 64:3 ; 120:4. 

ARTAXER'XES, great king, the name 
or title of several kings of Persia. I. It 
is given in Ezra 4:7-24, to Smerdis the 
Magian, who usurped the throne after 
the death of Cambyses, B. c. 522, pre- 
tending to be Smerdis, the son of Cyrus, 
whom Cambyses had put to death. His 
usurped power was used, at the instiga- 
tion of Ptehum, etc., to stop the rebuild- 
ing of the temple. He was murdered, 
after a reign of eight months, and was 
succeeded by Darius son of Hystaspcs. 

II. The king of this name mentioned 
in Ezra 7, is most probalily Artaxerxes 
Longimanus, the son and successor of 
Xerxes, who ascended the throne B. c. 
46 1, and died b. c. 425, after a mild reign 
of thirty-nine years. In the seventh year 
of liis reign, Ezra led a second company 
of the Jewish exiles back to Jerusalem. 
In the twentieth year of Artaxerxes Lon- 
gimanus, Nehemiah was sent to Jerusa- 
lem as governor, Neh. 2:1 ; 5:14, etc. 

AR'TEMAS, apparently a faithful min- 
ister, cooperating with Paul, Titus 3:12, 
who thought him worthy to take the 
place of Titus at Crete, while the latter 
spent the winter witli the apostle at Ni- 
copolis. 

40 



AR'VAD, a Pftoenician city, on a small 
rocky island at the mouth of tlie river 
Eleutherus, twenty-two miles nortli of 
Tripolis. It is now called Ruad, and is 
but a ruin. The Arvadites also occupied 
the adjacent coast. They were descend- 
ants of Canaan, Gen. 10:18 ; 1 Chr. 1 :10 ; 
and were noted mariners, Ezek. 27:8, 11. 

A'SA, the third king of Judah after 
Solomon, son and successor of Abijam, 
1 Kin. 15:8. He began to reign b. c. 
951, and reigned forty-one years at Jeru- 
salem. The first part of his reign was 
comparatively peaceful and prosperous. 
He restored the pure worship of God ; 
expelled those who, from sacrilegious 
superstition, prostituted themselves in 
honor of their false gods ; purified Jeru- 
salem from the infamous practices attend- 
ing the worship of idols ; and deprived 
his mother of her office and dignity of 
queen, because she erected an idol to 
Astarte. In the eleventh year of his 
reign, God gave him the victory over 
the vast army of the Cushite king Ze- 
rah ; and the prophet Azariah encour- 
aged him to go on in his work of reform. 
And yet, when Baasha king of Israel 
opposed this very work, he sought aid 
not from God, but from heathen Syria. 
In the latter part of his life, he became 
diseased in his feet; and Scripture re- 
proaches him with having had recourse 
to the physicians, rather than to the 
Lord, 2 Chr. 16:12. Yet his reign was, 
on the whole, one of the happiest which 
Judah enjoyed, and the Bible repeatedly 
commends his piety as an example. 1 
Kin. 22:43; 2 Chr. 20:32; 21:12. His 
funeral rites were celebrated with special 
magnificence. There Avas ill-will and 
strife between Asa and Baasha all their 
days, as between Rehoboam and Israel, 
IKin. 15:6, 16. 

ASAHEL, son of David's sister Zeru- 
iah, and brother of Joab ; one of David's 
thirty heroes, and extremely swift of 
foot ; killed by Abner, at the battle of 
Gibeon, 2 Sam. 2:18, 23. 

ASAPH, L, assembler, a celebrated mu- 
sician in David's time, and one of the 
leaders of the temple music. 1 Chr. 16:5 ; 
25:1, 2. This service appeal's to have 
been hereditary in his family, Neh. 7 : 44 ; 
11:22. He is also called a seer, 2 Chr. 
29 : 30 ; and his name is prefixed to twelve 
Psalms, (50, 73-83,) but whether they 
were Avritten by him, or for him or his 
family to sing, is unkno%vn. See Music. 



ASC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ASH 



II. A recorder of king Hezekiah, 2 
Kill. 18:18; Isa. 30:3. 

III. Keeper of forests under Artaxer- 
xes, Neh. 2:8. 

ASCEN'SION, the visible ascent of 
Christ to heaven. "When our Saviour 
had repeatedly conversed with his apos- 
tles during forty days, after his resurrec- 
tion, and afforded them infallible proofs 
of its reality, he led them out to the 
mount of Olives, and was raised up to 
heaven in their sight, there to continue 
till he shall come again at the last day 
to judge the quick and the dead, Acts 
1:9, 11. The ascension was demonstrat- 
ed by the descent of the Holy Ghost, 
John 16:7-14; Acts 2. It was Christ's 
real human nature that ascended ; and 
he thus triumphed gloriously over death 
and hell, as head of his body the church. 
"While he blessed his disciples he was 
parted from them, and multitudes of the 
angelic hosts accompanied and welcomed 
him, Psa. 21:9; 68:17. The consequen- 
ces resulting from his ascension are : the 
fulfilment of types and prophecies con- 
cerning it ; his appearance as a priest in 
the presence of God for us ; his more 
open and full assumption of his kingly 
office ; his receiving gifts for men ; his 
opening the way to heaven for his peo- 
ple, Heb. 10:19, 20; and assuring his 
saints of their ascension to heaven after 
the resurrection of the dead, John 14:1,2. 

AS'ENATH, daughter of Potipherah, 
priest or prince of On ; given in marriage 
by Pharaoh to Joseph, as adding honor 
and strength to his high office. She v\^as 
the mother of Ephraim and Manasseh, 
Gen. 41:45; 46:20. 

ASH'DOD, one of the five chief cities 
of the Philistines, assigned to the tribe 
of Judah. but never conquered bv them, 
Josh. 13:3; 15:47; 1 Sam. 5 : l'; 6:17; 
Xeh. 4:7. Here stood the temple of 
Dagon ; and hither the ark was first 
brought, after the fatal battle at Ebene- 
zer, 1 Sam. 5:1. It was called by the 
Greeks Azotus, and belonged to Judea 
in the time of Christ. Here Philip 
preached the gospel, Acts 8:40. At the 
present day, it is a miserable village, 
still called Esdud. 

ASH'ER, the eighth son of Jacob and 
second of Zilpah, Gen. 30 : 13 ; 35 : 26. 
On entermg Canaan his tribe was the 
fifth in order, numbering fifty-three 
thousand four hundred. The portion of 
Ashcr lay along the seaboard, having 



I Lebanon and Zidon on the north, Carmel 
; and the tribe of Issachar on the south, and 
[ Zebulun and Naphtali on the east. It was 
j fruitful in grain, wine, oil, and minerals, 
Gen. 49 : 20 ; Deut. 33 : 24, 25. How 
much of the Pha^nician coast was includ- 
ed istmcertain, Josh. 19:25, 28; but the 
Asherites were imable to expel the Ca- 
naanites, and dwelt in part among them, 
Judg. 1:31, 32. They are honorably men- 
tioned in the history of David, 1 Chr. 
12:36, and of Hezekiah, 2Chr. 30:11. 
ASH'ES. To repent in sackcloth and 
! ashes, or to lie down among ashes, was 
an external sign of self-affliction for sin, 
or of grief under misfortune. "We find 
it adopted by Job, 2:8; by many Jews 
when in great fear, Esth. 4:3; and by 
the king of Nineveh, Jonah 3:6. The 
ashes of a red heifer were used in cere- 
monial purification. Num. 19. 
I ASHTMA, a deity adored by the men 
of Hamath, wha were settled in Sama- 
ria, 2 Kin. 17:20. 

ASH'KENAZ, a son of Gomer and 
I grandson of Japheth, Gen. 10:3. The 
region peopled by his descendants is 
named in Jer. 51:27 with Minni and 
xVrarat, provinces of Armenia. It prob- 
ably lay towards the Black sea. 

ASH'PENAZ, chief of the eunuchs of 
king Nebuchadnezzar, who had the 
charge of Daniel and his young compan- 
ions, and was led to shov,- them favor at 
his own peril, Dan. 1 : 3-18. 




ASHTORETH, FROM A TYRIAN COI\. 

ASH'TORETH, plural ASH'TAEOTH, 
called by the Greeks Astarte, was a god- 
dess of the Phoenicians, 2 Kin. 23:13, 
whose worship was also introduced 
among the Israelites and Philistines. 1 
Kin. 11:5, 33 ; 1 Sam. 7:3 ; 31:10. She 
is commonly named in connection Avith 
Baal, Judg. 2 : 13 ; 10 : 6 ; 1 Sam. 7:4; 
12:10, Another Hebrew name for the 
41 



ASI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ASS 



same goddess is Asherah, the liappy, the \ 
fortunate ; or more simply, fortune. This I 
last name is commonly rendered in the I 
English version "grove;" but eminent j 
Hebrew scholars think this meaning is j 
unsupported either by the etymology or 
the context. Both these Hebrew names 
of Astarte. Avhen used in the plural, 
often signify images or statues of Astar- 
te ; which are said to be set up, broken 
down, destroyed, etc. In connection 
with the worship of Astarte there was 
much of dissolute licentiousness; and 
the public prostitutes of both sexes were 
regarded as consecrated to her. See 
2 Kin. 23:7. Compare Lev. 19:29 ; Deut. 
23:18. 

As Baal or Bel denotes, in the astro- 
logical mythology of the East, the male 
star of fortune, the planet Jupiter ; so 
Ashtoreth signifies the female star of 
fortune, the planet Venus. As to the 
opinion that Baal designates the sun, 
and Ashtoreth the moon, see under Baal. 
Compare Jer. 7:18; 11:13; 44:17, 18; 
Ezek. 16. 

Ashtaroth-Karxaim, tico-horned As- 
tarles, Gen. 14:5, or simply Ashtaroth, 
Deut. 1:4, a city of Og, king of Bashan, 
beyond Jordan.' The name is doubtless 
derived from the goddess Ashtoreth or 
Astarte, whose images were adored there 
mider the figure of a female with a cres- 
cent, or horns. It Avas in the limits of 
the half tribe of Manasseh, Josh. 13:31 ; 
and was a Levitical city, 1 Chr. 6:71. 
It is also called Beeshterah, Josh. 21:27. 

ASIA, one of the great divisions of the 
eastern continent, lying east of Europe. 
The Asia spoken of in the Bible is Asia 
Minor, a peninsula which lies between 
the Euxine or Black sea and the eastern 
part of the Mediterranean, and which 
formerly included the provinces of Phry- 
gia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Caria, Lycia, 
Lydia, Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, 
Cappadocia, Galatia, Lycaonia, and Pi- 
sidia. On the western coast were an- 
ciently the countries of ^Eolia, Ionia, and 
Doris, the names of which Avere after- 
wards retained, although the countries 
were included in the provinces of Mysia, 
Lydia, and Caria. ]\Iany Jews were 
scattered over these regions, as appears 
from the history in Acts, and from Jose- 
phus. The writers of the New Testa- 
ment comprehend, under the name of 
Asia, either (1) the whole of Asia Minor, 
Acts 19:26, 27 ; 20:4, 16, 18 ; or (2) only 
42 



proconsular Asia, that is, the region of 
Ionia, of which Ephesus was the capital, 
and which Strabo also calls Asia, Acts 
2:9; 6:9; 16:6; 19:10, 22. Cicero 
speaks of proconsular Asia as containing 
the provinces of Phrygia, Mysia, Caria, 
and Lydia. 

AS'KELON, a city in the land of the 
Philistines, between Ashdod and Gaza, 
on the coast of the Mediterranean. After 
the death of Joshua, the tribe of Judah 
took Askelon ; but it subsequently be- 
came one of the five governments belong- 
ing to the Philistines, Judg. 1:18; 1 
Sam. 6 : 17. Dr. Richardson thus de- 
scribes its present state: "Askelon was 
one of the proudest satrapies of the Phil- 
istines ; now there is not an inhabitant 
within its walls ; and the prophecy of 
Zechariah is fulfilled: 'The king shall 
perish from Gaza, and Askelon shall not 
be inhabited,' " Zech. 9:5. 

ASNAP'PEPt, the Assyrian king or 
satrap, under whose direction the terri- 
tory of the ten tribes was peopled by 
emigrants from beyond the Euphrates, 
2 Kin. 17 : 24 ; Ezra 4: 10. Some identify 
him with Esar-haddon, and some with 
Shalmaneser. Ezra styles him "great 
and noble;" but no other trace of him 
is left. 

ASP, Hebrew Pcthen, a kind of ser- 
pent, whose poison is of such rapid oper- 
ation, that it kills almost the instant it 
penetrates, Avithout a possibility of rem- 
edy. It is said to be very small, not 
more than a foot in length. Forskal 
supposes it to be the Baetan, or Coluber 
Lebetina of Linnteus ; but the true asp 
of the ancients seems to be unknoAvn. 
It is frequently mentioned by ancient 
writers ; but in such an indefinite man- 
ner, that it is impossible to ascertain the 
species AAdth precision. It is mentioned 
in Deut. 32 : 33 ; Job 20 : 14, 16 ; Psa. 
58:4; 91:13; Isa. 11:8 ; Jer. 8:17 ; Rom. 
8:13. A traAcUer in the desert south of 
Judah describes it as still infested with 
serpents ; and adds as an instance, "One 
day A\'e saw in our path an asp, a foot 
long, coiled up in the attitude of spring- 
ing. Our Arabs killed it, saying it was 
exceedingly A-enomous." 

ASS, an animal Avell known for do- 
mestic uses ; and frequently mentioned 
in Scripture. People of the first quality 
in Palestine rode on asses. Deborah, in 
her song, describes the nobles of the 
land as those who "ride on Avhite asses," 



ASS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ASS 



Judg. 5:10. Compare Judg. 10:4; 12:14. 
The oriental atses are not to be compared 
with those of northern countries ; but 
are far more stately, active, and lively. 
Indeed, they were anciently, as still, 
highly prized ; and were also preferred 
for riding, especially the she-asses, on 
account of their sure-footedness. Hence 
we so often lind mention of she-asses 
alone. 




The Wild Ass is a well-known oriental 
animal, often mentioned in Scripture, 
and is a much handsomer and more 
dignified animal than the common ass. 
These animals were anciently found in 
Palestine, Syria, Arabia Deserta, Meso- 
potamia, Phrygia, and Lycaonia; but 
they rarely occur in those regions at the 
present time, and seem to be almost 
entirely confined to Tartary, some parts 
of Persia and India, and Africa. Their 
manners greatly resemble those of the 
wild horse. They assemble in troops 
under the conduct of a leader or senti- 
nel, and are extremely shy and vigi- 
lant. They will, however, stop in the 
midst of their course, and even suffer 
the approach of man for an instant, and 
then dart off with the utmost rapidity. 
They have been at all times celebrated 
for tlieir swiftness. Their voice resem- 
bles that of the common ass, but is shrill- 
er. Mr. Morier says, "We gave chase 
to two wild asses, which had so much 
more speed than our horses, that when 
they had got at some distance, they 
stood still and looked behind at us, 
snorting with their noses in the air, as 
if in contempt of our endeavors to catch 
them." 

AS'SOS, a seaport in Mysia, opposite 



to the island of Lesbos on the north. 

Here Paul took ship for Mitylene, Acts 
1 20:13. It is now a poor village, called 
j Beiram. 

I ASSYPt'IA, a celebrated country and 
j einpire, had its name from Asiiur, or x\s- 
j sur, the second son of Shem, who settled 
I in that region. Gen. 10:22. In the Bi- 
j blc the name Assyria is employed in three 
1 different significations : namely, 

1. Assyria ancient axidprojjer lay east 
of the Tigris, between Armenia, Susi- 
ana, and Media, and appears to have 
comprehended the six provinces at- 
tributed to it by Ptolemy, namely, Ar- 
rapachis, Adiabene, Arbelis, (now Er- 
bil,) Calachene, (Heb. Halah? 2 Kin. 
17 : 6,) Apollonias, and Sittacene. It 
is the region which mostly comprises 
the modern Kurdistan and the pash- 
alik of Mosul. Of these provinces, 

\ Adiabene was the most fertile and im- 
portant ; in it was situated Nineveh 
the capital ; and the term Assyria, in 
its most narrow sense, seems some- 
' "^ times to have meant only this prov- 
ince. 

2. Most generally, Assyria means 
the Kingdom of Assyria, including Baby- 
lonia and iMesopotamia, and extending to 
the Euphrates, which is therefore used 
by Isaiah as an image of this empire, Isa. 
7:20 ; 8:7. In one instance, the idea of 
the empire predominates so as to exclude 
that of Assyria proper, namely. Gen. 
2:14, where the Hiddekel or llgris is 
said to flow eastward of Assyria. 

3. After the overthrow of the Assyrian 
state, the name continued to be applied 
to those countries which had been for- 
merly under its dominion, namely, (a) 
To Babylonia, 2 Kin. 23:29; Jer. 2:18. 
(6) To Persia, Ezra 6:22, where Darius is 
also called king of Assyria. 

The early history of Assyria is involv- 
ed in obscurity. We know from the sa- 
cred narrative that it was a powerful na- 
tion. Israel was subjugated by one of 
its monarchs in the period of the Judges, 
and during the reign of the kings the 
Assyrian power was an object of perpet- 
ual dread. Pul, king of Assyria, invaded 
Israel in the reign of Menahem. Tig- 
lath-pileser assisted Ahaz against a con- 
federate army formed of the Syrian forces 
in league with those of the ten tribes. 
Shalmanezer invaded Israel, conquered 
Hoshea, and made him a vassal, bound 
to pav a yearly tribute. Hoshea wish- 
43 



AST 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ATH 



ing however to throw off the yoke, at- 
tempted to form a league Avith Egypt, 
and refused the tribute. On ascertain- 
ing this secret design of the Israelitish 
prince, Shahnanezer again invaded Is- 
rael, reduced Samaria, loaded its king 
with fetters, and transported the people 
of the land into Media, and put an end 
to the separate kingdom of the ten tribes. 
The three tribes located east of Jordan 
had already been deported into Media by 
Tiglath-pileser, when he ravaged Israel 
to save Ahaz and the kingdom of Judah. 
Sennacherib of Assyria came into Judah 
with a powerful army in the reign of 
Hezekiah, but was miraculously defeat- 
ed. Esarhaddon, his son and successor, 
ravaged Judah in the days of Manasseh, 
and carried the conquered sovereign in 
chains to Babylon. After this period the 
empire of Assyria suddenly waned, and 
its last monarch was the effeminate Sar- 
danapalus, Num. 24:22. Its capital was 
one of the most renowned of the eastern 
world. See NiNEVEn. But the kingdom 
fell at length into the hands of the 
Medes, the monarchy was divided be- 
tween them and the Babylonians, and 
the very name of Assyria was thence- 
forth forgotten. 

ASTROL'OGERS, men who pretended 
to foretell future events by means of as- 
tronomical observations. It was fancied 
that the stars and planets had an influ- 
ence, for good or for evil, on human af- 
fairs, and that certain aspects and rela- 
tive positions of the heavenly bodies were 
full of meaning to those who had skill to 
interpret them, Dan. 2:2. These super- 
stitions were prevalent among the Chal- 
deans, Assyrians, Egyptians, Phoenicians, 
and Arabians, and Avere closely connect- 
ed Avith the Avorship of the sun, moon, 
and stars, Deut. 4 : 19 ; 17 : 3 ; 2 Kin. 
23:5, 12 ; Jer. 19:13 ; Ezek. 8:16 ; Zeph. 
1 :5. They Avere thus idolatrous in their 
spirit, robbed God of his glory, andAvere 
highly offensive in his sight. 

ASTRON'OMY, the science Avhich 
treats of the lieaA^enly bodies, Avas much 
studied in Asia in ancient times. The 
Chaldeans excelled in it. The Hebrews 
do not appear to have made great profi- 
ciency in it, though their climate and 
mode of life invited to the contempla- 
tion of the heavens. Revelation had 
taught them avIio created and governed 
all the Avorlds, Gen. 1, and the infinite 
presence of the one living and true God 
44 



filled the universe, to their minds, Avith 
a glory unknown to others, Psa. 19 ; Isa. 
40:26; Amos 5:8. The Bible does not 
aim to teach the science of astronomy, 
but speaks of the sun, moon, and stars 
in the familiar language of manlcind in 
all ages. The folloAving heavenly bod- 
ies are alluded to particularly in Scrip- 
ture : Venus, the morning star, Isa. 
14:12; Rev. 2:28; Orion, and the Plei- 
ades, Job 9:9; 38:31; Amos 5:8; the 
Great Bear, called ' Arcturus," Job 9:9 ; 
38:32; Draco, "the crooked serpent," 
Job 26:13; and Gemini, "the tAvins," 
2 Kin. 23 : 5 ; Acts 28 : 1 1 . The planets 
Jupiter and Venus were worshipped un- 
der various names, as Baal and Ashto- 
reth, Gad and Meni, Isa. 65:11. Mer- 
cury is named as Nebo, in Isa. 46 : 1 ; 
Saturn as Chiun. in Amos 5 : 26 ; and 
Mars as Nergal, in 2 Kin. 17:30. See 
Idolatry and Stars. 

ASUP'PI]\I, collections. The "house of 
Asuppim" Avas probably a storehouse 
in connection A\'itli the temple, 1 Chr. 
26:15. 

A'TAD, a Canaanite, at Avhose thresh- 
ing-floor a solemn mourning Avas held 
over the remains of Jacob, on their Avay 
from Egypt to Hebron, Gen. 50:10, 11. 
See Abel-mizraim. 

AT'AROTH. Several places of this 
name occur in Scripture : one in the 
tribe of Judah, 1 Chr. 2:54 ; one or two 
in Ephraim, Josh. 16 : 2, 5, 7 ; 18 : 13 ; 
and one or tAvo in Gad, Num. 32 : 3, 34, 35. 
Robinson found traces of one of those in 
Ephraim, on a high hill about six miles 
north by west from Bethel. 

ATHALIAH, a granddaughter of Om- 
ri, 2 Chr. 22:2, and daughter of Ahab 
and Jezebel, 2 Kin. 11 : 1. Strangely 
enough, she Avas chosen as the Avife of 
Jehoram, son of the pious Jehoshaphat 
king of Judah. Her pernicious influence 
drew into idolatry and crime both her 
husband and her son Ahaziah, 2 Chr. 
21 : 6 ; 22 : 3. After their premature 
death, she usurped the throne, and 
sought to secure herself in it by the 
murder of all the seed royal. Only Jo- 
ash her grandson, then an infinit, Avas 
saved by his aunt Jehosheba. Six years 
afterAvards he Avas brought from his place 
of refuge, and croAvned by the bold and 
faithful high-priest Jehoiada, Avho at the 
same time caused the blood-stained Ath- 
aliah to be put to death, 2 Kin. 11 ; 2 
Chr. 23. 



ATH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ATH 




THE ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS, AS IT WAS. 



ATH'ENS, the city of Minerva, the chief 
city of Attica in Greece, situated on the 
Saronic gulf, forty-six miles east of Cor- 
inth, and about live miles from the coast. 
The city was in a plain extending to the 
sea on the south-west, where it had three 
ports, the passage to which Avas defended 
by long and broad walls. Several rocky 
hills rose ia the plain, the largest of 
which was the citadel, or Acropolis. 
Around this the city was built, most of 
the buildings spreading towards the sea. 
The summit of the hill was nearly level, 
about eight-hundred feet long and four 
hundred wide. The only way to the 
Acropolis was through the Propylasa, a 
magnificent gateway on the western side, 
adorned with two temples decorated with 
the finest pieces of sculpture and paint- 
ing. These splendid portals crowned an 
ascent by marble steps to the summit of 
the hill, on which were erected the tem- 
ples of the guardian divinities of Athens. 
On the left was the temple of Pallas 
Athene, (Minerva.) regarded as the pro- 
tectress of the city. Under the same 
roof was the temple of Neptune. In the 
area, on a high pedestal, stood a bronze 
statue of Minerva seventy feet high. On 
the right arose the Parthenon, the glory 
of Athens, the noblest triumph of Gre- 
cian architecture. From whatever quar- 
ter the traveller arrived, the first thing 
he saw was the Parthenon rearing its 



lofty head above the city and the cita- 
del. Its ruins, still sublime in decay, 
are the first object that attracts the eye 
of a stranger. It was of the Doric order 
of architecture, built of beautiful white 
marble, and was about one hundred feet 
wide, two hundred and twenty-six feet 
deep, and seventy feet high. There was 
a double portico of columns at the two 
fronts, and a single row along each side. 
There was an architrave, or frieze, along 
the exterior of the nave, beautifully 
sculptured, with the representation of a 
procession in honor of Minerva. "VVithin 
the temple was a statue of Minerva, by 
Phidias, celebrated for its exquisite beau- 
ty. It was made of gold and ivory, and 
was nearly forty feet high. The goddess 
was represented erect, covered with her 
»gis, holding in one hand a lance, and 
in the other a figure of victory. At the 
foot of the Acropolis, on one side was the 
Odeum, or music-hall, and the theatre 
of Bacchus : on the other side was the 
Prytaneum, where the chief magistrates 
and most meritorious citizens were en- 
tertained at a table furnished at the pub- 
lic expense. A small valley lay between 
the Acropolis and the hill on which the 
Areopagus held its sessions ; it also sep- 
arated the Areopagus from the Pnyx, a 
small rocky hill on which the general 
assemblies of the people were held. Here 
the spot is yet pointed out from which 
45 



ATO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAA 



the eminent orators addressed the peo- 
ple. It is cut in the natural rock. In 
this vicinity also was the agora^ or mar- 
ket-place, Acts 17 : 17, an open square sur- 
rounded by beautiful structures ; while 
on every side altars, shrines, and tem- 
ples were seen, some of them exceedingly 
magnilicent. This beautiful city was also 
celebrated for the military talents and 
the learning, eloquence, and politeness 
of its inhabitants. It was the very flower 
of ancient civilization ; its schools of phi- 
losophy Avere the most illustrious in the 
world, and its painters, sculptors, and 
architects have never been surpassed. 
Yet no city Avas so "wholly given to 
idolatry." The apostle Paul visited it 
about the year a. d. 52, and though alone 
among its* proud philosophers, preached 
Jesus and the resurrection to them with 
fidelity and success, Acts 17 : 15-34. See 
Areopagus. At present Athens is com- 
paratively in ruins, and has a population 
of about 28,000 addicted to the supersti- 
tions of the Greek church. 

ATONE'MENT is the satisfaction of- 
fered to divine justice for the sins of 
mankind by the death of Jesus Christ ; 
by virtue of which all true penitents be- 
lieving in Christ are reconciled to God, 
are freed from the penalty of their sins, 
and entitled to eternal life. The atone- 
ment by Jesus Christ is the great distin- 
guishing peculiarity of the gospel, and 
is presented in a great variety of terms 
and illustrations in both the Old Testa- 
ment and the New. See PiEdemption, 
Sacrifices. The English word atone- 
ment originally denoted the reconcilia- 
tion of parties previously at variance. 
It is used in the Old Testament to trans- 
late a Hebrew word which means a cov- 
ering ; implying that by a Divine pro- 
pitiation the sinner is covered from the 
just anger of God. This is actually ef- 
fected by the death of Christ ; Avhile the 
ceremonial offerings of the Jewish church 
only secured from impending temporal 
judgments, and typified the blood of Je- 
sus Christ which "cleanseth us from all 
sin." 

Atonement, Day of. See Expiation. 

ATTALIA, a seaport in Pamphylia, at 
the mouth of the river Catarrhactes, vis- 
ited by Paul and Barnabas on their way 
from Perga to Antioch, Acts 14 : 25. 
There is still a village there of a similar 
name, Avith extensive ruins in the vicin- 
ity. 

46 



AUGUS'TUS, venerable, the first peace- 
fully acknowledged emperor of Home, 
began to reign b. c. 19. Augustus Avas 
the emperor Avho appointed the enrol- 
ment, Luke 2:1, Avhich obliged Joseph 
and the Virgin to go to Bethlehem, the 
place where the Messiah was to be born. 
He died a. d. 14. 

A YEN, see Heliopolis. 

AYEN'GER of Blood. See Blood, 

PiEFUGE. 

A'VIM, or Avites, descendants of Ca- 
naan, Gen. 10:17, Avho occupied a por- 
tion of the coast of Palestine from Gaza 
towards the river of Egypt, but Avere ex- 
pelled and almost destroyed by invading 
Philistines or Caphtorim, before the time 
of Moses, Deut. 2:23. Some yet remain- 
ed in the time of Joshua, Josh. 13 : 3. 
They are conjectured to have been the 
same people Avith the Hivites, of Avhom 
traces Avere found in various parts of Ca- 
naan, Gen. 34:2; Josh. 9:7; 11:3. 

AZAPtPAH, a king of Judah, 2 Kin. 
15:1-7. In 2Chr. 26, and elseAvhere, he 
is called Uzziah. He began to reign at 
sixteen years of age, b. c. 806. The first 
part of his reign Avas prosperous and 
happy ; but afterwards, presuming to 
offer incense in the temple, he was smit- 
ten Avith leprosy, and continued a leper 
till his death, 2 Chr. 26 : 16-23. This 
name Avas very common among the Jcaa's, 
and Avas borne by many briefly referred 
to in Scripture. 

AZE'KAH, a town in the tribe of Ju- 
dah, about fifteen miles south- Avest of 
Jerusalem ; mentioned in the narratives 
of Joshua and Saul, Josh. 10:10; 1 Sam. 
17 : 1 ; taken by Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 
34 : 7, but after Avards repeopled by the 
Jews, Neh. 11:30. 

AZ'ZAH, the same as Gaza. 

AZO'TUS. See Ashdod. 



B. 



BAAL, lord, I., in the Old Testament 
denotes an idol of the Phcenicians, and 
particularly of the Tyrians, whose Avor- 
ship was also introduced Avith great so- 
lemnities among the HebrcAvs, and espe- 
cially at Samaria, along AA'ith that of As- 
tarte, Judg. 6:25-32; 2 Kin. 10:18, 28. 
See Ashtoreth. The plural, Baalim, sig- 
nifies images or statues of Baal, Judg. 
2:11; 10.10. Of the extent to Avhich 
the Avorship of this idol Avas domesticated 



BAA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAA 




HEAD OF BAAL, FROM A TYRIAN COIN. 

among the Phoenicians and Carthagin- 
ians, we have an evidence in the proper 
names of persons ; as, among the former, 
Ethbaal, Jerubbaal ; and among tlie lat- 
ter, Hannibal, Asdrubal, etc. Among 
the Babylonians, the same idol was wor- 
shipped under the name of Bel, which is 
onlv another form of the word Baal, Isa. 
46:1; Jer. 50:2; 51:44. The worship 
of Baal was established in Babylon in the 
famous tower of Babel, the uppermost 
room of which served at the same time as 
an observatory, and as the repository of a 
collection of astronomical observations. 
That in the astronomical, or rather, 
astrological mythology of the East, we 
are to look for the origin of this worship 
in the adoration of the heavenly bodies, 
is conceded by all critics. The more 
common opinion has been, that Baal, or 
Bel, is the sun : and that, under this 
name, this luminary received divine hon- 
ors. But the Greek and Roman writers 
give to the Babylonian Bel the name of 
Jupiter Belus, meaning the planet Jupi- 
ter, which was regarded, along with the 
planet Venus, as the guardian and giver 
of all good fortune ; and formed, with 
Venus, the most fortunate of all constel- 
lations, under which alone fortunate 
sovereigns could be born. This planet, 
therefore, many suppose to have been 
the object of worship under the name of 
Baal , as also the planet Venus under that 
of Astarte. Not that the sun was not an 
object of idolatrous worship among these 
nations, but in that case he is represent- 
ed under his own name ; as 2 Kin. 23:11. 



The temples and altars of Baal were 
generally on eminences. Manasseh placed 
in the two courts of the temple at Jeru- 
salem altars to all the host of heaven, 
and in particular to Astarte, 2 Kin. 21 : 5, 
7. Jeremiah threatens the Jews who had 
sacrificed to Baal on the house-top, Jer. 
32:29; and Josiah destroyed the altars 
which Ahaz had erected on the terrace 
of his palace, 2 Kin. 23:12. 

Human victims were offered to Baal, 
as they were also to the sun. Jeremiah 
reproaches the inhabitants of Judah and 
Jerusalem -svith ' ' building the high plac- 
es of Baal, to burn their sons with fire 
for burnt-oflferings unto Baal, ' ' Jer. 19:5; 
an expression which appears to be deci- 
sive as to the actual slaying by fire of the 
unhappy victims to Baal. See Moloch. 
The children of Israel were prone to 
serve Baal. See Num. 25:3 ; Judg. 2:13 ; 
3:7. Under Samuel they put away their 
idols, 1 Sam. 7:4. This continued under 
David and Solomon ; but under Ahab, 
whose wife Jezebel was a daughter of 
the Zidonian king Ethbaal, the worship 
of Baal was restored with great pomp, 
1 Kin. 16:31. 

Joined with other words, Baal signi- 
fies also other false gods. Baal-Berith, or 
the ' ' lord of the covenant, ' ' was a god 
of the Shechemites, Judg. 8 : 33 ; 9:4. 
Baal-Peor, or "the lord of Peor," was a 
filthy idol of the Moabites, Num. 25:3, 
5; Hos. 9:10. Baal-Zebub, "lord of 
flies," was a god of the Philistines at 
Ekron. See Beelzebub. 

II. The word Baal also occurs in many 
compound names of places, not always 
having any reference to the idol. 

BAALAH, a town in the tribe of Sime- 
on, Josh. 15:29 ; 19:3 ; called also Bilhah, 
1 Chr. 4 : 29. The same as Kirjathjearim. 
BA'ALATH, a town in the tribe of 
Gad, Josh. 19:44. This lay not far from 
Bethhoron. It is uncertain whether it 
is the same as the Baalath rebuilt by 
Solomon, 1 Kin. 9:18: 2 Chr. 8:6. 

BAAL-GAD', a city in the valley of 
Lebanon, at the foot of Hermon ; the' 
northernmost point to which the wars 
of Joshua reached. Josh. 11:17; 12:7; 
13:5. It was perhaps the same as Baal- 
hermon. Some have supposed it was 
Baalbek ; but this lay further north. 

BAAL-HAZOR, where Absalom kept 
his flocks, 2 Sam. 13:23, was near Ephra- 
im, a city of Judah, some eight miles 
east of Jerusalem. 

47 



BAA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAB 



BA'ALIS, king of the Ammonites in 
the time of tlie captivity. He caused the 
assassination of Gedaliah, tlien governor 
of Judah, Jer. 40: U; 41:1-10. 

BAAL-ME'ON, in Eeuben beyond the 
Jordan, Num. 32:38; called also Beth- 
meon, Jer. 48:23, and Beth-baal-meon, 
Josh. 13:17. Its ruins are found two 
miles southeastof Heshbon. Ezekiel, 25 : 9, 
speaks of it as then a Moabitish town. 

BAAL-PERA'ZIM, place of breaches, a 
name given by DaA-id to the scene of a 
battle with the Philistines, 2 Sam. 5:20 ; 
1 Chr. 14:11 ; Isa. 28:21. It was in the 
valley of Rephaim, not far south-west of 
Jerusalem . 

BAAL-ZEPH'ON, a town in Egypt, 
probably near the modern Suez. Its lo- 
cation is unknoAvn, as are the details of 
the route of the Hebrews on leaving 
Egypt, They encamped "over against" 
and "before" Baal-zephon before cross- 
ing the Eed sea, Ex. 14:2 ; Num. 33:7. 



BAANAH and Pieciiab, sons of Eim- 
mon, in the service of Ish-bosheth the 
son of Saul. Thinking to obtain a re- 
ward from David, they secretly slew their 
master while reposing at noon, and car- 
ried his head to David at Hebron. They 
suffered, however, the punishment suit- 
able for those whose ' ' feet are swift to 
shed blood," 2 Sam. 4:1-12. 

BAASHA, son of Ahijah, and com- 
mander of the armies of Nadab, king of 
Israel. He killed his master treacher- 
ously at the siege of Gibbethon, and 
usurped the kingdom, b. c. 953, which 
he possessed twenty-three years. He 
exterminated the whole race of Jerobo- 
am, as had been predicted, 1 Kin. 14:7- 
14 ; but by his bad conduct and idolatiy 
incurred God's indignation, 1 Kin. 15 ; 
16: 1-7, 12. God sent him a warning by 
the mouth of Jehu the prophet ; which 
was fulfilled in the extermination of his 
family two yeans after his own death. 




BIRS NIMEOUD. 



BA'BEL, confusion, the name of a lofty 
tower, begun to be built by the descend- 
ants of Noah among whom Nimrod was 
a leader, about one hundred and twenty 
years after the flood ; so called because 
God there confounded the language of 
those who were employed in' the rmder- 
taking. Gen. 10 : J ; 11:9. Tlieir object 
in building the city and tower, was to 
concentrate the population and the do- 
minion at that spot ; and as this was con- 
48 



trary to the divine purpose of replenish- 
ing the earth with inhabitants, and be- 
trayed an imgodly and perhaps idolatrous 
disposition, God frustrated their designs 
by miraculously giving to different por- 
tions of the people different languages, 
or different modes of pronunciation and 
divergent dialects of the original lan- 
guage of man, thus causing them to dis- 
perse over the globe. Compare Acts 
2:1-11. The tower was apparently left 



BAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAB 



incomplete, but the foundation of the 
city was probably laid, and a portion no 
doubt of the builders continued to dwell 
there. The place became afterwards the 
celebrated city of Babylon. It has been 
supposed that the tower of Babel was 
afterwards finished, and called the tower 
of Belus, within the city of Babylon. 
Herodotus visited this tower, and de- 
scribes it as a square pyramid, measuring 
half a mile in circumference at the base ; 
from this rose eight towers one above 
another gradually decreasing to the sum- 
mit, which was reached by a broad road 
winding up around the outside. This 
tower was used for astronomical purposes, 
but was chiefly devoted to the Avorship 
of Bel, whose temple contained immense 
treasures, including several statues of 
massive gold, one of which was forty feet 
in height. Here were deposited the sa- 
cred golden vessels brought from Jerusa- 
lem, "2 Chr. 36 : 7 ; Jer. 51 : 44. Its ruins 
are supposed to be the present Birs Nim- 
roud, six miles south-west of Hilleh, the 
modern Babylon: an immense mound of 
coarse sun-dried bricks, laid with bit- 
umen. It is a ruinous heap, shattered 
by violence, furrowed by storms, and 
strown with fragments of brick, pottery, 
etc., fused and vitrified by some intense 
heat. It is 190 feet high, and on the top 
rises an irregular tower 90 feet in cir- 
cumference and 35 feet high, built of a 
fine brick — with which the whole mound 
appears to have been faced. The tower 
is rent asunder and mutilated at the top, 
and scathed as if by lightning — a monu- 
ment, some have thought, of the just 
wrath of God. See Nebuchadnezzar. 

BAB'YLOX, I., a celebrated city situ- 
ated on the Euphrates, the original foun- 
dation of which is described under the 
word Babel. With this coincide many 
ancient traditions, while some speak of 
Semiramis as the founder, and others of 
Nebuchadnezzar. These accounts may 
all be reconciled, by supposing that Sem- 
iramis rebuilt the ancient city, and that 
Nebuchadnezzar afterwards greatly en- 
lai'ged and adorned it. 

ii.ibylon lay in a vast and fertile plain 
watered by the Euphrates, which flowed 
through the city. Its walls are described 
as GO mile* in circumference, 300 feet 
high, and 75 feet wide, Jer. 51:44-58. 
A deep trench ran parallel with the 
walls. In each of the four sides were 25 
bi-iizen gates, from which roads crossed 
3 



to the opposite gates. On the squares 
thus formed, countless houses and gar- 
dens were made. Nebuchadnezzar's pal- 
ace was in an inclosure six nnles in cir- 
cumference. Witliin this were also "the 
hanging gardens, ' ' an immense artificial 
mound 400 feet high, sustained by arch- 
es upon arches, terraced ofi' for trees and 
flowers, the water for which was dra^vn 
from the river by machinery concealed 
in the mound, Dan. 4:29, 30. 

Under Nebuchadnezzar, Babylon reach- 
ed the summit of her greatness and splen- 
dor. She was renowned for learning, 
especially in astronomy, and for skill in 
various arts, as the making of carpets 
and cloths, of perfumes, jewelry, etc. 
Her location gave her to a great extent 
the control of the traffic, by the Euphra- 
tes and by caravans, between Central 
Asia and Arabia and Egypt. She was 
"a city of merchants," Isa. 43:14; 
Ezek. 17:4 ; and into her lap flowed, ei- 
ther through conquest or commerce, the 
Avealth of almost all known lands. Just- 
ly therefore might the prophets call her 
"the great," Dan. 4:20; "the praise 
of the whole earth," Jer. 51:41; "the 
beauty of the Chaldees' excellency," Isa. 
13:19; "the lady of kingdoms," Isa. 
47 : 5 ; but also ' ' the tender and deli- 
cate," and "given to pleasures," Isa. 
47 : I, 8. In consequence of the opu- 
lence and luxury of the inhabitants, cor- 
ruptness and licentiousness of manners 
and morals Avere carried to a frightful 
extreme. Bel, Nebo, Nergal, Merodach, 
Succoth-benoth, and other idols, were 
there worshipped Avith rites in AA^hich 
impurity AA'as made a matter of religion. 
Well might Ave expect Jehovah to bring 
doAvn vengeance on her crimes. Indeed, 
the Avoes denounced against Babylon by 
the prophets constitute some of the 
most awfully splendid and sublime por- 
tions of the Avhole Bible, Isa. 13:1-22; 
14:22; 21:9; 47; Jer. 25; 50; 51, etc. 

Tlie city did not long remain the cap- 
ital of the Avorld. Under the reign of 
Nebuchadnezzar's grandson, Nabonni- 
dus, the Belshazzar of the Scriptures, it 
Avas besieged and taken by Cyrus. The 
accounts of Greek historians harmonize 
here Avith that of the Bible : that Cyrus 
made his successful assault on a night 
AAdien the Avhole city, relying on the 
strength of the AA'alls, had given them- 
selves up to the riot and debauchery of 
a grand public festival, and the king and 
49 



BAB 



BIBLE DICTION'xVRY. 



BAB 



his nobles were revelling at a splendid | 
entertainment. Cyrus had previously | 
caused a canal, which ran west of the 
city, and carried off the superfluous wa- 
ter of the Euphrates into the lake of Ni- 
tocris, to be cleared out, in order to turn 
the river into it ; which, by this means, 
was rendered so shallow, that his soldiers 
were able to penetrate along its bed into 
the city, Dan. 5. 638 b. c. From this 
time its importance declined, for Cyrus 
made Susa the capital of his kingdom. 
It revolted against Darius Hystaspis, who 
again subdued it, broke down all its 
gates, and reduced its Avails to the height 
of fifty cubits. According to Strabo, 
Xerxes destroyed the tower of Belus. 
Under the Persians, and under Alexan- 
der's successors, Babylon continued to 
decline, especially after iSeleucus Nicator 
had founded Seleucia, and made it his 
residence. A great portion of the inhab- 
itants of Babylon removed thither ; and 
in Strabo' s time, that is, under Augus- 
tus, Babylon had become so desolate, 
that it might be called a vast desert. 
There was a town on its site until the 
fourth century, and many Jews dwelt 
there, 1 Pet. 5:13. But from this time 
onward, Babylon ceases almost to be 
mentioned ; even its ruins have not been 
discovered until Avithin the last two cen- 
turies ; and it is only within the present 
century that these ruins have been traced 
and described. These consist of numer- 
ous mounds, usually of brick, deeply fur- 
rowed and decayed by time, strown with 
fragments of brick, bittmien, pottery, etc. 
One of these is described above. See Ba- 
BKL. Another, four miles north-west of 
Hilleh, and called by the natives Kasr, is 
thought to mark the site of the hanging 
gardens. These ruins are 2,400 feet long, 
and 1,800 broad. Another near by, call- 
ed Mujellibah, is of similar dimensions. 
From these mounds thousands of bricks 
have been dug, bearing arrow-headed 
inscriptions as ancient as the time of 
Nebuchadnezzar, -wliose name often oc- 
curs. The aspect of the whole region is 
dreary and forlorn. It is infested by 
noxious animals, and perhaps in no place 
under heaven is tlie contrast between 
ancient magnificence and present deso- 
lation greater than here. The awful 
propliecy of Isaiah, uttered more than a 
century before, has been most literally 
fulfilled, Isa. 13 : 14. 

The name of Babvlon is used symbol - 
50 




A BABYLOM.A.N BRICK. 

ically in Eev. 14:8 ; 16 ; 17 ; 18, to mark 
the idolatry, superstition, lewdness, lux- 
ury, and persecution of the people of 
God, which characterized heathen Rome 
and modern Antichrist. Some thus in- 
terpret 1 Pet. 5:13. 

II. There was also a Babylon in Egypt, 
a city not far from Heliopolis. Some sup- 
pose this to be the Babylon mentioned 
1 Pet. 5:13 ; but this is not probable. 

BABYLO'NIA, the province of which 
Babylon was the capital ; now the Bab- 
ylonian or Arabian Irak, which consti- 
tutes the pashalic of Bagdad. This cele- 
brated province included the tract of 
country lying on the river Euphrates, 
bounded north by Mesopotamia and As- 
syria, and south by the Persian gulf. 
This gulf was indeed its only definite 
and natural boundary ; for towards the 
north, towards the east or Persia, and 
towards the west or desert Arabia, its 
limits were quite indefinite. Both in 
ancient and modern times, important 
tracts on the eastern bank of the Tigris, 
and on the western bank of the Euphra- 
tes, and still more on both banks of their 
united streams, were reckoned to Baby- 
lonia, or Irak el- Arab. 

The most ancient name of the country 
isShinar, Gen. 10:10; Dan. 1:2. After- 
wards Babel, Babylon, and Babylonia 
became its common appellation, with 



BAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAL 



which, at a later period, Chaldea, or the 
land of the Chaldeans, was used as sy- 
nonymous, after this people had got the 
whole into their possession. 

Babylonia is an extensive plain, inter- 
rupted by no hill or mountain, consist- 
ing of a fatty, brownish soil, and subject 
to the annual inundations of the Tigris 
and Euphrates, more especially of the 
latter, whose banks are lower than those 
of the Tigris. The Euphrates commonly 
rises about twelve feet above its ordinary 
level, and continues at this height from 
the end of April till June. These inun- 
dations of course compelled the earliest 
tillers of the soil to provide means for 
drawing off the superabundant water, 
and so distributing it over the whole sur- 
face, that those tracts which were in 
themselves less watered might receive 
the requisite irrigation. From this 
cause, the whole of Babylonia came to 
be divided up by a multitude of larger 
and smaller canals ; in part passing en- 
tirely through from one river to the 
other ; in part also losing themselves in 
the interior, and serving only the pur- 
poses of irrigation. These canals seem 
to be the "rivers of Babylon" spoken 
of in Psa. 137:1. Besides this multitude 
of canals, which have long since vanished 
without trace. Babylonia contained sev- 
eral large lakes, partly the work of art 
and partly formed by the inundations of 
the two rivers. Babylonia, therefore, was 
a land abounding in water ; and Jeremi- 
ah might therefore well say of it, that it 
"dwelt upon many Avaters," Jer. 51:13. 

The Babylonians belonged to the She- 
mitic branch of the descendants of Noah, 
and their language had an affinity with 
the Arabic and Hebrew, nearly resem- 
bling what is now called Chaldee. The 
Babylonian empire was founded b)- Nim- 
rod twenty centuries before Christ, and 
then embraced the cities Babel, Erech, 
Accad, and Calneh, Gen. 10:10. After 
the building of Nineveh by Ninus, 1237 
B. c. , that city became the seat of power, 
and continued so until about 606 b. c, 
when the Assyrian empire gave way to 
the Chaldean, and Babylon reached its 
highest point in fame and power. Upon 
the return of the Jews from captivity, 
many still remained in Babylonia, and 
to their posterity the gospel was early 
conveyed. Peter is supposed by many 
to have written his first epistle there, 
1 Pet. 5:13. The Jews had thriving syn- 



agogues in Babylonia, and one of their 
Talmuds was there composed. See Chal- 
deans. 

BA'CA, tears, or weeping, Psa. 84:6. It 
is not necessary to vmderstand here that 
there was really a valley so called. The 
psalmist, at a distance from Jerusalem, 
is speaking of the happiness of those who 
are permitted to make the usual pilgrim- 
ages to that city in order to worship 
Jehovah in the temple : they love the 
ways which lead thither ; yea, though 
they must pass through rough and dreary 
patiis, even a vale of tears, yet such are 
their hope and joy of heart, tliat all this 
is to them as a well-watered cormtry, a 
land crowned with the blessings of the 
early rain. 

BAD'GEK, a small inoffensive animal, 
of the bear genus, which remains torpid 
all winter. It is an inhabitant of cold 
countries, and is not found in Palestine. 
Hence many think the "badgers' skins " 
mentioned "Exod. 25 : 5 ; 26 : 14 ; Ezek. 
16:10, and elsewhere, as being used for 
covering the tabernacle and for shoes, 
were the skins not of this animal, but 
of a species of seal found in the Red sea. 
Burckhardt remarks that he ' ' saw^ parts 
of the skin of a large fish, killed on the 
coast, which was an inch in thickness, 
and is employed by the Arabs instead of 
leather for sandals." Others think it 
was an animal of the antelope species, 
the skins of which the Jews had obtained 
in Eirvut. 

BAG, Deut. 25:13; Luke 12:33. East- 
ern money was often sealed up in bags 
containing a certain sum, for which they 
passed current while the seal remained 
unbroken, 2 Kin. 12:10. 

BAHU'RIM, a town of Benjamin, near 
Jerusalem, on the road to the Jordan. It 
is several times mentioned in the history 
of David, 2 Sam. 3:16; 16:5; 17:18. 

BA'JITH, the site of a temple in Moab, 
where the king offered vain supplications 
against the Assyrians, Isa. 15:2. 

BA'LAAM, a celebrated diviner, of the 
city Pethor, on the Euphrates, Num. 
22:5. Balak, king of Moab, having seen 
the multitudes of Israel, and fearing they 
would attack his country, sent for Ba- 
laam, who was famous for his supposed 
supernatural powers, to come and curse 
them. Balaam, though eager for gain, 
was led to ask counsel of God, who for- 
bade his going. Balak afterwards sent 
other deputies, whom Balaam finally ac- 
51 



BAL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAP 



companied without the approval of God, 
who sent an angel to meet and warn him 
in the way. Here occurred the miracle 
of Balaam's ass, Num. 22 : 22, 85. But 
instead of cursing, he was constrained by 
the Spirit of God to bless the children of 
Israel. This he did a second and a third 
time, to the extreme mortification of Ba- 
lak, who dismissed him in great anger. 
Balaam subsequently foretold what Is- 
rael should in fiitui-e times do to the 
nations round about ; and after having 
advised Balak to engage Israel in idola- 
try and whoredom, that they might of- 
fend God and be forsaken by him, quitted 
his territories for his own land. This 
bad counsel was pursued ; the young 
women of Moab inveigled the Hebrews 
to the impure and idolatrous worship of 
Baal-Peor, for which 24,000 Israelites 
were slain, Num. 25:1-9; 31:16; 2 Pet. 
2:15; Jade II; Rev. 2:14. 

Balaam was probably a descendant of 
Shem, and possessed many just ideas of 
the true God. He calls Him "the Lord 
my God," Num. 22:18 ; and yet he seems 
to have been only an enchanter and 
false prophet, like many in the times of 
the kings of Israel, until he came in col- 
lision with the people of God. In this 
transaction he. was made a bearer, against 
his own will, of the sublime messages of 
Jehovah ; yet his heart remained un- 
changed, and he died not "the death of 
the righteous," Num. 31:8 ; Josh. 13:22. 
BA'LAK, king of Moab, when the Is- 
raelites were drawing near the promised 
land. He was filled with terror lest they 
should attack and destroy him, as they 
had Sihon and Og, and implored the 
soothsayer Balaam to come and curse 
them. His fears and his devices were 
both in vain, Deut. 2 : 9, See Balaam. 
He found he had nothing to fear from Is- 
rael if at peace with them, and nothing 
to hope if at war with them. 
_ BALD'NESS was either natural or ar- 
tificial. It was customary among east- 
ern nations to cut off the hair of the 
head, or to shave the head, as a token 
of mourning, on the death of a relative. 
Job 1:20; Jer. 16:6. This was forbid- 
den to the Israelites, in consequence of 
its being a heathen custom, Deut. 14:1. 
Natural baldness was treated with con- 
tempt, because it exposed a man to the 
suspicion of leprosy. The children at 
Bethel cried after Elisha, " Go up, thou 
bald-head," 2 Kin. 2:23. While they 



indicated by this epithet great contempt 
for him as a prophet of the Lord, they 
probably scoffed at the same time at the 
miracle of Elijah's ascension. 




BALM, or more properly, Balsam, the 
gum or inspissated juice which exudes 
from the balsam-tree, the Opobalsamum, 
which was anciently frequent in Judea, 
and particularly in Gilead ; hence called 
the balm or balsam of Gilead, Jer. 8 : 22 ; 
46:11. It was reckoned very valuable 
in the cure of external wounds. The 
true balsam-tree is an evergreen, a na- 
tive of Southern Arabia and Abyssinia, 
and is about fourteen feet high. It yields 
its gum in very small quantities. At the 
present day, this is collected chiefly in 
Arabia, between Mecca and Medina, and 
is therefore sometimes called the balm of 
Mecca. Its odor is exquisitely fragrant 
and pungent. It is very costly, and is 
still in the highest esteem among the 
Turks and other oriental nations, both 
as a medicine and as a cosmetic for beau- 
tifying the complexion, Gen. 37:25 ; Jer. 
51:8; Ezek. 27:17. 

BA'MAH, plur. BAMOTH, hir/h places, 
Ezek. 20:29. Bamoth-baal Avas a station 
of the Hebrews, in the border of Moab, 
Num. 21:20 ; 22:41 ; afterwards assigned 
to the tribe of Reuben, Josh. 13 : 17. 
Baal was worshipped there, and it was 
perhaps the "high places" referred to 
in Isa. 15:2. See High Places. 

BAP'TISM is the holy ordinance by 
which persons are admitted as members 
of the Christian community. It is ad- 



BAP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAR 



ministered in the name of the Father, 
the Son, and the Holy Ghost ; and is a 
visible and public profession of faith in 
Christ and his salvation, of vital union 
with him, of the obligation to live a new 
life according to his precepts and in his 
service, and of the expectation of sharing 
in his glorious and heavenly immortali- 
ty. It is not by any means to be regard- 
ed as a regenerating ordinance, though 
significant of regeneration. It was es- 
tablished in the Christian church by 
Christ and his apostles, and is binding 
on his followers to the end of time. The 
use of water in this ordinance is ground- 
ed in part on its qualities as the great 
element of purification, and on the rites 
of the ancient dispensation, in which 
' ' water and blood ' ' were the divinely 
appointed symbols of moral renovation 
and atonement. 

Baptism "avith the Holy Ghost and 
WITH FIRE," Matt. 3 : II ; Luke 3 : 16. 
Christ is speaking in these places of the 
wheat and the chaff — the men who re- 
ceive him and those who reject him. The 
former class shall be abundantly endued 
with the teachings and consolations of 
the Holy Spirit, but "the clialf he will 
burn with fire unquenchable." Many 
here understand ' ' fire ' ' in the widest 
sense of purification : the purification of 
Christ's people by the destruction of the 
ungodly from among them, and their 
purification from sin by the discipline to 
which he subjects them. " He shall sit 
as a refiner's fire." 

BARAB'BAS, a noted robber in Christ's 
time, Avho was imprisoned and awaiting 
death for the crimes of sedition and mur- 
der. It was a custom of the Roman gov- 
ernment, for the sake of conciliating the 
Jews, to release one Jewish prisoner, 
whom they might choose, at the j'carly 
Passover. Pilate desired thus to release 
Jesus, but the Jews demanded Barabbas, 
Matt. 27:16-26. 

BA'RAK, the son of Abinoam, of Ke- 
desh in the tribe of Naphtali. God sum- 
moned him, by means of Deborah the 
prophetess, to release Israel from the 
yoke of Jabin king of Canaan. Having 
first secured the attendance of the proph- 
etess, he gathered 10.000 men, and sta- 
tioned them on mount Tabor, perhaps to 
avoid the enemies' 900 chariots of iron, 
Judg. 4:3. God fought for Israel in 
the battle which ensued, and the song 
of Deborah and Barak, Judg. 5, chroni- 



\ cles their victory. The name of Barak 
! is enrolled among those illustrious for 
faith, Heb. 12:32. 

BARBA'RIAN. According to the 

j Greek idiom, all other nations, however 

learned and polite they might be, were 

' ' barbarians. ' ' Hence Paul comprehends 

all mankind under the names of ' ' Greeks 

and barbarians," Rom. 1:14:. Luke calls 

the inhabitants of the island of JNIalta, 

; "barbarians," Acts 28:2, 4. Indeed, 

I ' ' barbarian ' ' is used in Scripture for e v- 

! ery stranger or foreigner who does not 

! speak the native language of the Avriter, 

\ Psa. 114:1, and includes no implication 

i whatever of savage nature or manners in 

; those respecting whom it is used. 

I BAR-JE'SUS. See Elymas. 

BAR'LEY was sown in Palestine in au- 
I tunin, and reaped in the spring, that is, 
I at the Passover. The Hebrews frequent- 
I ly used barley bread, 2 Sam. 17 : 28 ; 2 
Kin. 4:42; John 6:9. Barley also Avas 
much used as food for cattle, 1 Kin. 4:28. 
BAR'NABAS, son of consolation, or Jo- 
SES, a disciple of Jesus, and a companion 
I of the apostle Paul. He Avas a Levite, 
: and a native of the isle of Cyprus, and is 
said to have sold all his property, and 
j laid the price of it at the apostles' feet. 
Acts 4:36, 37. When Paul came to Je- 
i rusalem, three years after his conver- 
sion, about A. D. 38, Barnabas introduced 
him to the other apostles. Acts 9:26, 27. 
' Five years afterAvards, the chiu'ch at Je- 
rusalem, being informed of the progress 
i of the gospel at Antioch, sent Barnabas 
j thither, Avho l)eheld Avith great joy the 
AA^onders of the grace of God, Acts li :20- 
I 24. He afterAvards Avent to Tarsus, to 
! seek Paul and bring him to Antioch, 
I AA'here they dAvelt together tAvo years, and 
! great numbers Avere couA-erted. They 
I left Antioch a. d. 45, to convey alms 
i from this church to that at Jerusalem, 
j and soon returned, bringing Avith them 
John Mark, Acts 11 : 28 -"SO ; 12 : 25. 
"While they Avere at Antioch, tlie Holy 
j Ghost directed that they should be set 
, apart for those labors to AA-hich he had 
I appointed them, the planting of new 
churches among the Gentiles. They vis- 
ited Cyprus and some cities of Asia Mi- 
nor, Acts 13:2-14, and after three years 
j returned to Antioch. In a. d. 50, he 
! and Paul Avere appointed delegates from 
the Syrian churches to consult the apos- 
tles and elders at Jerusalem respecting 
I certain questions raised by JcAvish zcal- 
53 



BAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAR 



ots; and having obtained the judgment ! 
of the brethren at Jerusalem, they re- ' 
turned with it, accompanied by Silas and 
Barnabas. At Antioch he was led into 
dissimulation by Peter, and was, in con- 
sequence, reproved by Paul. While pre- 
paring lor a second missionary tour, Paul 
and Barnabas having a dispute relative 
to Mark, Barnabas' nephew, they sepa- j 
rated, Paul going to Asia, and Barnabas i 
with Mark to Cyprus, Acts 13-15 ; Gal. i 
2:13. Nothing is known of his subse- 
quent history. There is a spurious gos- i 
pel, in Arabic, ascribed to him ; and an 
epistle, treating mainly of the connec- 
tion of the Mosaic dispensation with the 
gospel, but evidently written by some 
other hand. The name of Barnabas 
stands high in the annals of the early 
church, "when he gave all his estates 
to Christ, he gave himself also, as his 
life of generous self-devotion and mis- : 
sionary toil clearly shows. He was a j 
beloved fellow-laborer with Paul, some- 
what, as Melancthon was Avith Luther, 
and a true "son of consolation" to the 
church. 

BAPt'RENNESS was an affliction pe- 
culiarlv lamented throughout the East, 
Gen. i6:l; 30:1-23; 1 Sam. 1:6, 19; | 
Isa. 47:9; 49:21; Luke 1:25, especially ' 
by the Jewish women, who remembered 
the promised Messiah, Gen. 3 : 15, and 
hoped for the honor of his parentage. 
The strength of this feeling is evinced by 
the extraordinary and often unjustifiable 
measures it led them to adopt. Gen. 
16 : 2 ; 19 : 31 ; 38 : 14 ; Deut. 25 : 5-10. 
Professed Christians are charged with 
barrenness, if they are destitute of the 
fruits of the Spirit, and do not abound 
m good works, Luke 13:6-9 ; 2 Pet. 1:8. 

BAR'SABAS, I. Joseph Barsabas, sur- 
named The Just, was one of Christ's early 
disciples, and probably among the sev- 
enty. He was one of the two candidates 
nominated to fill the vacancy left by Ju- 
das Iscariot in the apostleship. Acts 1. ; 

XL Judas Barsabas was "a prophet," , 
and a distinguished member of the Jeru- 
salem church. He was deputed, with 
Silas, to accompany Paul and Barnabas 
in a mission of importance to the Gentile : 
converts in the Syrian churches, Acts i 
15:22-33. I 

BARTHOL'OMEW, one of the twelve 
apostles. Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 
6:14; Acts 1:13. He is named in con- | 
nection with Philip, and seems to have | 
54 



been the same person whom John calls 
Nathanael, John 1 : 45-51, and mentions 
among the other apostles, John 21 : 2. 
Nathanael may have been his real name, 
and Bar-tholomew, that is, son of Tohnai, 
his patronymic and best known name. 
See Apostle and Nathanael. 

BARTIME'US, son of Timeus, a blind 
man, to whom Christ gave sight, by 
the wayside near Jericho. Matt. 20:29- 
34 ; Mark 10 : 46-52 ; Luke 18 : 35-43. 
There were two healed, according to 
Matthew ; but Mark and Luke only men- 
tion Bartimeus, who bore his father's 
name, as though of a well known fam- 
ily. There is an apparent disagreement 
as to the time of the occurrence, which 
has led some to suppose there were two 
cases at different times, one as Christ 
entered Jericho and the other as he left 
it. AVe may rather suppose that Bar- 
timeus heard the approach of Christ, 
Luke 18:35, and learned who he was on 
the first day ; and encouraged by the 
mercy of the Saviour to Zaccheus, and 
being joined by another blind man, call- 
ed to him for help as he again passed by 
on his way to Jerusalem. The touch- 
ing narrative of his steadfast faith, and 
Christ's ready compassion, should en- 
courage all to go boldlv unto Jesus. 

BA'RUCH, L, the son of Neriah. of a 
distinguished family in the tribe of Ju- 
dah. He was the faithful friend of Jer- 
emiah. About 605 B c. he wrote down, 
from the lips of Jeremiah, all the divine 
messages to that prophet, and subse- 
quently read them to the people, and 
again to certain princes. These last took 
the book, and soon made known its con- 
tents to king Jehoiakim, who impiously 
destroyed it. Baruch Avrote it down a 
second time as before, with some addi- 
tions, Jer. 36. He is supposed by some 
to have accompanied his brother Seraiah 
to Babylon, with the predictions of Jer- 
emiah respecting that city, Jer. 51:59- 
64. He afterwards shared the persecu- 
tions of the prophet, was imprisoned with 
him, and forced to go to Egypt with the 
rebellious Jews, Jer. 43. After the death 
of Jeremiah, the rabbins say, he returned 
to Babylon. An apocryphal book is as- 
scribed to him. 

II. Another Baruch is mentioned 
among the friends of Nehemiah, Neh. 
3:20; 10:6; 11:5. 

BARZIL'LAI. I., of Meholah in Sim- 
eon ; father of Adi'iel, who married Me- 



BAS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BAY 



rab the daughter of Saul, 1 Sam. 18:19 ; 
2 Sam. 21:8. 

II. An aged and wealthy Gileadite, a 
friend of David when he was in exile 
during Absalom's rebellion. He sent a 
liberal supply of provisions, beds, and 
other conveniences for the use of the 
king's followers, 2 Sam. 17:27 ; 19:32. 
On David's return, Barzillai accompa- 
nied him as far as Jordan, but declined, 
in consequence of his great age, to pro- 
ceed to Jerusalem, and receive the favors 
the king had intended for him. David, 
in his final charge to Solomon, enjoined 
upon him to show kindness to Barzillai' s 
family, and to make them members of 
the royal household, 1 Kin. 2:7. 

III. A priest who married a daughter 
of the above, Ezra 2:61 ; Neh. 7:63. 

BAS'HAN, .M /;•?«•/>;, Num. 21:33, a 
rich hilly district lying east of the Jor- 
dan, and between the mountains of Her- 
raon on the north, and those of Gilead 
and Ammon on the south, llie country 
takes its name from its soft and sandy 
soil. It is celebrated in Scripture for 
its stately oaks, its fine breed of cattle, 
and its rich pasturage : ' ' Rams of the 
breed of Bashan," Dcut. 32:14; "Rams, 
bulls, goats, all of them fatlings of Ba- 
shan," Ezek. 39:18. The oaks of Ba- 
shan are mentioned in connection with 
the cedars of Lebanon, Isa. 2:13. Mod- i 
em travellers describe the country as j 
still abounding with verdant and fertile i 
meadows, valleys traversed by refreshing ' 
streams, hills crowned with forests, and '' 
pastures offering an abundance to the 
flocks that wander through them. In 
the time of Joshua, Argob, one of its ; 
chief districts, contained sixty walled 
towns, Deut. 4:43; Josh. 20:8; 21:27. 
Bashan was assigned, after the conquest i 
of Og and his people. Josh. 12:4, to the 
half tribe of Manasseh. D ivid drew sup- ; 
plies from this region, 1 Kin. 4:13. It 
was conquered by Hazael, but Joash re- \ 



j probably granddaughter of Ahitiiopiiel, 

I which see. David first committed adul- 

I tery with her, then caused her husband 

to be slain, and afterwards took her to 

wife. These sins displeased Jehovah, 

who sent the prophet Nathan to David, 

with the parable of the ewe lamb, 2 Sam. 

12:1. David bitterly repented, but was 

• yet punished, 2 Sam. 11 ; 12. Bath-sheba 

; was the mother of Solomon, whose suc- 

j cession to the throne she took pains to 

[ secure, 1 Kin. 1:15. She is afterwards 

' mentioned in the history of Adonijah, 

1 Kin. 2:13, in the title of Psa. 51, and 

among the ancestors of Christ, Matt. 1 : 6. 




covered it, 2 Kin. 10:33 ; 13:: 



From 



Bashan came the Greek name Batanrea, 
in modern Arabic El-Bottein. But this 
latter only included its southern part. 
The ancient Bashan covered the Roman 
provinces named Gaulonitis, Trachonitis, 
Auranitis, Batantea, and Itunca. 

BATH, or Epiiah, a Hebrew measure, 
containing seven gallons, four pints, liq- 
uid measure ; or three pecks, three pints, 
dry measure. 

BATH'-SHEBA, the wife of Uriah, and 



BATTE1U.\G-RAM AXD TOWER. 

BATTERING-RAM, a military engine 
for battering walls. A long and solid 
beam, armed at one end with a metallic 
ram's-head, was suspended by the mid- 
dle, and swung violently and repeatedly 
against the walls of a city or castle, tUl 
a breach was made. It was sometimes 
in the lower part of a wooden tower built 
upon wheels, and was worked by more 
than a himdred men ; while the upper 
part of the tower was tilled with archers 
and slingers. Ezek. 4:2 ; 21:22. 

BAT'TLEMENT, a balustrade around 
the roofs of ancient houses, Avhich were 
flat, and were much resorted to for fresh 
air, amusement, or retirement by day, 
and for sleep at night. The Mosaic law 
required a battlement for each house, 
Deut. 22:8. 

BAY-TREE. The bay-tree is the Lau- 
rel of North Africa and the south of Eu- 
rope ; an evergreen tree, a wTeath from 
which has been from time immemorial 
the symbolical crown of poets and war- 



BDE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BEA 



riors. The word rendered "bay-tree" 
in Psa. 37:35, seems to mean simply a 
native tree, green and vigorous. 

BDEL'LIUM is commonly supposed to 
mean the aromatic gum of a tree grow- 
ing near the Persian gulf, etc. It is 
transparent, and bitter to the taste, yet 
very fragrant while burning. But the 
substance so called, whatever it was, is 
mentioned in connection with gold and 
gems ; while a gum is certainly not so 
remarkable a gift of nature as to deserve 
this classification, or as that the produc- 
tion of it should confer on Havilah a pe- 
culiar celebrity, Gen. 2:12. Hence the 
opinion of the Jewish writers is not to 
be contemned, namely, i\\?it pearls are to 
be here understood, of which great quan- 
tities are found on the shores of the Per- 
sian gulf and in India, and which might 
not inaptly be compared with manna, as 
in Num. 11:7. 




ORIENTAL HEADS, WITH BEARDS. 

insult it by word or act was the grossest 
indignity ; to take it respectfully in the 
right hand and kiss it, was a mode of 
expressing high esteem and love permit- 




THE SYRIAN BEAR. 

BEAE. That bears were common in 
Palestine appears from several passages 
in the Old Testament, 1 Sam. 17:34, 36, 
37 ; 2 Sam. 17:8; 2 Kin. 2 : 24. The spe- 
cies known in Syria resembles the com- 
mon brown bear ; it is still met in the 
recesses of Lebanon. To a sullen and 
ferocious disposition, the bear joins im- 
mense strength, considerable sagacity. 
and the power of climbing trees. Her 
ferocity, especially when her young are 
injured, is proverbial. See 2 Sam. 17:8 ; 
Prov. 17:12; Isa. 11:7; Hos. 13:8. 

BEARD. The Hebrews regarded a 
thin, scanty beard as a great deformity ; 
while a long, full, flowing beard was es- 
teemed the noblest ornament of person- 
al beauty and dignity. A man's honor 
was lodged, as it were, in his beard. To 
.=i6 



ted only to the nearest friends. It was 
cherished with great care, Psa. 133:2; 
Dan. 10:3. To neglect, tear, or cut it, 
indicated the deepest grief, Ezra 9:3; 
Isa. 15:2; Jer. 41:5; 48:37; while to 
be deprived of it was a mark of servility 
and infamy. Many would prefer death 
to such a mutilation. These facts ex- 
plain many passages of Scripture : as the 
gross insult oflered to David's ambassa- 
dors, 2 Sam. 10:4-14 ; the zealous indig- 



nation of Nehemiah, Neh. 13 



the 



mode in which the feigned insanity of 
David was expressed, 1 Sam. 21 : 13, and 
the grief of Mephibosheth, 2 Sam. 19:24 ; 
the treachery of Joab, 2 Sam. 20:9, and 
perhaps of Judas ; also several passages 
in the prophets, Isa. 7:20; 50:6; Ezek. 
5:1-5. See Shaving. 

BEASTS. This word, used in contra- 
distinction to man, denotes all animals 
besides, Psa. 36:6; sometimes it means 
quadrupeds, and not creeping things, 



BED 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BEE 



Lev. 11 : 2-7 ; and sometimes domestic 
cattle, in distinction from wild creatures, 
Gen. 1:25. They were all brought to 
Adam to be named. Few are mentioned 
in the Bible but such as lived in Pales- 
tine and the countries adjacent. Beasts 
suffer with man under the penalties of 
the fall, Gen. 3 : 14 ; Ex. 9:6; 13 : 15 ; 
Ezek. 33 • 20 ; Hos. 4 : 3. Yet various 
merciful provisions for them were made 
in the Jewish law, Ex. 20: 10 ; 23: 11, 12 ; 
Lev. 22:28; 25:7. Animals Avere class- 
ed in the law as clean or unclean, with 
a primary reference to animal sacrifices, 
Gen. 7:2; Lev. 11. See Clean. 

The word beasts is figuratively used 
to symbolize various kings and nations. 



f Psa. 74:14 ; Isa. 27:1 ; Ezek. 29:3 ; Dan. 

' 7, 8 ; Rev. 12 ; 13. It also describes the 
character of violent and brutal men, Psa. 
22:12,16; ICor. 15:32; 2 Pet. 2:12. The 
Hebrew word commonly rendered beast 
signifies living creatures. In Ezekiel's vis- 
ion, Ezek. 1, this is applied to human 
beings or their symbols. In the book 
of Revelation two distinct words arc 
employed symbolically, both rendered 
' ' beast ' ' in our version. One is applied 
to persecuting earthly powers, Rev. 11:7 ; 
13 : 1, etc. ; the other to superhuman 
beings or their symbols. Rev. 4:6, etc. 
Tliis latter might be appropriately ren- 
dered, " living creature," as the corre- 
sponding Hebrew word is in Ezekiel. 




^" 'z^ Jitti!: 



AN EASTERN DIVAN, OR BED. 



BED, in the East, is, and was ancient- 
ly, a divan, or broad low step around the 
sides of a room, like a low sofa, which 
answered the purpose of a sofa by day 
for reclining, and of a bed by night for 
sleeping, Ex. 8:3; 2 Sam. 4:5-7. Some- 
times it was raised several steps above 
the lloor, 2 Kin. 1:4; Psa. 132 : 4. It was 
covered very differently, and with more 
or less ornament, according to the rank 
of the owner of the house. The poor had 
but a simple mattress or sheep-skin ; or 
a cloak or blanket, which also answered 
to wrap themselves in by day, Ex. 22:27 ; 
Deut. 24:13. Hence it was easy for the 
3^^ 



persons whom Jesus healed, to take up 
their bed and walk, Mark 4:21. Bed- 
steads, hoAvever, Avere not unknown, 
though unlike those of modern times. 
See Deut. 3:11; 1 Sam. 19 : 15 ; Amos 
6:4. The Jews only laid off their san- 
dals and outer garments at night. 

BEEL'ZEBUB, " the prince of the dev- 
ils," Matt. 12:24. This name is derived 
from Baal-zebub, an idol deity among 
the Ekronites, signifying lord of flies, 
fly-baal, fly-god, Avhose office was to pro- 
tect his worshippers from the torment of 
the gnats and flies with which that re- 
gion was mfested, 2 Kin. 1:2, 3, 16. It 
57 



BEE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BEH 



is also sometimes written Beel-zebul, 
which signities probably the dung-god. 
The Jews seem to have applied this ap- 
pellation to Satan, as being the author 
of all the pollutions and abominations of 
idol-worship. 

BE'ER, a u'cll, I., a station of the He- 
brews in Moab, where God gave them 
water, Num. 21:16-18; Isa. 15:8. 

II. A town in Judali, according to 
Eusebius and Jerome a few miles west 
of Jerusalem, near Beth-shemesh. Jo- 
tham took refuge there from his brother 
Abimelech, Judg. 9:21. 

BE'ER-LAHAI'-ROI, ivell of him living, 
and seeing me, on the south-west border of 
Canaan, where Hagar was visited by an 
angel, Gen. 16:14. 

BEE'ROTH, loelh, a city of Benjamin, 
near Gibeon, Josh. 9:17 ; 2 8am. 4:2, 3. 
It is now El-Bireh, a village of 700 in- 
habitants, on a ridge seven miles north 
of Jerusalem. 

BE'ER-SHE'BA, theicelloflheoath, Gen. 
21:31 ; 26:31, 33, acity twenty-eight miles 
south-west of Hebron, at the southern ex- 
tremity of the Holy Land. Dan lay at the 
northern extremity ; so that the phrase, 
"fi'om Dan to Beersheba," means, the 
whole length of the land, Judg. 20 : 1. 
At Beersheba, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob 
often dwelt. Gen. 21:31; 22:19; 26:23; 
28 : 10 ; 46:1. The town that afterwards 
rose here was first assigned to Judah, and 
then to Simeon, Josh. 15:28 ; 19:2. Here 
Samuel established his sons as judges, 
1 Sam. 8:2. Elijah rested here on his way 
to Horeb, 1 Kin. 19:3. It was a seat of 
idolatry in the time of Uzziah, Amos 
5:5; 8:14. After the captivity, it was 
repeopled by the Jews, Neh. 11:27, 30, 
and continued a large village many cen- 
turies after the coming of Christ. Dr. 
Robinson found its site at Bir-es-Seba, 
on the border of the great desert south of 
Canaan — the ruins of a small straggling 
city, and two deep stone wells of excellent 
water, surrounded by stone troughs, and 
bearing the marks of great antiquity. 

BEESH'TERAH, a Levitical city, in 
Manasseh beyond the Jordan, Josh. 
21 : 27. It is also called Ashtaroth, 1 Chr. 
6:71, and is perhaps a contraction of 
Beth-Ashtaroth. 

BEETLE, in Lev. 11:22, a species of 
locust. 

BEEVES, cattle, including the larger 
antelopes, Lev. 22:19. It is the old plu- 
ral of beef. See Cattle. 
58 




HIPPOPOTAMUS, OR BEHEMOTH. 

BEHE'MOTH, a huge amphibious ani- 
mal, described in Job 40 : 15-24. Com- 
mentators are now generally agreed that 
it is the hippopotamus, or river-horse, 
which is found only in the Nile and other 
great rivers of Africa. This is a very 
large, powerful, and unwieldy animal, 
which lives in the water, but comes out 
upon the banks to feed on grass, grain, 
green herbs, and branches of trees. The 
appearance of the hippopotamus when 
on the land is altogether uncouth, the 
body being extremely large, flat, and 
round, the head enormously large in pro- 
portion, and the legs as disproportionate- 
ly short. The length of a male has been 
known to be seventeen feet, the height 
seven feet, and the circumference fifteen ; 
the head three feet and a half, and the 
girt nine feet ; the mouth in width about 
two feet. The general color of the ani- 
mal is broAvnish ; the ears small and 
pointed ; the eyes small and black ; the 
lips very thick and broad ; the nostrils 
small. The armament of teeth in its 
mouth is truly formidable ; more partic- 
ularly the tusks of the lower jaw, which 
are of a curved form, somewhat cylindri- 
cal: these are so strong and hai'd that 
they will strike fire with steel, are some- 
times more than two feet in length, and 
weigh upwards of six pounds each. The 
other teeth are much smaller. The tail 
is short and thick ; and the whole body 
is protected by a thick and tough hide, 
which swords and arrows cannot pene- 
trate, thickly covered with short hair. 

Mr. Riippell gives the following graph- 
ic account of a combat on the upper Nile. 

"One of the hippopotami which we 
killed was a very old male, and seemed 
to have reached his utmost growth. He 
measured, from the snout to the end of 
the tail, about fifteen feet ; and his tusks, 
from the root to the point, along the ex- 



BEK 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BEN 



temal curve, twenty-eight inches. "We | 
had a battle Avith him four hours long, 
and that too in the night. Indeed, he 
came very near destroying our large I 
bark ; and with it, perhaps, all our lives, i 
The moment he saw the hunters in the 
small canoe, as they were about to fasten ' 
the long rope to the buoy in order to j 
draw him in, he threw himself with one ■■ 
rush upon it, dragged it Avith him inider j 
water, and shattered it to pieces. Out of \ 
twenty-five musket balls, which were | 
fired into the monster's head at the dis- i 
tance of five feet, only one penetrated the 
hide and the bones near the nose ; so ! 
that, every time he breathed, he snorted 
a stream of blood upon the bark. All the | 
other balls remained sticking in the 
thickness of the hide. We had at last to 
employ a small cannon ; but it Avas only i 
after five of its balls, fired at the distance I 
of a fcAV feet, had mangled most shock- ; 
ingly the head and body of the monster, 
that he died. This gigantic hippopota- 
mus dragged our large bark at his will, i 
in every direction of the stream." j 

BE'KAH, a half-shekel; in Aveight, i 
fiA^e pennyAveights ; in money, about 
twenty-five cents. This sum each Isra- : 
elite OA-er twenty years old Avas to pay as \ 
a poll-tax for the temple serA'ice, Ex. 
30:13. j 

BEL, the chief idol of the Babyloni- ; 
ans. See B.\al. j 

BE'LA, Gen. 14:2. See Zo.vr. i 

BE'LIAL, u-orthlessness, ahvays so used 
in a moral sense. A man or son of Be- i 
lial is a wicked, Avorthless man ; one re- : 
soh'ed to endui-e no subjection ; a rebel ; | 
a disobedient, uncontrollable fellow, 
Judg. 19 : 22 ; 1 Sara. 2 : 12. In later 
Avritings, Belial is put for the poAver or i 
lord of evil, Satan, 2 Cor. 6:15. I 

BELSHAZ'ZAR, the last king of the i 
Chaldees at Babylon, b. c. 538, Avho j 
made an impious feast, at Avhich he and ' 
his courtiers drank out of the sacred A-es- i 
sels Avhich had been carried away from j 
the temple at Jerusalem by Nebuchad- | 
nezzar his grandfather. He Avas terrified ' 
by the apparition of the hand Avhich | 
Avrotc upon the wall ; and in the same • 
night was slain, and the city taken by | 
the Medes, imder Darius and Cyrus, Dan. | 
5. See Babylon, Mene. I 

BELTESHAZ'ZAR. prince of Bel, the ' 
Chaldean name given to Daniel at the 
court of Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. 1:7; 
4:8. 



BENAIAH, son of Jehoiada, and com- 
mander of David' s body-guards. Several 
instances of his rare bravery are record- 
ed, 2 Sam. 8:18 ; 23:20-23. He adhered 
to Solomon A\'hen some favored the pre- 
tensions of Adonijah, sIcav Joab at the 
command of Solomon, and AA^as made 
general of the army in his stead, 1 Kin. 
1:36; 2:29-35. 

BEN-HA'DAD, I., a king of Dama- 
scene Syria, hired by Asa king of Judah 
to make Avar upon Baasha king of Isra- 
el, 1 Kin. 15:18-22. He ravaged a large 
part of Naphtali. 

IL Son and successor of the preceding. 
In two successive years he raised large 
armies, and made Avar upon Ahab king 
of Israel. He Avas utterly routed, by 
the aid of Jehovah, God of the hills and 
the plains also, 1 Kin. 20 Ahab spared 
him, contrary to the command of God, 
and gave hun conditions of peace. These 
do not seem to have been fulfilled ; for 
three years after, Ahab rencAved the AA'ar 
and Avas slain, 1 Kin. 22. After about 
nine years, Ben-hadad again iuA^aded Is- 
rael, and the prophet Elisha Avas instru- 
mental in frustrating his plans, 2 Kin. 
6:8-23. But once more renewing the 
war, he laid siege to Samaria, and re- 
duced it to extremities by famine. God 
sent a sudden panic upon his army by 
night, and they fied precipitately, 2 Kin, 
0:l7; 7:6; Prov. 28:1. Shortly be- 
fore his death, Ben-hadad, being sick, 
sent Hazael to ask the prophet Elisha, 
then at Damascus, Avhat the issue Avould 
be. The prophet ansAvercd that the dis- 
ease was not mortal, and yet he would 
surely die ; a paradox which Hazael soon 
after solved, by stifling his master in 
bed, 2 Kin. 8:7-15. 

III. Son of the Hazael just named. 
His father had greatly afflicted and op- 
pressed Israel ; but he lost all that his 
father had gained, being thrice defeated 
by king Jehoash, 2 Kin. 13. 

BEN'JAMIN. the voungest son of Ja- 
cob and Rachel, Gen" 35:10-18. Rachel 
died immediately after he was born, and 
with her last breath named him Ben-oni, 
the son of my sorrow ; but Jacob called 
him Benjamin, son of my right hand. 
He Avas a great comfort to his father, 
Avho saAV in him the beloA'ed wife he 
had buried, and Joseph Avhose loss he 
mourned. He could hardly be persuad- 
ed to let him go with his brethren to 
Egypt. Gen. 42 : 43. The tribe of Ben- 
.^9 



BER 



BIBLE DICTIONAKY 



BET 



jamin was small at first, and was almost 
exterminated in the days of tlie Judges, 
Judg. 20, but afterwards greatly increas- 
ed, 2 Chr. 1^:8 ; 17:17. It was valiant, 
Gen. 49:27, and "beloved of the Lord," 
dwelling safely by him, Leut. 3:d:12; 
for its territory adjoined Judah and the 
Holy City on the north. At the revolt 
of the ten tribes, Benjamin adhered to 
the cause of Judah ; and the two tribes 
were ever afterwards closely united, 
1 Kin. 11 : 13 ; 12 : 20 ; Ezra 4 : 1 ; 10 : 9. 
King Saul and Saul of Tarsus were both 
Benjamites, Phil. 3:5. 

BE'KA, king of Sodom in the days of 
Abniham, Gen. 14. 

BERA'CHAH, blessing, a beautiful val- 
ley between Tekoa and Etham, where 
Jehoshaphat and all Judah held a thanks- 
giving for their miraculous victory over 
the Moabites and Ammonites, 2 Chr. 
20:26. 

BERE'A, a city of Macedonia, not far 
from Pella towards the south-west, and 
near mount B^rinius. It was afterwards 
called Irenopolis, and is now called by 
the Turks, Boor ; by others, Cana Veria. 
Pciul preached the gospel here with suc- 
cess ; the ingenuous Bcreans examined 
his doctrine by the Old Testament scrip- 
tures, and many believed, Acts 17:10, 
14; 20:4. 

BERNI'CE, or Berexi'ce, eldest daugh- 
ter of king Herod Agrippa I., and sister 
to the younger Agrippa, Acts 2-3:13, 23 ; 
26:30. Slie was first married to her 
uncle Herod, king of Chalcis ; and after 
his death, in order to avoid the merited 
suspicion of incest with her brother 
Agrippa, she became the wife of Pole- 
mon, king of Cilicia. This connection 
being soon dissolved, she returned to 
her brother, and afterwards became mis- 
tress of Vespasian and Titus. | 

BERO'THAH, BERO'THAI, a Syrian 
town, conquered bv David, 2 Sam. 8:8; 
i Chr. 18 : 8 ; Ezek." 47 : 16. Some find it | 
in the modern Beyrout ; but aside from 
the similarity of the name, the indica- 
tions point to an inland site, jiearer Ha- j 
math or Damascus. i 

BER'YL, the name of a precious stone j 
of a sea-green color, found principally in 
India, Dan. 10:6; Rev. 21:20. j 

BE'SOM, a broom or brush for sweep- 
ing. Before ' ' the besom of destruction, ' ' 
the hosts of God's enemies are like the 
dust of the floor, Isa. 14:23. 
. BE'SOR, a brook flowing into the Med- I 



iterranean five miles south of Gaza. A 
part of David's troops in pursuit of Ama- 
: lekites halted there, 1 Sam. 30:9-21. The 
j stream dries up in spring. 

BE'TAH, or Tib'uatu, a city of Syria- 
Zobah, taken by David, 2 Sam. 8:8; 
1 Chr. 18 : 8 ; perhaps the modern Tai- 
beh, between Aleppo and Tadmor. 
! BETH, house, forms a part of many 
compound names of places, and some- 
times means the place or dwelling ; and at 
others the temple. This word becomes Beit 
in modern Arabic. 
I BETH- AB' ARA, pUce of the ford, a town 
, on the east bank of the Jordan, where 
' John baptized, John 1:28. It was per- 
haps the same as Beth-barah, Judg. 7 : 24 ; 
but the true site is unknown. Many of 
the best Greek manuscripts and recent 
editions have Bethany, also unkno\\Ti, 
I inste.id of Beth-abara. 

BETH'ANY, a village on the eastern 

I slope of mount Olivet, about two miles 

east-south-east of Jerusalem, and on the 

road to Jericho. It was often visited by 

Christ, Matt. 21 : 17 ; Mark 11 : 1, 12; 

I Luke 19:29. Here Martha and Mary 

dwelt, and Lazarus was raised from the 

; dead, Jolm II. Here Mary anointed the 

' Lord against the day of his burying, John 

i 12 ; and from the midst of his disciples, 

I near this village which he loved, he as- 

i cended to heaven. Matt. 24 : 50. Its 

modem name, Aziriyeh, is derived from 

i Lazarus. It is a poor village of some 

twentv families. 
, BETH-AR'BEL, probably Arbela, now 
Irbid. One place of this name lay twen- 
i ty-five miles south-east of the sea of Gal- 
ilee. Another was in Galilee, near Mag- 
dala. Here Avere some large and almost 
inaccessible fortified caverns, in the sides 
of precipices, Hos. 10:14. 

BETH-A'YEX, a place and desert near 
Bethel on the east. Josh. 7:2; 18:12; 
1 Sam. 13:5 ; 14:23. It seems to be re- 
proachfully used at times for Bethel itself, 
after the golden calves Avere there set up, 
Hos. 4:15; 10 : 5 : Beth-el meaning the 
house of God ; and Beth-aven, the house 
of sin, or of an idol. 

BETH-CAR', in Dan, near Mizpeh ; 
noted for the defeat of the Philistines, 
and the Eben-Ezer set up by Samuel, 
1 Sam. 7:11. 

BETH'EL, house of God, the name of a 
city Avest of Hai, on the confines of the 
tribes of Ephraim and Benjamin, Gen. 
12:8 ; 28:10-22, and occupying the spot 



BET 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BET 



where Jacob slept and had his memora- 
ble dream, the name he then gave it 
superseding the old name Luz, Judg. 
1 : 23. Thirty years after, he again pitch- 
ed his tent there, Gen. 35:1-15. It was 
captured by Joshua, and given to Benja- 



min, Josh. V. 



18:2 



The Ephraim- 



ites, however, expelled the Canaanites, 
Judg. 1:22-26. Here the ark of the 
covenant, and probably the tabernacle, 
long remained, Judg. 20 : 26 ; 1 Sam. 
10:3. Samuel held his court here in 
turn, 1 Sam. 7:16. After Solomon, it 
became a seat of gross idolatiy ; Jerobo- 
am choosing it as the place for one of his 
golden calves, from the sacredness pre- 
viously attached to it, 1 Kin. 12 : 29. 
Tlie prophets were charged with mes- 
sages ao:ainst Bethel, 1 Kin. 13 : 1, 2 ; 
Jer. 48 :l3 ; Amos 3 : 14 ; 7 : 10. The first 
of these was fulfilled by Josiah, 2 Kin. | 
23 : 13 ; and the others in the later deso- 
lation of Bethel, where nothing but ruins ' 
can now be found. Its site was identi- i 
fied by Dr. Robinson, in the place now ; 
called Beitin. It is twelve miles from Je- I 
rusalem towards Shechem, on the south- ' 
em side of a hill, with a narrow and fer- ; 
tile valley on the east, and the long- ; 
travelled road on the west. At the hot- i 
torn of the hill are the remains of a vast 
stone reservoir, of an ancient Hebrew j 
age. See Bethavex. | 

BETHES'DA, house of mercy, the name 
of a pool or fountain near the temple in 
Jerusalem, with an open building over ! 
or near it, for the accommodation of the 
sick who came to try the healing effica- 
cy of the water, John 5:2. Tradition 
locates this pool in what is now a large 
dry reservoir, along the outside of the j 
north wall of the temple area. Eobin- 
son, however, shows the probability that ; 
this is but a portion of the trench, which 
separated mount Moriah from the adja- 
cent hill on the north. He suggests that I 
the true Bethesda may perhaps be ' ' The \ 
Fountain of the Virgin," so called, in the ' 
lower part of the valley of Jehoshaphat, 
eight hundred and fifty feet south of the 
temple area. -This pool is of great an- 
tiquity, and seems to be fed fi'om ancient j 
reservoirs under the temple. Two flights 
of steps, sixteen and thirteen in number, 
with a platform of twelve feet between 
them, lead down to the pool ; this is fif- 
teen feet long, and five or six feet wide. 
Its waters rise and fall at irregular in- 
tervals, and flow down by a subterrane- 



ous channel to the pool of Siloam. It is 
supposed to be tbe ''king's pool" of 
Neh. 2 : 14. Bethesda, even if known and 
accessible to us, has lost its healing pow- 
er ; but the fountain Christ has opened 
for sin, guilt, and death, is nigh to all and 
of never failing virtue. See Siloam. 

BETH-HAC'CEREM, conjectured to be 
the Frank mountain, between Tekoa and 
Bethlehem, Neh. 3:14; Jer, 6:1. This 
is a solitary conical hill, on which the 
crusaders had a strong fortress. 

BETH-HOG'LAH, a town of Benjamin, 
on the border of Judah, Josh. 15 : G ; 18 : 19, 
21. Robinson traced this name at a place 
three miles from the mouth of the Jordan, 
on the way to Jericho ; here Avas a fine 
grove , watered by a sweet and limpid foun- 
tain the best in the valley of the Jordan. 

BETH-HO'RON, now Beit-ur, the name 
common to two neighboring towns in the 
north-west corner of Benjamin, still dis- 
tinguished as the Upper and the Lower. 
These lay on two ridges, with valleys on 
each side ; Beth-horon the Nether being 
separated from the Upper by a small val- 
ley, and a rocky and rough pass up the 
ridge on which Upper Beth-horon stood. 
The latter was nearest to Jerusalem, 
about twelve miles from it ; and both 
were on the usual route to the seacoast. 
Down this pass Joshua drove the Amo- 
rites, and here Paul passed by night on 
his way to Antipatris, Josh. 10 : 1-11 ; 
Acts 2:3:31, 32. 

BETH- JESH'IMOTH, a city of Reuben , 
taken from the Moabites, Num. 33:49; 
Josh. 12:3; 13 : 20 ; but retaken by them 
after the captivity, Ezek. 25:9. It lay 
not far east of the mouth of the Jordan. 

BETHLEHEM, home of bread, I., a cel- 
ebrated city, the birthplace of David and 
of Christ. It Avas in the tribe of Judah, 
six miles south by Avest of Jerusalem, and 
probably received its appellation from 
the fertility of the circumjacent country. 
This also gave it its ancient name Eph- 
rath, fruitful, Gen. 48:7; Mic. 5:2. It 
Avas beautifully situated on an oblong 
ridge, tAventy-seven hundred feet above 
the level of the sea, and aftbrding a fine 
vicAv in CA^ery direction. The hills around 
it Avere terraced, and clothed Avith vines, 
fig-trees, and almonds ; and the valleys 
around it bore rich crops of grain. It 
Avas fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:6, 
but Avas comparatively an unimportant 
place, Mic. 5:1, and is not mentioned by 
Joshua or Nehemiah among the cities, of 
61 



BET BIBLE DICTIONARY. BET 



^^ 




BETHLEHEM. AS IT NOW IS. 



Judah. Its memory is delightfully asso- 
ciated with the names of Boaz and Ruth ; 
it is celebrated as the birthplace and city 
of David, 1 Sam. 17:12, 15 ; 20:G ; 2 Sam. 
23 : 14-17 ; but above all, it is hallowed as 
the place where the Redeemer was born. 
Over that lovely spot the guiding star 
hovered; tliere the eastern sages wor- 
shipped the King of kings, and there 
where David watched his flock and prais- 
ed God, were heard the songs of the an- 
gelic host at the Saviour's birth, Luke 
2 : 8. Betlilehem is now called Beit-lahm, 
and contains about three thousand in- 
habitants, almost exclusively nominal 
Christians. Half a mile north is the spot 
pointed out by tradition as Rachel's 
tomb. Gen. 35 : 16-20 ; and about two 
miles south-west are the great reservoirs 
described imder Solomon's Pools. 

II. An unkno^vn place in Zebulun, 
Josh. 19:15; Judg. 12:10, in distinction 
from which the city of David was often 
called Bethlehem- Judah. 



BETH-NIM'RAH, Num. 



36: 



Jcih. 13:27, and NiMRiM, Isa. 15:6; Jer. 
48:34; a town in Gad, a little east of 
the Jordan, on a water-course leading, 
from near Ramoth-Gilead, south-west 
into that river. 

62 



BETH-PE'OK, a town of Moab, in the 
limits assigned to Reuben, and conquered 
from the Amorites, Josh. 13:20. It Avas 
infamous for the worship of Baal-peor. 
In the adjacent valley Moses rehearsed 
the law to Israel, and was buried, Deut. 
4:44-46; 34:6. 

BETH' PHAGE, place of figs, a little vil- 
lage at the eastern foot of the mount of 
Olives, near to Bethany, Matt. 21 : 1 ; 
Mark 11:1; Luke 19:29. 

BETHSAI'DA, iolace of fishing, I., a city 
in Galilee, on the western shore of the 
lake of Gennesareth, a little north of 
Capernaum ; it was the birthplace of the 
apostles Philip, Andrew, and Peter, and 
was often visited by our Lord, Matt. 
11:21; Mark 6:45; 8:22. 

II. A city in Gaulonitis, north of the 
same lake, and east of the Jordan. Near 
this place Christ fed the five thousand. 
It lay on a gentle hill near the Jordan, 
separated from the sea of Galilee by a 
plain three miles wide, of surpassing 
fertilitv, Luke 9 : 10. Compare Matt. 
14 : 13-22 ; Mark 6 : 31-45. This town was 
enlarged by Philip, tetrarch of that re- 
gion, Luke 3:1, and called Julias in 
honor of Julia, the daughter of Augus- 
tus. It is now little but ruins. 



BET 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



BIB 



BETH-SHExlN, or Betii-shax, more 
generally known by the name of Scy- 
thopolis, was situated two miles west of 
the Jordan, at the extremity of the val- i 
ley of Jezreel, an arm of the great plain 
of Esdrajlon, running down from it to 
the VciUey of the Jordan in a south-east- 
erly direction. It stood on the brow, 
just where the former valley drops down 
by a rather steep descent to the level of 
the latter. Bethshean was assigned to 
M.inasseh, though not at once subdued. 
Josh. 17:11, 16; Judg. 1:27. The dead | 
body of Saul was fastened to its walls, 
ISara. 31:10, 12; 2 Sam. 21:12; 1 Kin. j 
4:12. The place is now called Beisan, ' 
and is about twenty-four miles south of : 
Tiberiis. The present village contains 
seventy or eighty houses, the inhabit- 
ants of which are in a miserable condi- [ 
tion, owing to the depredations of the 
Bedaween. The ruins of the ancient city ! 
are of considerable extent, along the ; 
banks of the rivulet which ran by it, and j 
on the side of the valley ; and bespeak 
it to^have been nearly three miles in cir- 
cuit. I 

BETH-SHE'MESH, house of the sun, I. , a j 
city of Judah given to the priests. Josh. ' 
21:1G; 1 Chr. 6:59; 1 Sam. 6:15. It \ 
lay fifteen miles west of Jerusalem, near \ 
the border of Dan and of the Philistines, ! 
Josh. 15:10; 1 Sam. 6:12. Probably the | 
same as Irsheme.sh, Josh. 19:41. It is 
memorable for a battle between Judah j 
and Israel, in which Amaziah was de- 
feated, 2 Kin. 14 : 12-14 ; and for the 
return of the ark from among the Phil- : 
istines, and the punishment of those i 
who then profaned it, 1 Sam. 6. There ' 
is reason to suppose the numbers in ver. 
19 should be translated ' ' threescore and 
ten men, even fifty out of one thousand, ' ' i 
or one in two hundred of the men of the I 
city. I 

II. A celebrated city in Egypt, Jer. 
43:13. See IIeliopolis. 

BETHU'EL, son of Abraham's uncle 
Nahor, and father of Eebekah, Gen. 
22:22, 23; 21:50. : 

BETiI-ZUIl', a city in the hill country j 
of Judah, near Hebron, Josh. 15:58. It i 
was fortified by Ilchoboam, 2 Chr. 11:7, | 
and assisted in rebuilding Jerusalem, i 
Nell. 3:16. Joscphus calls it one of the 
strongest fortresses in Judea ; but its site , 
has not vet been identified. j 

BETROTH'ING, the engagement of a , 
man and woman to marry each other at j 



' a future time. Parents anciently often 

j betrothed their daughters without their 
consent, and even while very young, 

! as is still the case in oriental countries. 
Sometimes a regular written contract 
Avas made, in which the bridegroom 
bound himself to give a certain sum as 
a portion to his bride. The marriage 
was not completed until the bride was 
at least twelve years old ; yet the be- 
trothal could be dissolved only by divorce 
or death, Matt. 1 : 18-25; Luke 2 : 27. 

I God speaks of betrothing his people to 
himself, in bonds of tender aifection, 

j and pledging his word that all his gra- 
cious promises will be fuUillcd to them, 
Jer. 2:2; Hos. 2:19, 20. Of this, min- 
isters are the instruments, through the 
preaching of the gospel, 2 Cor. 11 : 2. 
Hence the following word, 

BEU'LAH, viarried, a term applied to 
the Israel of God, in Isa. 62:4, to signify 
his intimate and vital union with them. 
BEZALEEL', an artificer, endued by 
God with special skill for constructing 
and adorning the tabernacle, Ex. 31:2; 
35:30. 

BE'ZEK, a city of the Canaanites, of 
which Adoni-zedek was king. The ac- 
count of its capture by Jud?Ji is in Judg. 
1:1-8. Here Saul reviewed his forces, 
before going to raise the siege of Jabesh- 
gilead, 1 Sam. 11:8. 

BE'ZER, a city of refuge, in the plain 
country of Reuben beyond Jordan. Its 
exact site is not kno\\Ti, Deut. 4 : 43 ; 
Josh. 20:8; 21:36. 

BIBLE. This word signifies the Book, 
by way of distinction, the Book of all 
books. It is also called Scripture, or the 
Scriptures, that is, the writings. It 
comprises the Old and New Testaments, 
or more properly. Covenants, Ex. 24:7; 
Matt. 26:28. The former was written 
mostly in Hebrew, and was the Bible of 
the ancient Jewish church ; a few chap- 
ters of Daniel and Ezra only Avere writ- 
ten in Chaldee. Tlie latter Avas Avholly 
Avritten in Greek, A\-laich Avas the lan- 
guage most generally understood in Ju- 
dea and the adjacent countries first ahs- 
ited by the gospel. The entire Bible is 
the rule of faith to all Christians, and 
not the NcAv Testament alone ; tliough 
this is of especial A-alue as unfolding the 
history and doctrines of our divine Pic- 
deemcr and of his holy institutions. The 
f.ict that God gave the inspired Avritings 
to men in the languages most familiar 
63 



BIB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BIB 



to the mass of the people who received 
them, proves that he intended they 
should be read not by the learned alone, 
but by all the people, and in their own 
spoken language. 

The Old Testament contains thirty - 
nine books. Josephus and the church 
fathers mention a division into twenty- 
two books, corresponding wuth the twen- 
ty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. 
But we have no sufficient evidence that 
such a division obtained among the Jews 
themselves. They arranged the books 
of the Old Testament in three divisions, 
C-illcd, the Law, the Prophets, and the 
Writings, that is, the Holy Writings. 
The Law embraces the live books of 
Moses. These are divided into conven- 
ient sections to be read through once a 
year in their synagogues. The second 
division, the Prophets, is subdivided into 
the former prophets, na,mely, the histor- 
ical books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, 
and Kings ; and the later, that is, the 
prophets prcpjr, with the exception of 
the book of L.miel. The later prophets 
are once more distributed into the great- 
er — Isaiah, Jeremiah, (not including 
Lamentations,) and Ezekiel ; and the 
less — the twelve minor prophets. Selec- 
tions from both the earlier and the later 
prophets are read in the synagogues 
along with the sections of the Law ; but 
these do not embrace the whole of the 
prophets, and the arrangement of them 
diflers among different divisions of the 
Jews. The Holy Writings (Hagiogra- 
pha) embrace all the remaining books 
of the Old Testament, namely, (accord- 
ing to the Masoretic arrangement,) 
Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Canticles, Ruth, 
Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Dan- 
iel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles. In the 
arrangement of the Old Testament books 
now prevalent, the historical books come 
first, then the devotional and didactic, 
and lastly the prophetical. The Jews 
ascribe to Ezra the honor of arranging 
and completing the canon of the Old 
Testament books, being inspired for this 
work by the S2:)irit of Ood, and aided by 
the learned and pious Jews of his day. 
The New Testament writings Avere re- 
ceived each one by itself from the hands 
of the apostles, and were, as their inspir- 
ed works, gradually collected into one 
volume to the exclusion of all others. 

The division into chapters and verses 
was not made until comparatively mod- 
64 



ern times, though there appears to have 
been a more ancient separation into 
short sections or paragraphs. The chap- 
ters now used were arranged probably 
by Cardinal Hugo, about the year 1240. 
The division into verses was made in the 
Old Testament in 1450, and recognized in 
the Hebrew Concordance of Rabbi Na- 
than. The arrangement of the verses of 
the New Testament as we now have 
them Avas perfected in the Latin Vulgate, 
an edition of which with verses was pub- 
lished by Robert Stephens, a learned 
French printer, in 1551. He also mod- 
ilied and completed the division of the 
Old Testament into verses, in an edition 
of the whole Bible, the Vulgate, in 1555. 
This division into verses, and even into 
j chapters, having regard more to conven- 
ience of reference than to the meaning, 
I must often be disregarded in reading in 
order to get the true sense. 

The genuineness, authenticity, and 
divine origin of the Scriptiu-es cannot be 
here discussed. The reader is referred 
to the treatises of Bogue, Gregory, Keith, 
McHvaine, Nelson, Spring, etc., pub- 
lished by the American Tract Society, 
and numerous other valuable and stand- 
ard works. 

The hrst well-known English transla- 
tion of the New Testament was that of 
Wiclifie, made about 1370, before the in- 
vention of printing ; though others had 
been made, one as early as king Alfred, 
of parts of the Bible into Saxon. In the 
time of Edward I., 1250, it required the 
earnings of a day-laborer for lifteen years 
to purchase a manxTscript copy of the en- 
tire Bible. Now, a printed copy may be 
had for the earnings of a few hours. The 
lirst printed English Testament was that 
of Tyndal, in 1526, which was afterwards 
followed by his translation of the Penta- 
teuch. The lirst complete English Bible 
is that of Myles Coverdale, in 1535. Mat- 
thew's Bible appeared in 1537. Cover- 
dale and some other prelates, who resid- 
ed at Geneva during the bloody reign of 
Mary, published there another edition in 
15G0, hence called the Geneva Bible. At 
the accession of queen Elizabeth a new 
revision was made, which appeared in 
1568, and is called the Bishop's Bible. 
This continued in use till our present 
English version, made by order of James 
I., Avas published in 1611. The lirst copy 
of this Avas made by forty-sCA'en of the 
most learned men in England, divided 



BIG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BIR 



into six companies. Tliis first copy was 
then revised by a committee of twelve, 
or two from each of the six companies ; 
and then again by two otliers. Tlie worli 
of translation and revision occupied be- 
tween four and live years ; and the faitli- 
ful, clear, and vigorous standard Bible 
thus secured, is an enduring monument 
of the learning, wisdom, and fidelity of 
the translators. 

One of the most remarkable move- 
ments of modern times, and that which 
holds out the greatest promise of good 
for the coming triumphs of the Redeem- 
er's kingdom, and the temporal as well 
as spiritual welfare of future generations, 
is the miglity effort Avliich is making to 
circulate the holy Scriptures, not only in 
Christian, but also in heathen lands. In 
the year 1S04, the British and Foreign 
Bible Society was formed ; and the suc- 
cess which has attended this glorious ob- 
ject has by far exceeded the most san- 
guine expectations of its founders and 
supporters. "Their voice has gone out 
through all the earth, and their words | 
to the end of the world." During the 
hrst fifty years of this society, it printed j 
or assisted in printing the Scriptures in ; 
148 languages, in about sixty of which 
they had never before been printed, and ' 
issued upwards of 29,000,000 copies of I 
the sacred writings. The Scriptures have j 
now been published in about 220 differ- | 
ent languages and dialects. Other simi- i 
lar associations have followed nobly this j 
glorious example ; and of these none has 
labored with more effect than the Amer- 
ican Bible Society, Avhich was formed in j 
1816, and has now, 1850, issued thirteen ■ 
millions of Bibles and Testaments. 

BIG'TTIAN, a eunuch at the court of 
Ahasuerus, whose conspiracy against that 
king was frustrated by the vigilance of [ 
Mordecai, Esther 2:21. j 

BIL'DAD, a descendant of Abraham | 
by Keturah, Gen. 25:1, 2. Shuah and | 
his brethren were located in Arabia Pe- i 
tra2a ; and thus Bildad the Shuhite was 
a neighbor and friend of Job, and came : 
to condole with him in his affliction. Job 
2:11 ; 8 ; 18 ; 25. His chief topics are, | 
the suddenness, swiftness, and terrible- } 
ness of God's wrath upon liypocrites and 
oppressors. [ 

BIL'HAH, the handmaid of Rachel, j 
given by her to her husband Jacob when [ 
herself childless, that she might become j 
a mother through her handmaid. Bil- | 



hah was the mother of Dan and Naph- 
tah. Gen. 30:1-8. 

BIRDS, like other animals, were di- 
vided by Moses into clean and unclean; 
the former might be eaten, the latter 
not. The general ground of distinction 
is, that those which feed on grain or 
seeds are clean ; while those which de- 
vour flesh, fish, or carrion, are unclean. 
Tiu'tledoves, young pigeons, and per- 
haps some other kinds of birds, were 
prescribed in the Mosaic law as offerings, 
Lev. 5:7-10; 14:4-7; Luke 2:24. 

There is great difficulty in accurately 
determining the different species of birds 
prohibited in Levit. 11:13-19; Deut. 
14:11-20, and the proper version of the 
Hebrew names. The information we 
have respecting them may be found 
under the names by which they are 
translated in our Bible. 

Moses, to inculcate humanity on the 
Israelites, ordered them, if they found a 
bird's nest, not to take the dam with the 
young, but to suffer the old one to fiy 
away, and to take the young only, Deut. 
22:6,7. 

Cages for singing-birds are alluded to 
in Jer. 5:27 ; and snares in Prov. 7:23; 
Eccl. 9:12. Birds of prey are emblems 
of destroying hosts, Isa. 46 : 11 ; Jer. 
12:9; Ezek. 32 : 4 ; Rev. 19:17-19 ; and 
the Lord comes to the defence of his peo- 
ple with the swiftness of the eagle, Isa. 
31:5. 

BIRTH'RIGHT, the privilege of the 
first-born son. Among the Hebrews, as 
indeed among most other nations, the 
first-born enjoyed particular privileges ; 
and wherever polygamy was tolerated, 
it was highly necessary to fix them, 
Deut. 21 : 15-17. Besides the father's 
chief blessing. Gen. 27, and various mi- 
nor advantages, the first-born son was, 
first, specially consecrated to the Lord, 
Ex. 13:11-16 ; 22:29 ; and the first-born 
son of a priest succeeded his father in 
the priestly office. Among the sons of 
Jacob, Reuben the first-born forfeited 
the right of the first-born. Gen. 35:22; 
49:3, 4. and God gave it to Levi, Num. 
3 : 12, 13 ; 8:18. Secondly, the first-born 
was entitled to a share of his father's 
estate twice as large as any of the other 
brethren received, Deut. 21:17. Third- 
ly, he succeeded to the oflicial digni- 
ties and rights of his father, 2 Chr. 21:3. 
In some of these privileges there is an 
allusion to Him who is ' ' the first-born 
65 



BIS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BLA 



among many brethren," Rom. 8:29; 
Col. 1:18; Heb. 1:2-G. Universal do- 
minion is his, and an everlasting priest- 
hood. See First-born. 

BISH'OP, an overseer, one who has the 
charge and direction of any thing. The 
most common acceptation of the word in 
the New Testament, is that which occurs 
Acts 20:28; Phil. 1:1, where it signifies 
the pastor of a church. Peter calls Jesus 
Christ "the Shepherd and Bishop of your 
souls," 1 Pet. 2:25. Paul describes the 
qualities requisite in bishops, 1 Tim. 3:2 ; 
Tit. 1 : 7, etc. ; Christ himself is their 
great exemplar. 




BIT'TERN, a fowl about the size of a 
heron, and of the same genus. Nineveh 
and Babylon became a possession for "the 
bittern ' ' and other wild birds, Isa. 14 : 23 ; 
34:11; Zeph. 2:14. According to some 
critics, the more probable meaning of the 
Hebrew word is hedge-hog, or porcupine; 
and Mr. Rich says he found ' ' great quan 
tities" of porcupine quills among the 
ruins of Babylon ; but others think this 
inconsistent with Zeph. 2 14, and under- 
stand the word as referring to the com- 
mon night-heron, a bird like the bittern 
found among the marshes of Western 
Asia, resorting to ruined buildings, and 
uttering a peculiar harsh cry before and 
after its evening flight. 
B6 



[ BITHYN'IA, 1 Pet. 1 : 1, a province in 
I the northern part of Asia Minor, on the 
I shore of the Black sea, having Paphla- 
gonia on the east, Phrygia and Galatia 
i on the south, and Mysia on the south- 
west. It was directly opposite to Con- 
stantinople. It is famous as being one 
of the provinces to which the apostle 
Peter addressed his first epistle ; also as 
having been under the government of 
Pliny, who, in a letter to the emperor 
Ti'ajan, makes honorable mention of the 
number, character, and customs of the 
persecuted Christians there, about a. d. 
106 ; also for the holding of the most 
celebrated council of the Christian church 
in the city of Nice, its metropolis, about 
A. D. 325. It may be, with some justice, 
considered as a province taught by Peter ; 
and we read that when Paul attempted to 
go into Bithynia, the Spirit suffered him 
not, Acts 16:7. 

BLAINS, Ex. 9: 8-10, burning ulcerous 
eruptions, miraculously caused by 
the ashes which Moses threw up 
among the Egyptians. If these ash- 
es came from the brick-kilns where 
the Hebrews had toiled, the pains 
which the Egyptians suffered would 
naturally remind them of those 
which thev had inflicted. 

BLAS'PHEMY. A man is guilty 
of blasphemy, M-hen he speaks of 
God, or his attributes, injuriously ; 
when he calumniously ascribes such 
qualities to him as do not belong to 
^ him, or robs him of those which do. 
\ The law sentenced blasphemers to 
death, Lev. 24:12-16. In a lower 
sense, men are said to be blasphemed 
when abused by calumnious and re- 
vilingwords, IKin. 21:10; Acts6; 11. 
Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, 
Matt. 12:31, 32; Mark 3:28; Luke 
12 10. This sin was committed by the 
Pharisees when they, in violation of their 
own convictions, wilfully and malicious- 
ly ascribed the miracles of the Son of God 
and the work of the Holy Spirit to the 
evil one. It is often inquired whether 
this was the ' ' sin unto death ' ' spoken 
of 1 John 5 16, and whether it is com- 
mitted in these days. However these 
questions may be answered, certain it is 
that when one can ridicule religion and 
its ordinances, when he can make sport 
with the work of the Holy Ghost in the 
human heart, when he can persist in a 
wilful disbelief of the Gospel, and cast 



BLA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BLO 



contempt upon Christianity and "the 
ministration of the Spirit," he is go- 
ing to a fearful extremity of guilt, and 
provoking the final withdrawment of 
divine grace. While on the other hand 
the vilest blasphemer, who feels the re- 
lentings of godly sorrow for his sins, and 
the desire to confess them at the Sav- 
iour's feet, may be sure of realizing the 
truth of Christ's word. "Him that com 
eth unto me I will in no wise cast out." 

BLAS'TUS, a chaml^erlain of Herod 
Agrippa, bribed to favor the men of Tyre 
and Sidon, Acts 12:20. 

BLEM'ISHES, imperfections or de- 
formities which untitted men for the 
priesthood, and animals for sacrifice. Of 
these we have a particular enumeration 
in Lev. 21 : 18-20; 22 . 20-54. In this 
provision of the law there was an allu- 
sion to the great High-priest of our pro- 
fession, who offered himself without spot 
to God. 

BLESS'ING is referred both to God and 
to man. When God blesses, he bestow^s 
that efficacy which renders his blessing 
effectual. His blessings are either tem- 
poral or spiritual, bodily or mental ; but 
in every thing they really convey the 
good which they import. Num. 6:23-27- 
The blessings of men to other men, im- 
less they be inspired prophecies, as in 
Gen. 32, 49 ; Deut. 33, are only good 
wishes, personal or official, and as it 
were a peculiar kind of prayer to tlie 
Author of all good for the welfare of the 
subject of them. Blessing, on the part 
of man towards God, is an act of thanks- 
giving for his mercies, Psa. 103:1; or 
rather, for that special mercy w^hich at 
the time occasions the act of blessing : 
as for food, for which thanks are ren- 
dered to God, or for any other good, 
Psa. 11G:13; 1 Cor. 10: IG. 

BLIND'NESS. This distressing mala- 
dy is very prevalent in the East. Many 
physical causes in those countries unite 
to injure the organs of vision. The sun 
is hot, and in the atmosphere floats a 
very fine dust, which enters and frets the 
eye. The armies of France and Eng- 
land, whi h were so long in Egypt dur- 
ing the French war, suffered severely 
from ophthalmic disease. In the cities 
of Egypt, blindness is perpetuated as a 
contagious disease by the filthy habits 
of the natives. It is of frequent occur- 
rence also on the coast of Syria. In an- 
cient times, the eyes of persons hated or 



1 feared were often torn out, Judg. 16:21 ; 

1 Sam. 11:2; 2 Kin. 25 : 7. Blindness 

[ was sometimes inflicted as a punishment, 

j Gen. 19: 11 ; Acts 13:6 ; and it was often 

I threatened as a penalty, Deut. 28 : 28. 

; The Jews were enjoined by the humane 

I laws of Moses to show all kindness and 

consideration to the blind. Lev. 19:14; 

Deut. 27 : 18. No one affected with this 

infirmity could officiate as priest, Lev. 

' 21.18. 

I Our Saviour miraculously cured many 
! cases of blindness, both that which was 
I caused by disease and that Avhich had 
existed from birth. In these cases there 
Avas a double miracle ; for not only was 
the organ of sight restored, but also the 
faculty of using it, which is usually gain- 
ed onh" by long experience, Mark 8.22- 
25. The touching of the eyes of the 
blind, and anointing them with clay, 
Matt. 9:29 ; John 9; 6, can not have had 
any medicinal or healing effect. The 
healing was miraculous, by the power of 
; God. 

"Blindness" is often used for igno- 
rance and error, especially our sinful 
want of discernment as to spiritual 
2 Cor. 4:4. The 
mercy increases this 
blindness, John 12 40. Blessed are the 
eyes that fix their adoring gaze first of 
all on their Redeemer. 

BLOOD. The life of all animals was 
regarded as especially in the blood, which 
was a sacred and essential part of the 
sacrifices offered to God, Heb. 9:22. It 
was solemnly sprinkled upon the altar 
and the mercy -seat, "for it is the blood 
that maketh atonement for the soul," 
Lev. 17— the life of the victim for the 
life of the sinner. It was therefore most 
sacredly associated with the blood of the 
Lamb of God, which " cleanseth us from 
all sin," Eph. 17; 1 John 1:7. Hence 
the strict prohibition of the Israelites to 
eat blood, or any meat in which blood 
remained ; a prohibition renewed in Acts 
15:29. In direct opposition to this are 
the heathen customs of drinking the 
blood of animals and even of men — of 
eating raw Hesh, with the blood, and even 
fresh cut from the living animal, 1 Sam. 
14 32; Psa. 16 4; Ezek. 33.25. 

Besides the ordinary meaning of the 
word blood, it often signifies the guilt of 
murder, 2 Sam. 3:28 ; Acts 27:25 ; also 
relationship or consanguinity. "Flesh 
and blood ' ' are placed in contrast with a 
67 



things, Matt. 15:14 
abuse of God's 



BLO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BOO 



spiritual nature, Matt. 16 : 17, the glorified 
body, 1 Cor. 15.50, and evil spirits, Eph. 
6:12. The cause "between blood and 
blood, ' ' Deut. 17 : 8, was one where life was 
depending on the judgment rendered. 

BLOOD-AVEN'CER. The sacredness 
of human life, and the justice of punish- 
ing a murderer by death, are grounded 
on the fact that man was made in the 
image of God, Gen. 9:6. With justice, 
the passion for revenge often conspired 
to secure the death of the criminal. 
Among the Arabs, the nearest male rela- 
tive of a murdered person was to pursue 
the homicide until by force or craft he 
put him to death The law of Moses ex 
pressly forbade the acceptance of any 
ransom for a life thus forfeited. Num. 
35.31 ; but it interfered between an ac- 
cused person and his pursuer, by pro- 
viding a sanctuary — at the altar of God 
and in the cities of refuge — where the 
accused might be safe until it was proved 
that he had committed the act, wilfully 
or accidentally. Josh. 20 6, 9. In the 
former case, he was at once given up to 
his pursuer for death, Ex. 21 : 14 ; 1 Kin. 
2 29, 34. In the latter case, he might 
dwell with safety in the city of refuge ; 
but should he go elsewhere before the 
death of the high-priest, he was liable 
to be slain by the avenger of blood, Num. 
35-25-28 See Refuge. 

BLUE See Purple. 

BOANER'GES, so7is of thunder, a name 
given by our Saviour to James and John 
the sons of Zebedee, Mark 3:17, perhaps 
on account of their power as preachers. 
Some suppose it was given on the occa- 
sion of their request that Christ would 
call for fire from heaven, and destroy a 
village of the Samaritans, which had re- 
fused to entertain them, Luke 9:53, 54. 




BOAR, The ^Yi\d boar is considered 
as the parent stock of the common hog. 
He is a furious and formidable animal. 
68 



I The tusks are larger and stronger than 
in the tame herds. The color is iron- 
grey, inclining to black. His snout is 
[ long, and his ears are short. At present 
j wild boars frequent the marshes around 
I the upper Jordan, and have been found 
on mount Carmel, and in large herds 
I near the sea of Tiberias. They were fre- 
i qucnt in the time of the Crusades. Rich- 
[ ard Cceur de Lion encountered one, ran 
! him through with a lance, and while the 
! animal was still endeavoring to gore his 
horse, leaped over him, and slew him 
I with his sword. The destructive rav- 
ages of the animal are referred to in Psa. 
I 80.13. 

BOAZ, Ruth 2 : 1, a wealthy Bethle- 
hemite, a descendant of Judah, through 
I whom is traced the regular succession of 
I Jewish kings, Matt. 1:5. His conduct 
in the case of Ruth proves him to have 
been a man of fine spirit and of strict 
integrity. He admitted the claim which 
Ruth had upon him as a near kinsman : 
under the obligations of the Levitical 
law, he married the poor gleaner, and 
thus became one of the ancestors of Da- 
vid, and also of David's Son and Lord. 
\ He was the father of Obed, 01>ed was the 
1 father of Jesse, and Jesse of David. The 
j whole narrative is a beautiful picture of 
I the simplicity of the age, when artificial 
I courtesies had not usinped the place of 
j natural and sincere expressions of love. 
! BoAz was also the name of one of the 
I two brazen pillars which Solomon erect- 
ed in the porch of the temple, the other 
being called Jaciiin. These columns 
were about thirty-five feet high, 1 Kin. 
7:15, 16, 21. 

BO'CHIM, iceepings, a place near Gil- 
gal, where the angel of tlie Lord reprov- 
ed Israel for their remissness, Judg. 
2:1-5. 

BOOK. Several sorts of materials were 
anciently used in making books. Plates 
of lead or copper, the bark of trees, brick, 
stone, and Avood, were originally em- 
ployed to engrave such things and docu- 
ments upon as men desired to transmit 
to posterity, Deut. 27:2, 3; Job 19:23, 
24. God's laws Avere written on stone 
tablets. Inscriptions were also made on 
tiles and bricks, which were afterwards 
hardened by fire. Many of these are 
found in the ruins of Babylon. See Bab- 
ylon, Nebuchad.nezzar. Tablets of wood, 
box, and ivory were common among the 
ancients : when they were of wood only, 



BOO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BOO 




ANCIENT BOOKS, PENS, AND INKSTAND. 

they were oftentimes coated over with 
wax, which received the writing inscrib- 
ed on them with the point of a style, or 
iron pen, Jer. 17:13; and what was writ- 
ten might be effaced by the broad end 
of a style, Luke 1:63. Afterwards, the 
leaves of the palm-tree were used instead 
of wooden tablets, and also the finest 
and thinnest bark of trees, such as the 
lime, the ash, the maple, the elm: hence 
the word liber, wliich denotes the inner 
bark of trees, signifies also a book. As 
these barks were rolled up, to be more 
readily carried about, the united rolls 
were called volumen, a volume ; a name 
given likewise to rolls of paper or of 
parchment. The ancients wrote like- 
wise on linen. But the oldest material 
commonly employed for writing upon, 
appears to have been the papyrus, a reed 
very common in Egypt and other places, 
and still found in Sicily and Chaldea. 
From this comes oar word paper. At a i 
later period, parchment from skins was in- j 
vented in Pergamos, and was there used 
for rolh or volumes. The pen for writing i 
on these soft materials was a small brush. | 
or a reed split at the end, Jer. 36:23. 
The ink was prepared with lampblack, | 
coal of ivory, various gums, etc., and [ 
the writing was sometimes permanently I 
fixed by fire. Scribes carried their ink- ! 
horns hanging to their girdles, Ezek. 
9:2. The making of paper from linen, in | 
its modern form, was first known in Eu- 
rope about A. D. 1300. The art of print- 
ing was introduced about one hundred 
and fifty years later. 

An ancient book therefore had the ap- 
pearance of a thick roll of some paper- 
like substance, written usually in paral- 
lel columns on one side only, and read 
by gradually unrolling it by means of 
two small rollers, one at the beginning 
and the other at the end of the volume. 



A roll was sometimes sealed, be- 
ing first tied or wrapped about 
with a cord, on which the wax was 
dropped, and stamped by a signet, 
Isa. 29:11; Rev. 5:1-3. 

That writing was practised very 
early, may be inferred from allu- 
sions to the art in Gen. 5:1 ; Ex. 
17:14; Job 9:25; 19:23; 31:5. 
The Egyptians were accustomed 
to it from the earliest ages. 
Ancient writers, instead of writ- 
ing their books, etc. , with their own hand, 
often employed amanuenses. St. Paul 
notes it as a particular circumstance, in 
the epistle to the Galatians, that he had 
written it with his own hand. Gal. 6.11. 
To other letters he only affixed his salu- 
tation Avith his own hand, 1 Cor. 16:21 ; 
Col. 4- 18; 2 Thess. 3; 17. The amanu- 
ensis who -wrote the epistle to the Ro- 
mans, has mentioned himself at the close, 
Rom. 16:22. See Letter. 

Book of the gexeratiox, is used in 
Gen. 5:1 ; Matt. 1:1, in the sense of a 
genealogical record. See Generation. 

Book of the wars of the Lord, Num. 
21 : 14, was probably a sort of military 
journal, formed of detached odes. 

The book of Jashlr, 2 Sam. 1 : 18, may 
perhaps have been a collection of na- 
tional ballads, one of the forms most 
used for perpetuating the history of an- 
cient times. 

The books of the Chronicles of the 
kings of Judah and Israel were apparent- 
ly public journals, 1 Kin. 14:19, 29. 

Book of Life, or of the Living, Psa. 
69:28. It is probable that these descrip- 
tive phrases are taken from the custom 
observed in the courts of princes, of keep- 
ing a list of persons who are in their 
service, of the provinces which they 
govern, of the officers of their armies, 
of the number of their troops, and some- 
times even of the names of their soldiers. 
In the figurative style of oriental poetry, 
God is represented as inscribing the 
names, acts, and destinies of men in vol- 
umes ; and the volume in which are 
thus entered the names of those who are 
chosen to salvation, is ' ' the book of life, ' ' 
Phil. 4:3. 

BOOTH, a shelter, made usually of 
poles fixed upright in the ground, and 
covered over with green boughs, Gen. 
33:17. The great feast of tabernacles, 
or booths, had its name from the cir- 
cumstance that the Jews were directed 
(59 



BOO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BOW 



by their law to dwell in booths during 
the seven days of this feast, Lev. 23:40- 
42; Neh. 8:14. See Tabernacle. 

BOO'TY. Spoils taken in war were to 
be shared equally by those who fought 
and those who guarded the camp, Num. 
31:27-32. The Lord's portion was hrst 
deducted from the whole ; and in after- 
times the king appropriated a large part 
to himself. 

BOR'ROW. The Hebrews are said to 
have "borrowed" of the Egyptians, Ex. 
3 : 22 ; 12 ; 35. The original word denotes 
simply asled. As they were known to be 
taking a linal leave of Egypt, it is plain 
that the Egyptians did not expect the 
thing asked for to be returned. They 
asked for them by divine direction, and 
they undoubtedly received no more than 
a fair compensation for their many years 
of hard service. 

BO'SOM, the front of the upper part of 
the body, the breast. The orientals gen- 
erally wore long, wide, and loose gar- 
ments ; and when about to carry any 
thing away that their hands would not 
contain, they used for the purpose a fold 
in the bosom of their robe above the gir- 
dle, Luke 6:38. Our Saviour is said to 
carry his lambs in his bosom, which 
beautifully represents his tender care 
and Avatclifulness over them, Isa. 40:11. 
See Abraham's Bosom. 

BOS'SES, the thickest and strongest 
parts, the projecting points, of a shield. 
Job 15:26. - 




GOA.T-SKIN WATER BOTTLES. 

BOT'TLE. The accompanying engrav- 
ing shows the form and nature of an an- 
cient goat- skin bottle, out of which a 
water-carrier is offering to sell a draught 
of water. After the skin has been strip- 
ped off from»an animal, and properly 
dressed, the places where the legs had 
been are closed up ; and where the neck 
70 



was, is the opening left for receiving and 
discharging the contents of the bottle. 
These were readily borne upon the shoul- 
der, Gen. 21:14. See also Josh. 9:4, 13 ; 
Psa. 119:83; Jer. 13:12. 

By receiving the liquor poured into it, 
a skin bo^ttle must be greatly swelled and 
distended ; and still more, if the liquor 
be wine, by its fermentation while ad- 
vancing to ripeness ; so that if no vent 
be given to it, the liquor may overpower 
the strength of the bottle, or if it find 
any defect, it may ooze out by that. 
Hence the propriety of putting nerv wine 
into new bottles, which being in the 
prime of their strength, may resist the 
expansion of their contents, and pre- 
serve the wine to maturity ; while old 
bottles may, without danger, contain old 
wine, whose fermentation is already past, 
Matt. 9:17 ; Luke 5:38 ; Job 32:19. 

Such bottles, or skins, are still univer- 
sally employed in travellii)g in the East, 
as well as by the public water-carriers, 
and for domestic uses. They were made, 
for storage in wine-cellars, of the hides 
of oxen or camels. But the smaller ones 
of goat-skins were more generally used 
for water as well as wine. The ancients, 
however, were ac(iuainted with the art 
of making earthenware, and had a va- 
riety of elegant small bottles and vases 
for toilet purposes, made of the precious 
metals, of stone, glass, porcelain, and 
alabaster, Jer. 19:1, 10, 11. See Cruse, 
Vine, Tears. 

BOW, a weapon much used in ancient 
times, both for hunting and for war. It 
was made of wood, horn, or steel. Gen. 
27:3 ; Psa. 18:34 ; and the foot was some- 
times used in bending it. It was carried 
in a case, when not used, Hab. 3 : 19. 
The Benjamites were celebrated for their 
skill in the use of this weapon, 1 Chr. 
12:2; 2 Chr. 14:8; 17: 17. See Arms. 
The phrase, "a deceitful bow," to which 
the people of Israel are compared, Psa. 
78:57 ; Hos. 7:16, means an ill-made or 
twisted bow, which does not shoot the 
arrow as it is aimed. In 2 Sam. 1 : 18, we 
read, ' ' Also he bade them teach the chil- 
dren of Judah the use of the bow. ' ' Here 
the words, * ' the use of, ' ' are not in the 
Hebrew. The u^e of the bow in war had 
long been common among the Jews, Gen. 
48:22 ; and to " teach them the bow," is 
by some supposed to mean, teach them 
the song of the bow, the lamentation 
over Saul and Jonathan, which follows ; 



BOW 



BIBLE DICTIONAKY. 



BIIE 



so called from the mention of the weapon 
in verse 22, as the first four books in the 
Bible take their title in Hebrew from the 
first word in each. See Arrow. 

BOW' ELS are often put by the He- 
brew writers for the internal parts gen- 
erally, the inner man. just as we often 
use the word heart. Hence the bowels 
are often represented as the seat of mer- 
cy, tenderness, compassion, etc., 1 Kin. 
3 : 26 ; Isa. 63 : 15 ; Jer. 31 : 20 ; Col. 3:12; 
1 John 3:17. 

BOX-TREE, a well-known beautiful 
evergreen, growing in many parts of 
Europe and Asia. Its wood is highly 
prized by engravers. The word employ- 
ed in Isa. 60:13, is thought by many to 
have been a species of cedar. It is used 
as an emblem of the abiding grace and 
prosperity of the church of God. 

BOZ'RAH, Gen. 36-33, a city of Edom, 
Isa. 3-l:6; 63:1, and the region around 
it, Jer. 49 13, 22. It is associated with 
Teman, ■ and with the Red sea, Jer. 
49 : 20-22 ; Amos 1:12. Its site is found 
in the modern El-Busaireh, midway be- 
tween Kir Moab and mount Hor, south 
by east of the Dead sea. This is a vil- 
lage of about fifty houses, on a hill 
crowned by a small castle. The ruins 
are those of a considerable city. Bozrah 
of Moab, Jer. 48:24, may be the same 
place with this, or perhaps with Bezer. 

BRACE'LET, properly an ornament 
for the wrist, or for the arm above or be- 
low the elbow ; but sometimes used also 
in the Bible to signify an ornament worn 
on the leg. Num. 31 : 50 ; Isa. 3:19. Arm- 
lets were worn by men, sometimes as a 
badge of royalty, 2 Sam. 1:10. Brace- 
lets were of a great variety of materials 
and forms ; were usually large, and often 
of great value. Gen. 24:22. 

The women of Syria and Arabia at 
this day wear rings round their legs, 
to which are fastened many other lesser 
rings, which make a tinkling noise, like 
little bells, when they walk. These 
rings are fixed above the ankle, and are 
of gold, silver, copper, glass, or even of 
varnished earth, according to the con- 
dition of the wearer The princesses 
wear large hollow rings of gold, within 
which are enclosed little pebbles, that 
tinkle. See Rings. 

BRANCH As trees denote, in figura- 
tive language, great men and princes, so 
branches, boughs, and plants denote 
their offspring. Christ is cidled ' ' the 



I Branch," the "rod out of the stem of 
I Jesse," and the "branch out of his 
: roots," Isa. 11:1 ; 53:2;Zech. 3:8; 6:12; 
being a royal descendant of the princely 
j house of David, Jer. 23:5 ; 33:15. The 
j word branch also illustrates the union of 
I believers with Christ, John 15:5, 6. It 
is used in Ezek. 8: 17 as a symbol of idol- 
atrous worship, probably in allusion to 
the carrying of fragrant boughs in honor 
of idols. 

BRASS is frequently mentioned in the 
! English Bible, Gen. 4:22; Deut. 8:9; 
I but there is little doubt that copper is 
[ intended, brass being a mixed metal — 
j two-thirds copper and one-third zinc — 
I for the manufacture of which we are in- 
\ debted to the Germans. The ancients 
i knew nothing of that particular com- 
j pound, though well acquainted with 
I bronze, of which arms, mirrors, and or- 
j naments were made. Copper was used 
for many purposes about the temple, 
Lev. 6 : 28 ; Num. 16 : 39 ; 2 Chr. 4 : 16 ; 
for filters, Judg. 16:21 ; 2 Kin. 25:7 ; for 
armor, 1 Sam. 17:5, 6, 38 ; for musical in- 
struments, 1 Chr. 15:19 ; and for money, 
Matt. 10:9. " Brass ' ' is used to describe 
drought, insensibility, baseness, and ob- 
stinacy in sin. Lev. 26:19; Deut. 28:23; 
Isa. 48:4; Jer. 6:28; Ezek 22:18. It is 
also a symbol of strength, Psa. 107:16; 
Dan. 2:39; Zech. 6:1. See Copper. 

BRA'ZEN SERPENT, an image in brass 
prepared by Moses, resembling the fiery 
serpents so destructive to Israel in the 
desert, and set up in the midst of tlie 
camp in the view of all, that whosoever 
would evince penitence, faith, and obe- 
dience by looking to it, might live, Num. 
21:6-9. Our Saviour has shown us that 
this was typical of himself and of salva- 
tion tlirough him — a gratuitous salva- 
tion, free to all, on the easy terms of 
faith and obedience, John 3 -'14, 15. The 
brazen serpent was long preserved, as a 
memorial of the gracious miracle wrought 
in connection witli it ; but being regard- 
ed as an object of worship, it was broken 
to pieces by king Hezekiah, as Nehush- 
tan— a mere piece of brass, 2 Kin. 18:4. 

BREAD, a word which in Scripture is 
often put for food in general. Gen. 3:19 ; 
18 : 5 ; 28 . 20 ;' Ex. 2 : 20 ; Lev. 11:3. Man- 
na is called bread from, heaven, Ex. 16:4. 
Bread, in the proper and literal sense, 
usually means cakes made 'of wheaten 
flour ; barley being used chiefly by the 
poor and for feeding horses. The wheat 
71 



BRE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BRE 



was ground daily, in small stone mills? ; 
the flour was made into dough in a wood- 
en trough, and subsequently leavened, 
Ex. 12:oi ; Hos. 7:4. It was then made 
into cakes, and baked. 

The ancient Hebrews had several ways 
of baking bread: they often baked it 
under the ashes upon the earth, upon 
round copper or iron plates, or in pans or 
stoves made on purpose. The Arabians 
and other oriental nations, among whom 
wood is scarce, often bake their bread 
between two fires made of cow-dung, 
which burns slowly. The bread is good, 
if eaten the same day, but the crust is 
black and burnt, and retains a smell of 
the fuel used in baking it. This explains 
Ezek. 4:9, 15. 

TJie Hebrews, in common with other 
eastern people, had a kind of oven, {tan- 
noor,) which is like a large pitcher, open 
at top, in which they made a tire. Wiien 
it was well heated, they mingled flour in 
water, and this paste they applied to the 
outside of the pitcher. Such bread is 
baked in an instant, and is taken off in 
thin, fine pieces, like our wafers, Lev. 2. 
Bread was also baked in cavities sunk in 
the ground, or the floor of the tent, and 
well lined with compost or cement. A 
fire was built on the floor of this oven ; 
and the sides being sufficiently heated, 
thin cakes were adroitly stuck upon 
them, and soon baked. In the large 
towns there were public ovens, and bak- 
ers by trade, Jer. o7:21 ; Hos. 7:4. 

As the Hebrews generally made their 
bread thin, and in the form of flat cakes, 
or wafers, they did not cut it with a 
knife, but broke it. Lam. 4:4, which 
gave rise to that expression so usual in 
Scripture, of "breaking bread," to sig- 
nify eating, sitting down to table, taking 
a repast. In the institution of the Lord's 
supper, our Saviour broke the bread 
which he had consecrated ; whence ' ' to 
break bread," and "breaking of bread," 
in the New Testament are used for cele- 
brating the Lord's supper. See under 
Eating. 

S[i3\v-BREAD, Heb. bread of presence, 
was bread offered every Sabbath-day to 
God on the golden table which stood in 
the holy place, Ex. 25:30; twelve cakes 
of unleavened bread, offered with salt 
and frankincense. Lev. 2:13; 24 : 5-9. 
Tlic show-bread could be lawfully eaten 
by none but the priests ; nevertheless, 
David having received some of these 




^'^^^^^ 



THE TABLE OF SHOW-BREAD. 

loaves from the high-priest Abimelech, 
ate of them without scruple in his neces- 
sity, I Sam. 21:1-6; and our Saviour 
quotes his example to justify the disci- 
ples, who had bruised ears of corn, and 
were eating them on the Sabbath-day, 
Matt. 12:1-4. 

BREAST'PLATE, a piece of embroid- 
ery, about ten inches square, Ex. 28:15- 
30, of very rich work, which the high- 
priest wore on his breast. It was made 
of two pieces of the same rich embroid- 
ered stuff" of which the ephod was made, 
having a front and a lining, and forming 
a kind of purse or bag, in whicli, accord- 
ing to the rabbins, the Urim and Thum- 
mim were enclosed. The front of it was 




set with twelve precious stones, on each 
of which was engraved the name of one 
of the tribes. They were placed in four 
rows, and divided from each other by 
the little golden squares or partitions in 
which they were set. At each corner 
was a gold ring answering to a ring iipon 



BKl 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BUL 



the cphod, these four pairs of rings serv- 
ing to hold the breastplate in its place 
on the front of the ephod, by means of 
four blue ribands, one at each corner. 

BRICKS -were usually made of clay, 
dried and hardened in the sun, Gen. 
11:3, though brick-kilns were sometimes 
used, 2 Sam. 12:81; Nah 3:14 The 
tower of Babel w^as constructed of brick, 
cemented Avith bitumen. The bricks 
used were often a foot sc^uare ; and great 
numbers of them are found, both in 
Babylonia and Egypt, impressed with 
some royal or priestly stamp. The prin- 
cipal subject of interest connected with 
brick-maldng is the fact that it was the 
labor in which the Hebrews in Egypt 
were most oppressed. On the monu- 
ments of Egypt, all the parts of this 
hard and ancient task-work are paint- 
ed — the carrying, tempering, and mould- 




ing of the clay, and the drying and pil- 
ing of the bricks — all done by foreigners 
under the orders of taskmasters. The 




BRICKMAKING, UNDER A TASKMASTER. 

straw was probably mixed with the clay 
to compact it. See Wilkinson's "An- 
cient Egyptians." 



BRIDE and BRIDE'GROOM, see Mab- 
RiAGE and Solomon's Sokg 

BRIG'ANDINE, a coat of mail, Jer 
46 4; 51:3. 

BRIM'STONE, a mineral substance, 
highly inflammable, and burning with a 
sulibcating smell. Sodom and the other 
cities of the plain were destroyed ' ' by 
brimstone and fire," Gen. 19:24; and 
this awful catastrophe is often used in 
Scripture, as an emblem of temporal and 
eternal judgments of God upon the wick- 
ed. Job 18 : 15 ; Psa. 11:6; Isa. 30 : 33 ; 
34:9; Rev. 21:8. 
BROOK, see River. 
BROTH'ER signifies in Scripture the 
son of the same parent or parents, Matt. 
1:2; Luke : 14 ; a cousin or near kins- 
man, Gen. 13:8; 14:16; John 7:3; Acts 
1:14; one of the same stock or country, 
Matt. 5 : 47 ; Acts 3 : 22 ; Heb. 7 : 5 ; a fel- 
low-man, an equal. Matt. 5:23 ; 7:3 ; one 
beloved, 2 Sam. 126 ; Christians, as sons 
ofGod,Acts9:30; 11:29. InMatt. 12:46- 
50 ; 13 : 55, 56 ; Mark 3 : 31-35, the broth- 
ers of Christ are so mentioned, in con- 
nection with his mother and sisters, as 
almost to require us to believe they were 
children of Joseph and Mary, younger 
than Jesus. Yet this is not ciuite cer- 
tain, as it may be that the James, Joses, 
and Judas in Matt. 13 55, are the neph- 
ews of Christ alluded to in Matt. 27:56; 
Luke : 15, 16 ; John 19 : 25 ; Cleophas 
and Alphiuus being probably the same. 
BRUIT, rumor or report, Jer. 10:22; 
Nah. 3:19. 

BUL, occurring only in 1 Kin. 6:38, 
applied to the eighth month, usually 
called Marcheshvan, which see. Solo- 
mon's temple was finished in Bui. 

BULLS of Bashan, pasturing in a fer- 
tile region and with but few keepers, 
became strong and fierce, and might 
' ' compass about ' ' an intruder, and tram- 
ple him under foot. They are symbols 
- of powerful, fierce, and numerous 
foes, Psa. 22:12; 68:30; Isa. 34:7. 
See Ox. 
BUL'RUSH, see next page. 
BUR'DEN, a weight or load, on 
body or soul ; often used figuratively, 
to denote afflictions, failings, sins, 
Psa. 38:4; 55:22; Gal. 6:2; services 
under the law. Matt. 23:4; official re- 
sponsibilities, Ex. 18:22; Deut. 1:12; 
and especially prophetic messages, not 
always of a threatening character, Isa. 
19:1. In this last sense the Hebrew word 
73 



BUR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BUR 



may be rendered ' ' oracle, " " divine dec- 
laration," or "prophecy," as in Prov. 
30:1; 31:1 




BUL'RUSH, or papyrus, a reed grow- 
ing on the banks of the Nile, in marshy 
ground, Job 8 : 1 1, to the height of twelve 
or fifteen feet, Isa. 35:7. The stalks are 
pliable, and capable of being interwoven 
very closely, as is evident from their 
being used in the construction of arks, 
Ex. 2:3, 5 ; and also vessels of larger 
dimensions, Isa. 18:2. Boats of this 
material were very common in Egypt. 
Being exceedingly light and small, they 
sailed with great velocity, and might 
easily be borne on the shoulders around 
rapids and falls. The inner bark of this 
plant, platted and cemented together, 
furnished a writing material; and the 
pith was sometimes used for food. See 
Book. 

BURTAL. The Hebrews 'were at all 
times very careful in the burial of their 
dead. Gen. 25 . 9 ; 35 : 29. To be deprived 
of burial was thought one of the greatest 
marks of dishonor, or causes of unhappi- 
ness, Eccl. 6:3 ; Jer. 22:18, 19 ; it being 
denied to none, not even to enemies. 
Good men made it a part of their piety 
to inter the dead. Indeed, how shock- 
74 



ing must the sight of unburied corpses 
have been to the Jews, when their land 
was thought to be polluted if the dead 
were in any manner exposed to view, 
2 Sam. 21 : 14 ; and when the very touch 
of a dead body, or of any thing that 
had touched a dead body, was esteemed 
a defilement, and required a ceremonial 
ablution, Num. 19:11-22. 

Only two cases of burning the bodies 
of the dead occur in Scripture : the man- 
gled remains of Saul and his sons, 1 Sam. 
31:12, and the victims of some plague, 
Amos 6:10. It was customary for the 
nearest relatives to close the eyes of the 
dying and give them the parting kiss, 
and then to commence the wailing for 
the dead, Jer. 46:4; 50:1; in this wail- 
ing, which continued at intervals until 
after the burial, they were joined by 
other relatives and friends, John 11:19, 
whose loud and shrill lamentations are 
referred to in Mark 5:38. It is also a 
custom still prevailing in the East to 
hire wailing women, Jer. 9:17; Amos 
5:16, who praised the deceased. Acts 
9:39, and by doleful cries and frantic 
gestures, aided at times by melancholy 
tones of music. Matt. 9:23, strove to ex- 
press the deepest grief, Ezek. 24:17, 18. 

Immediately after death the body was 
washed, and laid out in a convenient 
room, Acts 9 : 39 ; it was wrapped in 
many folds of linen, with spices, and the 
head bound about with a napkin. Matt. 
27 : 59 ; John 11 : 44. Unless the body 
was to be embalmed, the burial took 
place very soon, both on account of the 
heat of the climate and the ceremonial 
uncleanness incurred. Rarely did twen- 
ty-four hours elapse between death and 
burial. Acts 5 : 6, 10. The body being 
shrouded, was placed upon a bier — a 
board resting on a simple handbarrow, 
borne by men — to be conveyed to the 
tomb, 2 Sara. 3:31 ; Luke 7:14. Some- 
times a more costly bier or bed was used, 
2 Chr. 16:14; and the bodies of kings 
and some others may have been laid in 
coffins of wood, or stone sarcophagi. The 
relatives attended the bier to the tomb, 
which was usually without the city. A 
banquet sometimes followed the funeral, 
Jer 16:7, 8 ; and during subsequent days 
the bereaved friends were wont to go to 
the grave from time to time, to weep and 
to adorn the place with fresh flowers, 
John 11:31, a custom observed even at 
this day. See Embalming, Sepulchre. 



BUR 



BIBLE DICTIONARr 



C^-ES 



BURNT -OFFERINGS. See Sacri- 
fice. 

BUSH'EL, used in the New Testament 
to express the Greek modius, which was 
about a peck by our measure. 

BUT'TER. The Hebrew word usually 
rendered butter denotes, properly, sour or 
curdled milk, Gen. 18 : 8 ; Judg. 5 : 25 ; 
Job 20:17. This last is a favorite bever- 
age in the East to tlie present day. Burck- 
hardt, when crossing the desert from the 
country south of the Dead sea to Egypt, 
says, ' ' Besides flour, I carried some but- 
ter and dried lehen, (sour milk,) which, 
when dissolved in water, not only forms 
a refreshing beverage, but is much to be 
recommended as a preservative of health 
when travelling in summer." Yet but- 
ter may have been known to the He- 
brews. It is much used by the Arabs and 
Syrians at the present day, and is made 
by pouring the milk into the common 
goat-skin bottle, suspending this from 
the tent-poles, and swinging it to and 
fro with a jerk, until the process is com- 
pleted. Still it is not certain that the 
Hebrew word rendered butter ever de- 
notes that article. Even in Pro v. 30:33 
we may render, "The pressing of milk 
bringeth forth cheese ;" and everywhere 
else the rendering "curd," or "curdled 
milk," would be appropriate. 

BUZ, son of Nahor and Milcah, and 
ancestor of the Buzites, who lived in 
Mesopotamia or Ram, and afterwards 
perhaps in Arabia Deserta, Gen. 22 : 21 ; 
Job 32:2; Jer. 25:23. 



C. 



, CAB, a Hebrew measure, the sixth 
part of a seah, and the eighteenth part 
of an ephah. A cab contained three 
pints and one third, of our wine meas- 
ure, or two pints and five sixths, of our 
corn measure, 2 Kin. 6:25. 

CA'BUL, probably meaning displeasing, 
I., a name given by Hiram king of Tyre 
to a district in Northern Galilee contain- 
ing twenty cities, which Solomon gave 
him for his help in building the temple, 
1 Kin. 9:13 ; the term implying his dis- 
satisfaction with the gift. 

II. A city of Ashcr, Josh. 19:27. 

CyE'SAR, originally the surname of the 
Julian family at Rome. After being dig- 
nified in the person of Julius Cicsar, it 
became the usual appellation of those of 



his family who ascended the throne. Tlie 
last of these was Nero, but the name was 
still retained by his successors as a sort 
of title belonging to the imperial dignity. 
The emperors alluded to by this title in 
the New Testament, are Augustus, Luke 
2:1; Tiberius, Luke 3:1; 20:22; Clau- 
dius, Acts 11:28; and Nero, Acts 25:8; 
Phil. 4:22. Caligula, who succeeded Ti- 
berius, is not mentioned. 

CJSSAREA, often called Casarea of 
Palestine, situated on the coast of the 
Mediterranean sea, between Joppa and 
Tyre. It was anciently a small place, 
called the Tower of Strato, but was re- 
built with great splendor, and strongly 
fortiticd by Herod the Great, who formed 
a harbor by constructing a viist break- 
water, adorned the city with many state- 
ly buildings, and named it Ca?sarea, in 
honor of Augustus. It was inhabited 
chiefly by Greeks, and Herod established 
in it quinquennial games in honor of the 
emperor. This city was the capital of 
Judea during the reign of Herod the 
Great and of Herod Agrippa I. , and was 
also the seat of the Roman power while 
Judea was governed as a province of the 
empire. It was subject to frequent com- 
motions between the Greeks, Romans, 
and Jews, so that on one occasion 20,000 
persons are said to have fallen in one 
day. 

It is noted in gospel history as the 
residence of Philip the evangelist. Acts 
8:40 ; 21:8 ; and of Cornelius the centu- 
rion, tbe Ih'st-fruits from the Gentiles, 
Acts 10 ; 11 : 1-18. Here Herod Agrippa 
was smitten by the angel of God, Acts 
12:20-23. Paul several times visited it, 
Acts 9 : 30 ; 18 : 22 ; 21:8,16; here he ap- 
peared before Felix, who trembled under 
his appeals. Acts 23 : 23 ; 24 ; here he 
Avas imprisoned for two years ; and after 
pleading before Festus and Agrippa, he 
sailed hence for imperial Rome, Acts 
25:26 ; 27 : 1. It is now a heap of ruins. 
CESAREA-PHILIP'PI, a city three or 
four miles east of Dan, near the eastern 
source of the Jordan ; anciently called 
Paneas, now Banias, from an adjacent 
grotto dedicated to Pan, from which one 
of the sources of the Jordan flowed. It 
stood where the mountains south-west of 
Hermon join the plain above lake Hu- 
leh, on an elevated plateau surrounded 
by ravines and water-courses ; and its 
walls were thick and strong. It was en- 
larged and embellished by Philip the te- 



CAI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



CAL 



trarcli of Traclionitis, and called Cffisarea 
in honor of Tiberius Ciesar ; and the name 
Philippi was added to distinguish it fi-om 
Cassarea on the Mediterranean. Our Sav- 
iour visited this place shortly before his 
transfis^uration, Matt. 16:13-28; Mark 
8 27-38; Luke 9:18, 27. After the de- 
struction of Jerusalem, Titus here made 
the captive Jews fight and kill each other 
in gladiatorial shows. In the time of the 
crusades it underwent many changes, 
and is now a paltry village amid exten- 
sive ruins 

CAI'APHAS, high-priest of the Jews, 
A. D 27 to 36. He was a Sadducee, and 
a bitter enemy of Christ. At his palace 
the priests, etc., met after the resurrec- 
tion of Lazarus, to plot the death of the 
Saviour, lest all the people should be- 
lieve on him. On one of these occasions, 
John 11:47-54, he counselled the death 
of Christ for the political salvation of 
the nation ; and his words were, uncon- 
sciously to him, an inspired prediction of 
the salvation of a lost world. These 
plots against Christ, Matt. 26 : 1-5 ; Mark 
14:1 ; Luke 22-2, led to his seizure, and 
he was brought first before Annas, for- 
merly high-priest, who sent him to Cai- 
aphas his son-in-law. See Annas. Cai- 
aphas examined Christ before the as- 
sembling of the Sanhedrim, after which 
the trial went on, and Clirist was con- 
demned, mocked, and transferred to Pi- 
late for sentence and execution, Matt. 
26:57-68 ; Mark 14:53-72 ; Luke 22:54- 
71; John 18 13-27. Not content with 
procuring the death of the Saviour, Cai- 
aphas and his friends violently persecut- 
ed his followers. Acts 4:1-6; 5:17, 33. 
But a few years after the ascension of 
Christ, and soon after the degradation of 
Pilate, Caiaphas also was deposed from 
office by the Roman proconsul Vitellius. 
Like Balaam of the Old Testament, he 
is a melancholy instance of light resist- 
ed, privilege, station, and opportunity 
abused, and prophetic words concerning 
Christ joined with a life of infidelity and 
crime and a fearful death. 

CAIN, the first-born of the human 
race, Gen. 4:1, and the first murderer. 
See Abel. His crime was committed 
against the warnings of God, and he de- 
spised the call of God to confession and 
penitence, Gen. 4:6-9. The punishment 
inflicted upon him included an increase 
of physical wants and hardships, distress 
of conscience, banishment from society, 
76 



and loss of God's manifested presence 
and favor. Gen. 4:16. But God mingled 
mercy with judgment ; and appointed 
for Cain some sign that he should not 
suffer the death-penalty he had incurred 
at the hand of man, thus signifying that 
God only was his judge. He withdrew 
into the land of Nod, east of Eden, and 
built a city which he named Enoch, after 
one of his sons. 

CAIN AN, I., son of Enos, and father 
of Mahalaleel, Gen. 5:9; I Chr. 1:2. 

II. Son of Arphaxad and father of Sa- 
lah, Luke 3:36. This Cainan, however, 
is not named in the three Old Testament 
genealogies. Gen. 10:24; 11:12; 1 Chr. 
1:24, nor in any ancient version. The 
name occurs in two places in the Septua- 
gint, an early Greek version ; and some 
suppose that copyists of Luke's gospel 
inserted the name, in order to agree with 
the Septuagint. 

CA'LAH, a city of Assyria, built by 
Ashur or by Nimrod, Gen. 10:11, 12. It 
was at some distance from Nineveh, and 
Resen lay between them. It is thought 
to have been near the river Lycus, the 
great Zah, which empties into the Ti- 
gris. 

CALAMUS. See Cane. 

CA'LEB, I., son of Jephunneh, of the 
tribe of Judah, who was sent, with one 
man from each of the other tribes, to 
search out the promised land. Num. 13 ; 
14. Of all the twelve, Caleb and Joshua 
acted the part of true and faithful men ; 
and they only, of all the grown men of 
Israel, were permitted to enter Canaan, 
Num. 14 : 6-24, 38 ; 26 : 65 He was one 
of the princes appointed to divide the 
conquered territory among the tribes. 
Num. 34:19. Hebron was given to him 
as a reward of his fidelity, according to 
the promise of God, Deut. 1:36; Josh. 
14. Though eighty-five years old, he 
still retained his vigor, and soon drove 
out the Anakim from his inheritance. 
He gave a portion also with his daugh- 
ter Achsah to Othniel his nephew, who 
had earned the reward by his valor in the 
capture of Debir, Josh. 15:13-19 ; 21:12. 
This region was for some time called by 
his name, 1 Sam. 30:14. 

II. Son of Hur, whose children peo- 
pled the country about Bethlehem, etc., 
1 Chr. 2:50-55. 

CALF, the young of the cow, a clean 
animal much used in sacrifice ; hence the 
expression, ' ' So will we render the calves 



CAL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAL 



of our lips," Hos. 14:2, meaning, we will 
oti'er as sacrifices the prayers and praises 
of our lips, Heb. 13:15. The fatted calf 
was considered the choicest animal food, 
Gen. 18:7; AmosG:4; Luke 15:23. 

In Jer. 34: 18, "they cut the calf in 
twain, and passed between the parts 
thereof," there is an allusion to an an- 
cient mode of ratifying a covenant ; the 
parties thus signifying their willingness 
to be themselves cut in pieces if unfaith- 
ful, Gen. 15:9-18. 

The golden calf worshipped by the 
Jews at mount Sinai, while Moses was 
absent in the mount, was cast by Aaron 
from the earrings of the people. Its wor- 
ship was attended with degrading ob- 
scenities, and was punished by the death 
of three thousand men. 

The golden calves of Jeroboam were 
erected by him, one at each extreme of 
his kingdom, that the ten tribes might 
be prevented from resorting to Jerusa- 
lem to worship, and thus coalescing with 
the men of Judah, 1 Kin. 12 : 26-29. 
Thus the people ' ' forgot God their Sav- 
iour," and sank into gross idolatry. Jer- 
oboam is scarcely ever mentioned in 
Scripture without the brand upon him, 
"who made Israel to sin," 2 Kin. 17:21. 
The prophet Hosea frequently alludes to 
the calf at Bethel, to the folly and guilt 
of its worshippers, and to the day when 
both idol and people should be broken 
in pieces by the Assvrians. 

CAL'NEH, called Calno, Isa. 10:9, and 
Canneh, Ezek. 27 : 23, one of Nimrod's 
cities. Gen. 10 : 10, afterwards called 
Ctesiphon ; it lay on the east bank of 
the Tigris opposite Seleucia, twenty miles 
below Bagdad. Ctesiphon was a winter 
residence of the Parthian kings. Notli- 
ing now remains but the ruins of a pal- 
ace and mounds of rubbish. 

CAL'VARY, or Gol'gotiia, the latter 
being the Hebrew term, place of a sJcidl, 
the place where our Saviour was cruci- 
fied, near by Jerusalem, John 19:20, but 
outside of its walls. Matt. 27 : 33 ; Mark 
15:22; John 19:17; Heb. 13:12. In the 
same place was a private garden, and a 
tomb in which the body of Christ lay 
imtil the resurrection, John 19 : 41, 42. 
The expression, ''mount Calvary," has 
no evidence to support it beyond what 
is implied in the name Golgotha which 
might well be given to a slight elevation 
shaped like the top of a skull, and the 
probability that such a place would be 



chosen for the crucifixion. It is very 
doubtful whether the true localities of 
Calvary and the tomb are those covered 
by the present "Church of the Holy 
Sepulchre," a vast structure north of 
mount Zion and within the modern city, 
built on the site which was fixed under 
the empress Helena, a. d. 335, by tradi- 
tion and a pretended miracle. Some 
biblical geographers adhere to this loca- 
tion ; but Robinson and many others 
strongly oppose it, on the ground of the 
weakness of the tradition, and the diffi- 
culty of supposing that this place lay 
outside of the ancient walls. See Jeru- 
salem. Dr. Fisk, while visiting the spot 
under the natural desire to identify the 
scene of these most sacred events, felt it 
to be just possible, and that was all, 
that the spot shown him might be the 
actual scene of the crucifixion ; that the 
rock shown him might be a part of the 
rock riven by the earthquake ; that the 
stone column he saw, half concealed by 
iron-Avork, might have been that to 
which our Lord was bound when scourg- 
ed ; that the small fragment of rude 
stone seen by the light of a small taper, 
through a kind of iron filigree, might 
have been the stone on which he sat to 
be crowned with thorns ; that the spot 
overhung v.ith lamps, and covered with 
a white marble sarcophagus, with a kind 
of domed structure in the centre, might 
have been the place of our Lord's burial 
and resurrection: but when he saw the 
near juxtaposition of all these things, 
and knew that in order to provide for 
the structure of the church the site had 
to be cut down and levelled ; when he 
reflected that on the very spot a hea- 
then temple had stood, till removed by 
the empress Helena, to make room for 
this church ; and, moreover, when he 
considered the superstitious purpose all 
these things were to serve, and the spirit 
of that church which thus paraded these 
objects of curiosity, he could not bring 
himself to feel they were what they pro- 
fessed to be. 

Let us be thankful that though the 
exact scene of Christ's death is now un- 
known, there can be no doubt as to the 
fact. " He died, and was buried, and the 
third day rose again, according to the 
Scriptures " Then the old ritual passed 
away, Satan was despoiled, man was 
redeemed, God reconciled, and heaven 
opened to all believers. 

77 



CAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAM 




THE SWIFT CAMEL, OR DROMEDARY. 

CAM'EL, carrier, a beast of burden 
very common in the East, where it is 
called ' ' the land-ship, ' ' and ' ' the car- 
rier of the desert." It is six or seven 
feet high, and is exceedingly strong, 
tough, and enduring of labor. The feet 
are constructed with a tough elastic sole, 
which prevents the animal from sinking 
in the sand ; and on all sorts of ground 
it is very sure-footed. The Arabian spe- 
cies, most commonly referred to in Scrip- 
ture, has but one hump on the back ; 
while the Bactrian camel, foimd in cen- 
tral Asia, has two. While the animal is 
well fed, these humps swell with accu- 
mulated fat, which is gradually absorbed 
under scarcity and toil, to supply the 
lack of food. The dromedary is a light- 
er and swifter variety, otherwise not dis- 
tinguishable from the common camel, 
Jer. 2 : 23. Within the cavity of the 
stomach is a sort of paunch, provided 
with membranous cells to contain an 
extra provision of wn,ter . the supply 
with which this is filled will last for 
many days while he traverses the des- 
ert. His food is coarse leaA'es, twigs, 
thistles, which he prefers to the tender- 
est grass, and on which he performs the 
longest journeys. But generally, on a 
march, about a pound weight of dates, 
beans, or barley, will serve for twenty- 
four hours. The camel kneels to re- 
ceive its load, which varies from 500 to 
1,000 or 1,200 pounds. Meanwhile it 
is wont to utter loud cries or growls of 
anger and impatience. It is often obsti- 
nate and stupid, and at times ferocious ; 
78 



the young are as dull and ungainly as 
the old. Its average rate of travel is 
about two and one third miles an hour ; 
and it jogs on with a sullen pertinacity 
hour after hour without fatigue, seem- 
ing as fresh at night as in the morning. 
No other animal could endure the severe 
and continual hardships of the camel, his 
rough usage, his coarse and scanty food. 
The Arabians well say of him, "Job's 
beast is a monument of God's mercy." 

This useful animal has been much em- 
ployed in the East, from a very early 
period. The merchants of those sultry 
climes have found it the only means of 
exchanging the products of different 
lands, and from time immemorial long 
caravans have traversed year after year 
the almost pathless deserts. Gen. 37:25. 
The number of one's camels was a token 
of his wealth. Job had 3,000, and the 
Midianites' camels were like the sand of 
the sea, Judg. 7:12; 1 Chr. 5:21; Job 
1 ; 3. Eebekah came to Isaac riding upon 
a camel. Gen. 24:64 ; the queen of Sheba 
brought them to Solomon, and Hazael 
to Elislia, laden with the choicest gifts, 
I Kin. 10:2 ; 2 Kin. 8:9 ; and they were 
even made serviceable in war, 1 Sam. 
30:17. Tlie camel was to the Hebrews 
an imclean animal, Lev. 11:4^ yet its 
milk has ever been to the Arabs an 
important article of food, and is highly 
prized as a cooling and healthy drink. 
Indeed, no animal is more useful to the 
Arabs, while living or after death. Out 
of its hair they manufacture carpets, tent 
cloth, and large sacks for corn. Of its 
skin they make huge water-bottles and 
leather sarks, also sandals, ropes, and 
thongs. Its dung, dried in the sun, serves 
them for fuel. 

Camels' hair w\as woven into cloth in 
the East, some of it exceedingly fine and 
soft, but usually coarse and rough, used 
for making the coats of shepherds and 
camel-drivers, and for covering tents. 
It was this that John the Baptist wore, 
and not "soft raiment," Matt. 11:8. 
Modern dervishes wear garments of this 
kind ; and this appears to be meant in 
2 Kin 1 8. 

The expression, "It is easier for a 
camel to go through the eye of a nee- 
dle," etc.. Matt. 19 : 24, was a proverb 
to describe an impossibility. The same 
phrase occurs in the Koran ; and a simi- 
lar one in the Talmud, respecting an el- 
ephant's going through a needle's eye* 



CAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAN 



See also the proverb in Matt 23 • 24, 
which illustrates the hypocrisy of the 
Pharisees by the custom of passing wine 
through a strainer. The old versions of 
the New Testament, instead of, "strain 
at" a gnat, have, "strain out,'' which 
conveys the true meaning. 

CAMP, ENCAMP'MENTS. These terms 
usually refer to the movements of the 
Israelites between Egypt and Canaan ; 
and many passages of^ the Levitical law 
relate to things done ' ' within ' ' or 
"without the camp." The whole body 
of the people consisted of six hundred 
thousand lighting men, besides women 
and children. Num. 1:2; and was dis- 
posed into four battalions, so arranged 
as to enclose the tabernacle in a square, 
and each imder one general standard, 
Num. 2 ; 3. The mode in which this vast 
mass of people was arranged, with the 
most perfect order and subordination, 
must excite general surprise. Balaam, 
standing on the heights of Moab, viewed 
tlie imposing spectacle with admiration 
and awe: "How goodly are thy tents, 
Jacob ! the Lord his God is witli him, ' ' 
Num. 23 ; 24. 

The order appointed for the removal 
of the hosts of Israel from one encamp • 
mcnt to another is detailed in Num. 
9 ; 10. The names of forty-one encamp- 
ments are given in Num. 33 ; from the 
first in Rameses, in the month April, 
B. c. 1491, to the last on the brink of the 
Jordan forty years later. See Exodus, 
and Wanderings 

TraA'ellers in the desert were wont to 
pitch their tents in the centre of a circle 
formed by their camels and baggage, 
which served as a barrier against an 
assault. A similar mode of encamping 
Avas practised by large caravans, and by 
armies, 1 Sam. 26:5, margin. 

CAM'PHIRE, in Sol. Song 1:14 ; 4:13, 
is not the gum Camphor of our apothe- 
caries, but tlie Cyprus-flower, as it is 
sometimes called, the Alhenna of the 
Arabs, a whitish fragrant flower, hang- 
ing in clusters like grapes. Oriental 
ladies make use of the dried and pow- 
dered leaves to give their nails, feet, and 
hands a reddish orange tinge. The nails 
of Egyptian mummies are found thus 
dyed. See Eyelids. The flowers of the 
Alhenna are fragrant ; and being dis- 
posed in clusters, the females of Egypt 
are fond of carrying it in their bosoms. 

CAN A, the birthplace of Nathanael, 



the city in which our Lord performed 
his first miracle, and from which he soon 
after sent a miraculous healing to the 
nobleman's son at Capernaum, eighteen 
miles oft", John 2:1-11; 4:46-54; 21:2. 
It was called Cana of Galilee, now Kana- 
el-Jelil, and lay seven miles north of 
Nazareth This is Piobinson's view. The 
commonly received site is nearer Naza- 
reth. Cana is now in ruins. 

CANAAN, I., the son of Ham, and 
grandson of Noah, Gen. 9:18. His nu- 
merous posterity seem to have occupied 
Zidon first, and thence spread into Syria 
and Canaan, Gen. 10 ; 15-19 ; 1 Chr. 
1.13-16. The Jews believe that he was 
implicated with his father in the dishon- 
or done to Noah, Gen. 9:20-27, which 
was the occasion of the curse under which 
he and his posterity sufiered. Josh. 9.23, 
27; 2 Chr. 8:7,8. 

II. The land peopled by Canaan and 
his posterity, and afterwards given to 
the Hebrews. This country has at dif- 
ferent periods been called by various 
names, either from its inhabitants or 
some circumstances connected with its 
history. (I.) "The land of Canaan," 
from Canaan, the son of Ham, who di- 
vided it among his sons, each of whom 
became the head of a numerous tribe, 
and ultimately of a distinct people. Gen. 
10 15-20; 11:31. This did not at first 
include any land east of the Jordan. (2. ) 
' ' The land of Promise," Heb. 11 : 9, from 
the promise given to Abraham, that his 
posterity should possess it. Gen. 12:7; 
13:15. These being termed Hebrews, 
the region in Avhich they dwelt was call- 
ed, (3.) "The land of the Hebrews, Gen. 
40:15; and (4.) "The land of Israel," 
from the Israelites, or posterity of Jacob, 
having settled there. This name is of 
frequent occurrence in the Old Testa- 
ment. It comprehends all that tract of 
ground on each side of the Jordan, which 
God gave for an inheritance to the He- 
brews. At a later age, this term was 
often restricted to the territory of the 
ten tribes, Ezek. 27:17. (5.) "The land 
of Judah. ' ' Tills at first comprised only 
the region which was allotted to the 
tribe of Judah. After the separation of 
the ten tribes, the land which belonged 
to Judah and Benjamin, who formed a 
separate kingdom, was distinguished by 
the appellation of "the land of Judah," 
or Judea ; which latter name the whole 
country retained daring the existence of 
7y 



CAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAN 



the second temple, and under the do- 
minion of the Romans.- (0.) "The Holy 
Land. ' ' This name appears to have been 
used by the Hebrews after the Babylo- 
nish captivity, Zech. 2:12. (7.) "Pal- 
estine," Ex. 15:14, a name derived 
from the Philistines, who migrated from 
Egypt, and having expelled the aborig- 
inal inhabitants, settled on the borders 
of the Mediterranean. Their name was 
subsequently given to the whole coun- 
try, though they in fact possessed only a 
small part of it. By heathen writers, 
the Holy Land has been variously termed 
Palestine, Syria, and Pli<3enicia. 

Canaan was bounded on the west by 
the Mediterranean sea, north by mount 
Lebanon and Syria, east by Arabia De- 
serta, and south by Edom and the desert 
of Zin and Paran. Its extreme length 
was about one hundred and eighty miles, 
and its average width about sixty-live. 
Its general form and dimensions Cole- 
man has well compared to those of the 
state of New Hampshire. At the period 
of David, vast tributary regions were for 
a time annexed to the Holy Land. These 
included the bordering nations on the 
east, far into Arabia Deserta; thence 
north to Tiphsah on the Euphrates, with 
all Syria between Lebanon and the Eu- 
phrates. On the south it included Edom, 
and reached the Red sea at Ezion-geber. 

The land of Canaan has been variously 
divided. Under Joshua it was appor- 
tioned out to the twelve tribes. Under 
Rehoboam it was divided into the two 
kingdoms of Israel and Judah. It after- 
wards fell into the hands of the Baby- 
lonians, the Greeks, the Syrians, and 
the Romans. During the time of our 
Saviour, it was under the dominion of 
the last-mentioned people, and was divid- 
ed into five provinces: Galilee, Samaria, 
Judea, Pernsa, and Idumjea. Pera^a was 
again divided into seven cantons : Abi- i 
lene, Trachonitis, Iturea, Gaulonitis, 
Batanfea, Pera;a, and Decapolis. At 
present, Palestine is subject to the sul- 
tan of Turkey, under whom the pashas 
of Acre and Gaza govern the seacoast, 
and the pasha of Damascus the interior 
of the country. 

The surface of the land of Canaan is 
beautifully diversified with mountains 
and plains, rivers and valleys. The prin- 
cipal mountains are Lebanon, Carmel, 
Tabor, Gilead, Hermon, the mount of 
Olives, etc. The plain of the Mediterra- 
80 



nean, of Esdrselon, and of Jericho, are 
celebrated as the scenes of many impor- 
tant events. The chief streams are the 
Jordan, the Arnon, the Sihor, the Jab- 
bok, and the Kishon. The lakes are the 
Asphaltites or Dead sea, the lake of Ti- 
berias or sea of Galilee, and lake Merom. 
These are elsewhere described, each in its 
own place. 

The general features of the country 
may here be briefly described. The 
northern boundary is at the lofty moun • 
tains of Lebanon and Hermon, some 
peaks of which are ten thousand feet 
high Around the base of mount Her- 
mon are the various sources of the Jor- 
dan. This river, passing through lake 
Merom and the sea of Galilee, flows south 
with innumerable windings into the 
Dead sea. Its valley is deeply sunk, and 
from its source to the Dead sea it has a 
descent of two thousand feet. The coun- 
try between the Jordan valley and the 
Mediterranean sea is in general an ele- 
vated table-land, broken up by many 
hills, and by numerous deep valleys 
through which the wintry torrents flow 
into Jordan and the sea. The table- 
land of Galilee may be nine hundred or 
one thousand feet above the Mediterra- 
nean. In lower Galilee we find the great 
and beautiful plain of Esdnelon, extend- 
ing from mount Carmel and Acre on the 
west to Tabor and Gilboa, and even to 
the Jordan on the east. From this plain 
the land again rises towards the south ; 
mount Gerizim being 2,300 feet, Jerusa- 
lem 2,400, and Hebron 2,600 above the 
sea. On the sea-coast, below mount 
Carmel, a fertile plain is found ; towards 
the south it becomes gradually wider, 
and expands at last into the great des- 
ert of Paran. From this plain of the 
sea-coast the ascent to the high land of 
the interior is by a succession of natural 
terraces; while the descent to the Jor- 
dan, the Dead sea, and Edom, is abrupt 
and precipitous. The country beyond 
the Jordan is mountainous ; a rich graz- 
ing land, with many fertile valleys. 
Still farther east is the high and desolate 
plateau of Arabia Deserta. 

The soil and climate of Canaan were 
highly favorable. The heat was not 
extreme except in the deep river beds, 
and on the sea-coast ; and the climate 
was in general mild and healthful. The 
variations of sunshine, clouds, and rain, 
which with us extend throughout the 



CAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAN 



year, are in Palestine confined chiefly to 
the winter or rainy season. The autum- 
nal rains usually commence in the latter 
part of October, and soon after the first 
showers wheat and barley are sowed. 
Kain falls more heavily in December ; 
and continues, though with less frequen- 
cy, until April. From May to October 
no rain fills. The cold of winter is not 
severe, an 1 the ground does not freeze. 
Snows a foot or more deep sometimes 
occur, and there are frequent hailstorms 
in winter. The b.irley harvest is about 
a fortnight earlier tlian the wheat, and 
both are earlier in the plains than on the 
high land ; altogether the grain harvest 
extends from April to June. The first 
grapes ripen in July, but the vintage is 
not over till September. In this month ] 
and October the heat is great ; the ground 
becomes dry and parched ; verdure has 
long before disappeai-ed ; pools and cis- 
terns begin to dry up; and all nature, 
animate and inanimate, looks forward 
with longing for the return of the rainy 
season. 

The soil of Canaan was highly produc- 
tive. The prevailing rock is a chalky 
limestone, abounding in caverns. It 
readily formed, and was covered with, a 
rich mould, which produced, in the va- 
rious elevations and climates so remark- 
ably grouped together in that small 
region of the world, an unequalled vari- 
ety of the fruits of the ground. Olives, 
figs, vines, and pomegranates grew in 
abundance ; the hills were clothed with 
flocks and herds, and the valleys were 
covered with corn. The land of promise ; 
was currently described as ' ' flowing with | 
milk and honey." Yet the glowing 
description given by Moses, Deut. 8:7-9, 
and the statements of history as to the 
vast population formerly occupying it, 
are in striking contrast with its present 
aspect of barrenness and desolation. The 
curse brought down by the unbelief of 
the Jews still blights their unhappy 
land. Long ages of warfare and misrule 
have despoiled and depopulated it. Its 
hills, once terraced to the summit, and 
covered with luxuriant grain, vines, 
olives, and figs, are now bare rocks. Its 
early and latter rains, once preserved in 
reservoirs, and conducted by winding 
channels to water the ground in the sea- 
son of drought, now flow oft' unheeded 
to the sea. The land, stripped of its 
forests, lies open to the sun — which now 
i* 



scorches where it once fertilized. And 
yet some parts of Palestine still show an 
astonishing fertility ; and wherever the 
soil is cultivated, it yields a hundred- 
fold. Indian corn grows there eleven 
feet high, and grapes are still produced 
that almost rival the clusters of Eshcol. 
Intelligent travellers agree in confirming 
the statements of Scripture as to its an- 
cient fertility. See Hebrews, Judea. 

Conquest of Canaan. Various argu- 
ments have been adduced to justify the 
conquest of Canaan, and the extermina- 
tion of its inhabitants by the Israelites : 
as, that the land had been allotted to 
Shem and his sons after the flood, and 
the sons of Ham were usurpers ; that 
they first assaulted the Jews ; that Abra- 
ham had taken possession of the land 
ages before ; that the Canaanites were 
akin to the Egyptians, and implicated in 
their guilt and punishment as oppressors 
of the Hebrews. Whatever justice there 
may be in any of these reasons, they are 
not those which the Bible assigns. The 
only true warrant of the Jews was, the 
special command of the Lord of all They 
were impressively taught that the wick- 
edness of those nations was the reason of 
their punishment, Avhich the forbearance 
of God had long delayed, and which Avas 
designed as a warning to them and all 
mankind against idolatry and its kindred 
sins. It was these sins the Jews were to 
abhor and exterminate ; they were to act 
as agents of God's justice, and not for 
the gratification of their own avarice, 
anger, or lust, the spoil and the captives 
being all devoted to destruction. The 
narrative of the conquest is given in 
Num. 1-4; Joshua; and Judges I. The 
Canaanites were not wholly destroyed. 
Many of them escaped to other lands ; 
and fragments of almost all the nations 
remained in Judea, subject to the Israel- 
ites, but snares to their feet and thorns 
in their sides. It must be observed also, 
that full notice was previously given 
them to quit their forfeited possessions ; 
a solemn writ of ejectment had been 
issued by the great Proprietor, and if 
they resisted, they incurred the conse- 
quences. 

CANAANITES, the descendants of 
Canaan. Their first habitation was in 
the land of Canaan, where they multi- 
plied extremely, and by trade and war 
acquired great riches, and sent out colo- 
nies all over the islands and coasts of 
81 



CAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAN 



the Mediterranean. When the measure 
of then- idolatries and abominations was 
completed, God delivered their country 
into the hands of the Israelites, who con- 
quered it under Joshua. See the pre- 
vious article. The following are the 
principal tribes mentioned. 

1. The HiviTES dwelt in the northern 
part of the country, at the foot of mount 
Hcrmon, or Anti-Lebanon, according to 
Josh. 11:3, where it is related that they, 
along with the united forces of northern 
Canaan, were defeated by Joshua. They 
were not, however, entirely driven out 
of their possessions, Judg. 3:3; 2 Sam. 
24:7; 1 Kin. 9:20. There were also 
Ilivites in middle Palestine, Gen. 34:2; 
Josh 19 1, 7; 11.19. 

2. The Canaaxites, in a restricted 
sense, inhal)ited partly the plains on the 
west side of the Jordan, and partly the 
plains on the coast of the Mediterranean 
sea. Num. 13:29; Josh. 11:3. 

3. The GiRGAsniTES dwelt between the 
Canaanites and the Jebusites ; as may be 
inferred from the order in which they 
are mentioned in Josh. 24:11. 

4. The Jebusites had possession of the 
hill country around Jerusalem, and of 
that city itself, of which the ancient 
name was Jebus, Josh. 15 8, 03; 18:28. 
The Benjamites, to whom this region 
was allotted, did not drive out the Jeb- 
iisites, Judg. 1:21 David first captured 
the citadel of Jebus, 2 Sam. 5:6. 

5 The Amorites inhabited, in Abra- 
ham's time, the region south of Jerusa- 
lem, on the western side of the Dead 
sea. Gen. 14:7. At a later period, they 
spread themselves out over all the moun- 
tainous country Avhich forms the south- 
eastern part of Canaan, and which was 
called from them the ' ' mountain of the 
Amorites," and afterwards the "moun- 
tain of Judah," Deut 1.19, 20; Num. 
13 : 29 ; Josh. 11:3. On the east side of the 
Jordan also they had, before the time of 
Moses, founded two kingdoms, that of 
Bashan in the north, and another, bound- 
ed at first by the Jabbok, in the south. 
But under Sihon they crossed the Jabbok, 
and took from the Ammonites and Moab- 
ites all the country between the Jabbok 
and the Arnon ; so that this latter stream 
now became the southern boundary of 
the Amorites, Num. 21 : 13, 14, 26 ; 32-33, 
39 ; Deut. 4 : 46, 47 ; 31 : 4. This last tract 
the Israelites took possession of after 
their victory over Sihon. See Amorites. i 
82 



6. The HiTTiTES, or children of Heth, 
according to the report of the spies, 
Num. 1:29, dwelt among the Amorites 
in the mountainous district of the south, 
afterwards called the ' ' mountain of Ju- 
dah. ' ' In the time of Abraham they pos- 
sessed Hebron ; and the patriarch pur- 
chased from them the cave of Machpelah 
as a sepulchre. Gen. 23 ; 25-9, 10. After 
the Israelites entered Canaan, the Hit- 
tites seem to have moved farther north- 
ward. The country around Bethel is 
called "the land of the Hittites," Judg. 
1:26. See Hittites. 

7. The Perizzites were found in vari- 
ous parts of Canaan. The name signi- 
fies inhabitants of the plains, from their 
original abode. According to Gen. 13:7, 
they dwelt with the Canaanites, between 
Bethel and Ai ; and according to Gen. 
34 : 30, in the vicinity of Shechcm. See 
Perizzites. 

Besides these seven tribes, there were 
several others of the same parentage, 
dwelling north of Canaan. These were 
the Arkites, Arvadites, Hamathites, and 
Zcmarites. There were also several other 
tribes of diverse origin within the bounds 
of Canaan, destroyed by the Israelites; 
such as the Anakim, the Amalekites, and 
the Eephaim or giants. 

CAN'DACE, the name of an Ethiopian 
queen, whose high treasurer was con- 
verted to Christianity under the preach- 
ing of Philip the evangelist. Acts 8:27. 
The Ethiopia over which she ruled was 
not Abyssinia, but that region of Upper 
Nubia called by the Greeks Meroe ; and 
is supposed to correspond with the pres- 
ent province of Atbara, lying between 
thirteen and eighteen degrees north lat- 
itude. Extensive ruins found in this 
neighborhood, and along the upper val- 
ley of the Nile, indicate high civili' 
zation among the ancient Ethiopians. 
Pliny and Strabo inform us that for 
some time before and after the Christian 
era, Etliiopia Proper was under the gov- 
ernment of female sovereigns, who all 
bore the appellation of Candace. Irenie- 
us and Eusebius ascribe to Candace' s 
minister her own conversion to Christi- 
anity, and the promulgation of the gos- 
pel through her kingdom. 

CAN'DLESTICK. In the tabernacle, 
the golden candlestick stood on the left 
hand of one entering the Holy Place, 
opposite the table of show-bread. It 
consisted of a pedestal ; an upright shaft ; 



CAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAP 




SPOILS OF JERUSALEM, FROM THE ARCH OF TITUS AT ROME. 



six arms, three on one side, and three on 
the opposite side of the shaft ; and seven 
lamps surmounting the shaft and arms. 
The arms were adorned with three kinds 
of carved ornaments, called cups, globes, 
and blossoms. Its lamps were supplied 
with pure olive oil, and li2:hted every 
evening, Ex. 25:31-40; 30:7, 8; 37:1 7- 
2-4 ; Lev. 24 : 1-3 ; 1 Sam. 3 : 3 ; 2 Chr. 
13:11. In the first temple there were 
ten candelabra of pure gold, half of them 
standing on the north, and half on the 
south side, within the Holy Place, 1 Kin. 
7:49, 50; 2 Chr. 4:7; Jer. 52:19. In 
the second temple there was but one, 
resembling that of the tabernacle. This 
Avas carried to Rome, on the destruction 
of Jerusalem ; it was lodged in Vespa- 
sian's temple to Peace, and copied on the 
triumphal arch of Titus, where its mu- 
tilated image is yet to be seen. See the 
beautiful and significant visions of the 
candlestick by Zechariah and John, Zech. 
4:2-12; Eev. 1:12, 20. 

CANE, or Cal'amus, swekt. Song 4:14, 
an aromatic reed mentioned among the 
drugs of which the sacred perfumes were 
compounded, Ex. 30:23. The true odo- 
riferous calamus or grass came from In- 
dia ; and the prophets speak of it as a 
foreign commodity of great value, Isa. 
43:24; Jer. 6:20; Ezek. 27:19. 

CAN'KER-WORM, in our English Bi- 
ble, is put where the Hebrew means a 
speciesof locust, Joel 1:4 ; Nah. 3:15, 16. 

CAN'ON. The Greek word denotes, 
primarily, a straight rod ; hence a rule or 
standard, by a reference to which the rec- 
titude of opinions or actions may be de- 
cided. In the latter sense it is used in 
Gal. 6 : 16 ; Phil. 3 • 16. In the same 
sense it was used by the Greek -tathers. 



As the standard to which they sought to 
appeal on all questions was the will of 
God contained in the Scriptures of the 
Old and New Testaments, they came 
naturally to apply this term to the col- 
lective body of those writings, and to 
speak of them as the canon or rule. Canon 
is also equivalent to a list or catalogue, 
in which are inserted those books which 
contain the inspired rule of faith. 

In order to establish the canon of 
Scripture, it must be shown that all the 
books are of divine authority ; that they 
are entire and incorrupt ; that it is com- 
plete without addition from any foreign 
source ; and that the whole of the books 
for which divine authority can be proved 
are included. See Bible. 

CAPER'NAUM, a chief city of Galilee 
in the time of Christ, not mentioned be- 
fore the captivity in Babylon. It lay on 
the north-west shore of the sea of Gali- 
lee, about five miles from the Jordan, 
and on the frequented route from Da- 
mascus to the Mediterranean. This 
seems to have been the residence of 
Christ, during the three years of his 
ministry, more than any other place. 
The brothers Andrew and Peter dwelt 
there ; Christ often taught in the syna- 
gogue, and wrought mighty works there, 
Matt. 17:23 ; Mark 1:21-35; John 6: 17, 
59; and it is called "his own city," 
Matt. 4:12-16 ; 9:1 ; Mark 2:1. Its in- 
habitants were thus ' ' exalted unto heav- 
en ;" but their unbelief and impenitence 
cast them down to destruction. Matt. 
11 : 20-24. The very name and site of 
Capernaum have been lost. Dr. Robin- 
son, however, finds them at Khan Min- 
yeh, on the northern border of the fine 
plain of Gennesareth, where ruins of 
83 



CAP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAP 



some extent still remain, and a copious 
fountain not far from the sea. 

CAPII'TORIM, descendants of Mizra- 
im, and kindred to the Casluhim, near 
whom they were probably located on the 
north-east coast of Africa. These last 
two people are both named as ancestors 
of the Philistines, Gen. 10 : 14 ; Dcut. 
2:23 ; Amos 9:7 ; and it is probable that 
a colony made up from both drove out 
the Avim from the country on the south- 
east coast of the Mediterranean, and oc- 
cupied it under the name of Philistines, 
which it is generally agreed means stran- 
gers. But whether they came from Cy- 
prus, Crete, or Cappadocia, is not agreed. 

CAPPADOCIA, the largest ancient 
province of Asia Minor ; having Pontus 
on the north, mount Taurus, separating 
it from Cilicia and Syria, on the south, 
Galatia on the west, and the Euphrates 
and Armenia on the east. It was wa- 
tered by the river Halys, and was noted 
for its fine pastures and its excellent 
breed of horses, asses, and sheep. There 
were many Jews residing in it, Acts 2:9. 
Christianity was early introduced there, 

1 Pet 1:1, among a people px-overbial 
for dulness, faithlessness, and vice. See 
Crete. Several celebrated Christian fa- 
thers flourished in this province, as Ba- 
sil and the three Gregories ; and their 
churches may be traced as late as the 
tenth century. 

CAP'TIVES, taken in war, seem an- 
ciently to have been looked upon as just- 
ly liable to death, and hence to any treat- 
ment less dreadful than death. Their 
necks were trodden upon. Josh. 10:24, 
in token of abject subjection, which il- 
lustrates Psa. 110:1. They were sold 
into servitude, like Joseph. They were 
mutilated, like Samson, or Adonizedek. 
They were stripped of all clothing, and 
driven in crowds to adorn the victor's 
triumph. Large numbers of them were 
selected, often by a measuring line, 2 Sam. 
8:2, and slain, 2 Chr. 25:12. This was 
sometimes done with designed cruelty, 

2 Sam. 12 : 31 ; 1 Chr. 20 : 3. The Bo- 
mans in some cases bound a living cap- 
tive to a dead body, and left them to 
perish together ; a practice which may 
be applied to illustrate the apostle's cry, 
' ' O Avretched man that I am ! who shall 
deliver me from the body of this death ?" 
Kom. 7:24. 

^ CAPTIVITY. God often punished the 
sins of the Jews by captivities or servi- 
84 



tudes, according to his threatenings, 
Deut. 28. Their first captivity, howev- 
er, from which Moses delivered them, 
should be considered rather as a permis- 
sion ot Providence, than as a punishment 
for sin. There were six subjugations of 
the twelve tribes during the period of 
the judges. But the most remarkable 
captivities, or rather expatriations of 
the Hebrews, were those of Israel and 
Judah under the regal government. Is- 
I rael was first carried away in part about 
I B. c. 740, by Tiglath - pileser, 2 Kin. 
] 15:29. The tribes east of the Jordan, 
with parts of Zebulun and Naphtali, Isa. 
9:1, were the first sufferers. Twenty 
years later, Shalmanezer carried away 
the remainder, 2 Kin. 17:6, and located 
them in distant cities, many of them 
probably not far from the Caspian sea; 
and their place was supplied by colonics 
from Babylon and Persia, 2 Kin. 17:6- 
24. Aside from certain prophecies, Isa. 
11 : 12, 13 ; Jer 31 : 7-9, 16-20 ; 49 : 2 ; 
Ezek. 37 : 1 6 ; PIos. 11:11; Amos 9:14; 
Obad. 18, 19, etc., which are variously 
interpreted to mean a past or a futaire 
return, a physical or a spiritual restora- 
tion, there is no evidence that the ten 
tribes as a body ever returned to Pales- 
tine. 

To Judah are generally reckoned three 
captivities : 1. Under Jehoiakim, in his 
third year, b. c. G06, when Daniel and 
others were carried to Babylon, 2 Kin. 
24:1, 2; Dan. 1:L 2. In the last year 
of Jehoiakim, when Nebuchadnezzar car- 
ried 3,023 Jews to Babylon ; or rather, 
under Jehoiachin, when this prince also 
was sent to Babylon, that is, in the sev- 
enth and eighth yeai's of Nebuchadnez- 
zar, B. c. 598, 2 Kin. 24 : 2, 12 ; 2 Chr. 
36 : 8, 10 ; Jer. 52 : 28. 3. Under Zede- 
kiah, B. c. 588, when Jerusalem and the 
temple were destroyed, and most that 
was valuable among the people and their 
treasures was carried to Babylon, 2 Kin. 
25 ; 2 Chr. 36. The seventy years dur- 
ing which they were to remain in cap- 
tivity, Jer. 25:11; 29:10, are reckoned 
probably from the date of the first cap- 
tivity, B. c. 606. While at Babylon the 
Jews had judges and elders who gov- 
erned them, and decided matters in dis- 
pute juridically according to their laws. 
The book of Daniel shows us a Jew in a 
high position at court, and the book of 
Esther celebrates their numbers and 
power in the Persian empire. The 



CAP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAR 



prophets labored, not in vain, to keep 
alive the flame of true religion. 

At length the seventy years were ful- 
lilled, and Cyrus, in the lirst year of his 
reign at Babylon, c. c. 536, made a proc- 
lamation throughout his empire permit- 
ting the people of God to return to their 
own country, and rebuild the temple, 
Ezra 1:11. Nearly 50,000 accepted the 
invitation, Ezra 2:2; Neh. 7:7 This 
company laid the foundation of the sec- 
ond temple, which was completed in the 
sixth year of Darius, b. c. 516. Fifty- 
eight years after, Ezra led a small com- 
pany of 7,000 from Babylon to Judea. 
He was succeeded as governor by Nehe- 
miah, who labored faithfully and suc- 
cessfully to reform the people, and many 
of the good fruits of his labors remained 
until the time of Christ. 

Probably none among the posterity of 
Jacob can now prove from which of his 
twelve sons they are descended. Both 
Judah and Israel being removed from 
"the lot of their inheritance" in Ca- 
naan, and dispersed among strangers, 
the various tiibes would naturally amal- 
gamate with each other, the envy of Ju- 
dah and Ephraim Avould depart, and the 
memory of Abraham, Moses, and David 
Avould revive, Ezra 6 : 16, 17 ; 8 : 35 ; 
Ezek. 37:26-28. 

The last captivity of the Jews, a. d. 
71, after they had hlled up the measure 
of their iniquity by rejecting Christ and 
the gospel, was a terrible one. Accord- 
ing to Joscphus, 1 , 100, 000 perished at the 




siege of Jerusalem by Titus, and nearly 
100,000 captives were scattered among 
the provinces to perish in gladiatorial 
shows, doomed to toil as public slaves, 
or sold into private bondage. The cut 
represents the medal of the emperor Ves- 



pasian, A. D. 71, in memory of the cap- 
ture of Jerusalem. Under the emperor 
Hadrian, a. d. 133, a similar crushing 
blow fell on the Jews who had again as- 
sembled in Judea ; and at this day they 
are scattered all over the world, yet dis- 
tinct from the people among whom they 
dwell, suffering under the woe which un- 
belief has brought upon their fathers and 
themselves, and awaiting the time when 
Christ ' ' shall turn away ungodliness 
from Jacob," Rom. 11 : 25, 26. 

CAK'BUNCLE, a precious stone, like 
a large ruby or garnet, of a dark, deep 
red color, said to glitter even in the 
dark, and to sparkle more than the 
ruby. The word is put to represent two 
different Hebrew words, one of which, 
Ex. 28 : 17 ; Ezek. 28 : 13, is commonly 
thought to mean the emerald ; and the 
other, Isa. 54:12, may mean a brilliant 
species of ruby. 

CAR'CHEMISH, probably the same 
with Circesium or Circusium, a fortitied 
city on the west side of the Euphrates, 
Avhere the river Chaboras enters it. In 
Isa. 10:9, it appears as taken by some king 
of Assyria. It was attacked by Pharaoh- 
necho king of Egypt, near the close of 
king Josiah's reign, 2 Chr. 35:20. Five 
years afterwards Necho was signally de- 
feated by Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 46:1-12. 
In later times it was held as a frontier 
post of the Roman empire on the east. 

CAR'MEL, a frmfful field, I., a city of 
Judah, on a mountain of tlie same name, 
eight miles south by east of Hebron, 
Josh. 15:55. On this mountain Saul, 
returning from his expedition against 
Amalek, erected a trophy ; and here 
Nabal tlie Carmelite, Abigail's husband, 
dwelt, 1 Sam. 15: 12, 25. Its ruins indi- 
cate that it was a large place. 

II. A celebrated range of hills run- 
ning north-Avest from the plain of Es- 
dnelon, and ending in the promontory 
which forms the bay of Acre. Its great- 
est height is about 1,500 feet; at its 
north-eastern foot runs the brook Ki- 
shon, and a little farther north, the river 
Belus. On its northern point stands a 
convent of the Carmelite friars, an order 
established in the twelfth century, and 
having at the present day various branch- 
es in Europe. Mount Carmel is the only 
great promontory upon the coast of Pal- 
estine. The foot of the northern part 
approaches the water, so that, seen from 
the hills north-east of Acre, mount Car- 
85 



CAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CAS 




MT, CARMEL AND HAIFA, FROM THE N. E. 

mel appears as if " clipping his feet in 
the western sea;" farther south it re- 
tires more inland, so that between the 
mountain and the sea there is an exten- 
sive plain covered Avith fields and olive- 
trees. Mariti describes it as a delightful 
region, and says the good quality of its 
soil is apparent from the fact that so 
many odoriferous plants and flowers, as 
hyacinths, jonquilles, tazettos, anemo- 
nes, etc., grow wild upon the mountain. 
Von Richter says, " Mount Carmel is en- 
tirely covered Avith green ; on its sum- 
mit are pines and oaks, and farther doAvn 
olive and laurel trees. It giA^es rise to 
a multitude of crystal brooks, the largest 
of Avhich issues from the so-called ' foun- 
tain of Elijah ;' and they all hurry 
along, betAveen banks thickly overgroAvn 
Avith bushes, to the Kishon. Every spe- 
cies of tillage succeeds admirably under 
this mild and cheerful sky. The pros- 
pect from the summit of the mountain ! 
out over the gulf of Acre and its fertile 
shores, to the blue heights of Lebanon 
and to the White cape, is enchanting." 
Mr. Carne also ascended the mountain, 
and traversed the Avhole summit, Avhich 
occupied several hours. He says, "It is 
the finest and most beautiful mountain 
in Palestine, of great length, and in 
many parts covered Avith trees and floAv- 
ers. On reaching, at last, the opposite 
summit, and coming oxit of a Avood, Ave 
saAv the celebrated plain of Esdra^lon 
beneath, Avith the river Kishon floAving 
through it; mounts Tabor and Little 
Hermon Avere in front, (east) ; and on the 
right, (south,) the prospect Avas bound- 
86 



ed by the hills of Samaria." From the 
south-east side of this ridge, a range of 
loAv Avooded hills on the south spreads 
and rises into the high lands of Samaria. 
Those who visit mount Carmel in the 
last part of the dry season, find every 
thing parched and broAvn ; yet enough 
remains to shoAV how just were the allu- 
sions of ancient writers to its exceeding 
beauty, Isa. 35 : 2, its A-erdure of drapery 
and grace of outline, Song 7:5, and its 
rich pastures, Isa. 33 : 9 ; Jer. 50 ; 19 ; Amos 
1:2. The rock of the mountain is a hard 
limestone, abounding in natural caves, 
Amos 9:3. These have in many cases 
been enlarged, and otherAvise fitted for 
human habitation ; and the mountain 
has been in A'arious ages a favorite resi- 
dence for dcA^otees. It is memorable for 
frequent visits of the prophets Elijah and 
Elisha, 2 Kin. 2:25 ; 4-25, and especially 
for the destruction of the priests of Baal 
upon it, I Kin. 18. 

CAR'PUS, a disciple and friend cf Paul, 
Avho lived at Troas, 2 Tim. 4:13. 

CAR'EIAGE, in the Bible, usually 
means the baggage Avhich formed the 
burden of a man or beast. Acts 21:15. 
Once it seems to indicate a circular 
trench or rampart of baggage, etc., 
around a camp, 1 Sam. 17:20. 




CARTS or wagons Avere used in Pales- 
tine formerly, though noAv almost un- 
known. The roads are generally impas- 
sable by any Avheeled vehicle ; and the 
chief use of the cart Avas on a limited scale 
for agricultural purposes, such as forcing 
the ripe grain out of the ear, bruising 
the straAv, removing the produce of the 
fields, etc., Isa. 5:18; 28:27, 28. Wag- 
ons were used to carry Israel into Egypt, 
and for the conveyance of the ark. Gen. 
45:27; Num. 7:3-9 They were^ often 
draAvn by heifers, etc., 1 Sam. 6:7, and 
Avere usually Ioav, and on solid Avooden 
wheels, sometimes iron-shod. 

CASIPHIA, the home of many of the 
exiled Jews, Avas probably in the vicinity 
of the Caspian sea, Ezra 8:17. 



CAS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



CED 



CAS'LUHIM, descendants of Mizraim 
See Capiitorim. 

CAS'SIA, the bark of an odoriferous 
tree, from which came one ingredient of 
the holy oil or ointment, Ex. 30 : 24 ; 
Psa. 45:8; Ezek 27.19. 

CAS'TOR and POL'LUX, twin sons of 
Jupiter, and guardians of seamen, ac- 
cording to heathen mythology. Ships 
often bore their images on the prow, and 
were distinguished by their names, Acts 
28:11. 

CAT'ERPILLAR, some locust-like in- 
sect, now undistinguishable, Deut. 28:38; 
1 Kin. 8.37; Psa. 78:46; 105:34; Isa. 
33:4. See Locust. 

CATH'OLIC. This term is Greek, sig- 
nifying universal or general The church 
of Christ is called catholic, because it ex- 
tends throughout the world, and during 
all time. In modern times the church 
of Rome has usurped this title, improp- 
erly applying it exclusively to itself. 

The "Catholic epistles" are seven, so 



called because they were addressed to the 
church or Christians in general, and not 
to any particular church. They are, one 
epistle of James, two of Peter, three of 
John, and one of Jude. 

CAVE. The geological structure of 
Judea is highly favorable to the forma- 
tion of caves ; and the whole region 
abounds with subterranean caverns of 
various dimensions, often giving rise to 
small rivulets. These were used as 
dwellings, places of refuge, and tombs. 
It was in a cave that Lot resided after the 
destructionof Sodom, Gen. 19:30 Petra, 
in Idumea, was a city of caves, Num 
24:21 ; Song 2:14 ; Jer 49:16 ; Obad. 3- 
In the vicinity of Hebron, the poor still 
live in caves while pasturing their flocks. 
Natural cavities were sometimes enlarg- 
ed, and artificial ones made for refuge and 
defence, Judg. 6:2; 1 Sam, 13:6; Isa. 
2:19 ; Jer. 41:9. The caves of Machpe- 
lah, of Adullam, of Engedi, of Carmel, 
and of Arbela, still exist. See Sepulchre. 




CE'DAR, a noble evergreen-tree great- 
ly celebrated in the Scriptures, Psa. 92:12; 
Ezek. 31:3-6. These trees are remark- 
ably thick and tall ; some among them 
are from thirty-five to forty feet in girth, 
and ninety feet in height. The cedar- 
tree shoot.j out branches at ten or twelve 



feet from the ground, large and almost 
horizontal ; its leaves are an inch long, 
slender and straight, growing in tufts. 
The tree bears a small cone, like that of 
the pine. This celebrated tree is not 
peculiar to mount Lebanon, but grows 
also upon mounts Amanus and Taurus 
87 



CED 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CEN 



in Asia Minor, and in other parts of the 
Levant, but does not elsewhere reach 
the size and height of those on Leb- 
anon It lias also been cultivated in 
the gardens of Europe ; two venerable 
individuals of this species exist at Chis- 
wick in England ; and there is a very 
beautiful one in the Jardin des Plantes 
in Paris. The beauty of the cedar con- 
sists in the proportion and symmetry of 
its wide-spreading branches and cone- 
like top. The gum, which exudes both 
from the trunk and the cones or fruit, is 
soft like balsam ; its fragrance is like 
that of the balsam of Mecca, Every 
thing about this tree has a strong bal- 
samic odor ; and hence the whole grove 
is so pleasant and fragrant, that it is de- 
lightful to Avalk in it, Song 4:11 ; Hos. 
14:6. The wood is peculiarly adapted to 
building, because it is not subject to de- 
cay, nor to be eaten of worms ; hence it 
was much used for rafters, and for boards 
with which to cover houses and form the 
floors and ceilings of rooms. It was of a 
red color, beautiful, solid, and free from 
knots. The palace of Persepolis, the 
temple at Jerusalem, and Solomon's pal- 
ace, were all in this way built Avitli ce- 
dar ; and ' ' the house of the forest of 
Lebanon," Avas perhaps so called from 
the quantity of this wood used in its 
construction, 1 Kin. 7:2; 10:17 

Of the forests of cedars which once 
covered Lebanon, comparatively few are 
now left, Isa. 2: 13 ; 10: 10 ; though there 
are still many scattered trees in various 
parts, resembling the genuine cedar. 
The largest and most ancient trees, gen- 
erally thought to be the only ones, 
are found in a grove, lying a little off 
from the road which crosses mount Leb- 
anon from Baalbek to Tripoli, at some 
distance below the summit of tlie moun- 
tain on the western side, at the foot in- 
deed of the highest summit or lidge of 
Lebanon. This grove consists of a few 
very old trees, perhaps as old as the 
time of Christ, intermingled with 400 or 
500 younger ones. See Lebanon. 

Besides the true cedar of Lebanon, the 
word cedar in the Bible appears to mean 
sometimes the juniper and sometimes 
the pine. 

CE'DRON, see Kidrox. 

CEILING. The ancients took great 
pains to ornament the ceilings of their 
best apartments; making them some- 
times of a sort of wainscoting, in squares 
88 



or complicated figures; and sometimes 
of a fine plaster with beautiful mould- 
ings, tinted and relieved by gilding, 
small mirrors, etc., 1 Kin. 6:15; 2 Chr. 
3:5; Jer. 22:14. 

CEN'CHBEA, a port of Corinth, now 
called Kikries, whence Paul sailed for 
Ephesus, Acts 18.18. It was a place 
of some commercial note, and the seat 
of an early church, Rom. 10:1. It was 
situated on the eastern side of the isth- 
mus, eight or nine miles east of the city. 
The other port, on the western side of 
the isthmus, was Lecha;um. 

CEN'SER, a vessel in which fire and 
incense were carried, in certain parts of 
the Hebrew worship. Little is known of 
its form. The censer for the daily offering 
was at first made of copper. Num. 16:39. 
That used on the great day of atonement, 
(and perhaps others also,) was made of 
pure gold, 1 Kin. 7:50; Heb. 9:4. In 
the daily offering, the censer was filled 
with coals from the perpetual fire, and 
placed on the altar of incense, where the 
incense was thrown upon the coals, Ex. 
80:1, 7-10 On the day of atonement, in 
the Holy of Holies, the censer must have 
been held in the hand, and probably by 
a handle, Lev. 16:12, 13. 

There are two Hebrew words, which 




are translated censer in our English Bi- 
bles. The one signi- 
fies strictly tire-pan. 
The other signifies in- 
cense-pan, a vessel for 
burning incense ; but 
we do not know its 
exact shape. 

The censers of the 
Egyptians had long 
handles, like a human 
arm and hand, upon 
the palm of which 
the incense-cup stood. 
Those of the Greeks and Romans had 
chains, by which they were carried, like 
those now used in the Romish service. 




CEN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CHA 



In the New Testament, where the 
twenty -four elders are said to have gold- 
en "vials" full of odors, Kcv. 5:8, the 
meaning is vessels of incense, censers, 
not vials in the present sense of the 
Avord. 

CEXTU'RION, a Roman officer com- 
manding a hundred soldiers ; similar to 
"captain" in modern times. Several 
centurions are mentioned with honor in 
the New Testament, Mark lo:o9 ; Luke 
7:1-10; and the tirst-fruits to Christ 
from the Gentiles was the generous and 
dev^out Cornelius. Acts 10. 

CE'PHAS, a rock, a Syriac or later He- 
brew name given to Peter by Christ, 
John 1:42. The Greek Fdros and the 
Latin Petrus have the same meaning. 
See Peter. 

CESAR, see Cesar. 

CHALCED'ONY, a precious stone, 
resembling the agate ; of various colors, 
but often a light brown or blue, Rev 
21 : 19. It is found in most parts of the 
world, though named after Chalcedon, 
in Bithynia opposite Constantinople ; 
and is much used as a material for cups, 
vases, and other articles of taste. Car- 
nelian is said to be one of its varieties. 

CHALDE'A, a country in Asia, tlie 
capital of which, in its widest extent, 
was Babylon. It was originally of small 
extent ; but the empire being afterwards 
very much enlarged, the name is gener- 
ally taken in a more extensive sense, 
and includes Babylonia, which see. 

CHALDEANS. This name is taken, 
1. for the people of Chaldea, and the 
subjects of that empire generally ; 2. for 
philosophers, naturalists, or soothsayers, 
whose principal emplo}'ment was the 
study of mathematics and astrology, by 
which they pretended to foretell the 
destiny of men born under certain con- 
stellations. 

The Chaldeans were originally a war- 
like people, who at first inhabited the 
Carduchian or Koordish mountains north 
of Assyria and Mesopotamia, Jer. 50:17. 
As the Assyrian monarchs extended their 
conquests towards the north and west, 
the Chaldeans also came under their do- 
minion ; and this rough and energetic 
people appear to have assumed, under 
the sway of their conquerors, a new 
character, and to have been transformed 
from a rude horde into a civilized peo- 
ple. A very vivid and graphic descrip- 
tion of the Chaldean Ararriors is given 



; by the prophet Habakkuk, who probably 
lived about the time when they first 
] made incursions into Palestine or the 
' adjacent regions, Hab. 1:0-11. Of the 
. date of their location in Babylonia noth- 
i ing is now known. In the reign of king 
j Hezekiah, b. c 713, a king of Babylon 
I is mentioned, the lirst of whom we lead 
; after Nimrod and Ainraphel. About one 
! hundred years later we hnd the Chalde- 
! ans in possession of the kingdom of Baby- 
j Ion. The first sovereign in the new line 
■ appearing in history was Nabopolassar. 
i His son Nebuchadnezzar invaded Pales- 
[ tine, as foretold by Jeremiah and Habak- 
kuk, Ezra 5.12: Jer. 30:5 He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Evil-merodach, 2 Kin. 
i 25:27 ; Jer. 52:31. After him came, in 
j quick succession, Neriglissar, Laljoroso- 
j archod, and Nabonuidus or Belshazzar, 
I under whom this empire was absorbed 
; in the Medo-Persian. The Chaldeo-baby- 
lonian dynasty continued probably not 
more than one hundred years. 
I CHAL'DEE Language, see Language. 
I CHAM'BERLAIN, 2 Kin. 23:11, an 
: officer who had charge of a king's lodg- 
ings and wardrobe. In eastern courts 
eunuchs were generally emploved in this 
oftice, Esth. LIO, 12, 15. This title in 
Rom. 16:23 probably denotes the stew- 
ard or treasurer of the city. 



^a3 




CHAME'LEON, Lev. 11:80, a kind of 
lizard. Its body is about six inches 
long : its feet have five toes each, arrang- 
ed like two thumbs opposite to three 
fingei-s ; its eyes turn backwards or for- 
wards independentlv of each other. It 
89 



CHA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CHE 



feeds upon flies, which it catches by dart- 
ing out its long, viscous tongue. It has 
the faculty of inflating itself at pleasure 
■with air ; and of changing its color, from 
its ordinary gray to green, purple, and 
even black when enraged. 

CHAM'OIS, not the well-known moun- 
tain goat of southern Europe, but proba- 
bly a variety of wild sheep, resembling a 
goat, and still found in Arabia Petra^a, 
Deut. 14:5. 

CHAPMEN, merchants, 2 Chr. 9:14. 

CHAPTER, see Bible. 

CHAR'GER, a large, shallow dish. 
Num. 7:13; Matt. 14:8. 




^."^^ 



CHAR'IOTS. Scripture speaks of two 
sorts of these : one for princes and gener- 
als to ride in. Gen. 41:43 ; the other to 
break the enemy's battalions, by rush- 
ing in among them, being ' ' chariots of 
iron," that is, armed with iron scythes 
or hooks, projecting from the ends of the 
axletrees. These made terrible havoc. 
The Canaanites, whom Joshua engaged 
at the waters of Merom, had horsemen, 
and a multitude of chariots, Josh. 11:4 ; 
Judg. 1:19. Sisera, general of Jabin 
king of Hazor, had nine hundred char- 
iots of iron, Judg. 4:3. See Litter. 

CHARM'ERS, Psa. 58 : 4, 5 ; Eccl. 
10:11; Jer. 8:17, persons very common 
throughout India and Egypt, who claim 
to have the faculty of catching, taming, 
and controlling serpents, even the most 
venomous. 

CHE'BAR, a river which rises in the 
northern part of Mesopotamia, and flows 
first south-east, then south and south- 
west, into the Euphrates. It was called 
Chaboras by the Greeks ; now Khabour. 
On its fertile banks Nebuchadnezzar lo- 
cated a part of the captive Jews, and 
90 



here the sublime visions of Ezekiel took 
place, Ezek. 1:8; 3:15; 10:15; 43:3. 

CHEDORLAOMER, king of Elam, in 
Persia, in the time of Abraham. He 
made the cities in the region of the Dead 
sea his tributaries ; and on their rebel- 
ling, he came with four allied kings and 
overran the whole country south and east 
of the Jordan. Lot was among his cap- 
tives, but was rescued by Abraham ; who 
promptly raised a force from his own 
dependents and his neighbors, pursued 
the enemy, and surprised and defeated 
them, Gen. 14:1-24. Compare Psa. 110. 
CHEESE, several times alluded to in 
Scripture, and still an important article 
of food in the East, 1 Sam. 17 : 18 ; 2 Sam. 
17:29. It is usually white and very sal t ; 
soft, when new, but soon becoming hard 
and dry. The cheese was like a small 
saucer in size. Job 10:10. 

CHEMARIM, occurring once only in 
the English version, Zeph. 1:4, but fre- 
quently in the Hebrew, translated 
"idolatrous priests," 2 Kin. 23:5; Hos. 
10:5. The word is supposed to be de- 
rived from a root signifying to burji, 
^ and may perhaps denote fire-priests, 
- worshippers of the sun. 

CHE'MOSH, the national god of the 
Moabites, and of the Ammonites, Avor- 
shipped also under Solomon at Jerusa- 
lem, Num. 21:29; Judg. 11:24; I Kin. 
11:7; 2 Kin. 23:13; Jer. 48:7. Some 
erroneousl}' identify Chemosh with Am- 
mon. 

CHER'ETHITES, or Cher'ethim, L, a 
portion of the Philistines, supposed by 
manv to have originated in Crete, I Sam. 
30:14; Ezek. 25ri6; Zeph. 2:5. 

II. A portion of David's body-guard, 
alwavs mentioned with the Pelethites, 
2Sam. 8:18; 15:18; 20:7 ; 1 Chr. 18:17. 
Some suppose that they were foreigners, 
whom David took into his service while 
among the Philistines. The Gittites 
mentioned with them in 2 Sam. 15:18, 
were plainly such. Others think they 
had their name from their office — execu- 
tioners and runners. See Pelethites. 

CHE'RITH, a small brook flowing into 
the Jordan, to which Elijah once with- 
drew, and where ravens brought him 
supplies of bread and flesh, 1 Kin. 17 : 3-5. 
Robinson suggests that it may be the 
present Wady Kelt, which drains the 
hills west of Jericho, and flows near that 
town on its way to the Jordan. This 
brook ia diy in summer. 



CHE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CHI 



CHEPt'UB, plural Ciier'ubim, an order 
of celestial beings or symbolical repre- 
sentations often referred to in the Old 
Testament and in the book of Revela- 
tion. The cherubim are variously rep- 
resented as living creatures, Ezek. 1 ; 
Rev. 4 ; or as images wrought in tapes- 
try, gold, or wood, Ex. 36 : 35 ; 37 : 7 ; 
Ezek. 41:25; as having one, two, or four 
faces, Ex. 25:20; Ezek. 10:14; 41:18; 
as having two, four, or six wings. 1 Kin. 
6:27; Ezek. 1:6; Rev. 4:8; in the sim- 
plest form, as in the golden figures above 
the ark of the covenant ; or in the most 
complex and sublime form, as in Ezekicl's 
wonderful visions of the glory of God — 
discerning and ruling all things, and exe- 
cuting irresistibly and with the speed of 
thought all his wise and just decrees, 
Ezek. 1 and 10. The fullest of these 
descriptions represents the cherub as a 
winged figure, like a man in form, full 
of eyes, and with a fourfold head — of a 
man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle — with 
wheels turning every way, and speed 
like the lightning ; presenting the high- 
est earthly forms and powers of creation 
in harmonious and jiei-fect union, Ezek. 
1 ; 10 ; 41 ; Rev. 4. Usually also the 
cherubim stand in a special nearness to 
God; they are engaged in the loftiest 
adoration and service, moving in instant 
accordance Avith his will, Rsa. 18:10; 
Ezek. 1:26; 10:20; Rev. 4; they are 
seen in the temple inseparably associ- 
ated with the mercy-seat — made of the 
same mats of pure gold, Ex. 25:19, bend- 
ing reverently over the place of God's 
presence, Psa. 99:1, where he met his 
people, Num. 7:89, accepted the blood 
of atonement, Lev. 16:14-16, and shone 
forth as their Saviour, Psa. 80:1. 

CHEST'NUT-TREE, Gen. 30:37, called 
by the Septuagint and Vulgate the plane- 
tree, Avith which most modern expositors 
agree. The plane-tree has a tall and 
stately trunk, with smooth bark, and 
branches spreading in every direction, 
covered with a profusion of glossy green 
leaves. It is nowhere more abundant 
and noble than in the plains of Assyria, 
Ezek. 31:8. 

CHESULLOTH, or Chisloth-tabor, a 
town on the border of Zebulun and Issa- 
char, about four miles Avcst of mount 
Tabor ; the village called Iksal now 
marks its site, together Avith numerous 
excavated tombs, Josh. 19:12, 18, 22; 
IChr. 6:62. 



j CHILDREN. A numerous offspring 
j was regarded as a signal blessing, Psa. 
j 127:3-5, and childless Avives sought va- 
rious means to escape the reproach of 
barrenness, which Avas deprecated in the 
I blessing given to a newly married coup- 
j le, Ruth 4:11. The pangs of childbirth, 
in their suddenness and sharpness, are 
! often alluded to in Scripture. The apos- 
' tie Paul speaks of them as fruits and evi- 
dences of the fall ; but assures those Avho 
abide in faith, that, amid all the suffer- 
ing that reminds them that Avoman Avas 
first in the transgression. Gen. 3: 16, they 
may yet look trustfully to God for ac' 
ceptance and salvation, 1 Tim. 2:15. 

A new-born child Avas AA^ashed, rubbed 
Avith salt, and Avrapped in SAvaddling 
clothes, Ezek. 16:4; Luke 2:7-11. On 
the eighth day he Avas circumcised and 
named. At his Aveaning a feast Avas 
often made. Gen. 21:8. The nurse of a 
female child often attended her through 
life, Gen. 24:59; 35:8. Children Avere 
to be instructed Avith great diligence and 
care, Deut. 6:20-23. TheyAvere requir- 
ed to honor and obey their parents, and 
Avere subject to the father's control in all 
things, Gen. 22:21; Num. 30:5; they 
AA^ere even liable to be sold into tempo- 
rary bondage for his debts. Lev. 25:39- 
41; 2 Kin. 4:1; Matt. 18:25. 

The first-born son received, besides 
other privileges, (see Birthright,) two 
portions of his father's estate ; the other 
sons, one portion each. The sons of 
concubines received presents, and some- 
times an equal portion Avith the others. 
Gen. 21:8-21; 25:1-6; 49:1-27; Judg. 
11 : 1-7. The daughters received no 
portion, except in cases provided for in 
Num. 27:1-11. 

The term child or children, by a He- 
brew idiom, is used to express a great 
variety of relations : the good are called 
children of God, of light, of the king- 
dom, etc. ; the bad are named children 
of the devil, of Avratli, of disobedience, 
etc. A strong man is called a son of 
strength ; an impious man, a son of Be- 
lial ; an arroAv, the son of a boAv, and a 
brancli the son of a tree. The posterity 
of a man are his "sons," for many gen- 
erations. 

CHIM'HAM, probably a son of Barzil- 
lai, 2 Sam. 19:37 ; 1 Kin. 2:7. He may 
have received from David the place near 
Bethlehem called Chimham, Jer. 41:17. 

CHIN'NERETH, or Cinneroth, a town 
91 



CHI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CHR 



on the west shore of the sea of Galilee, 
Num. 34:11; Deut. 3:17; Josh. 11:2; 
19:35; 1 Kin. 15:20. It was a "fenced 
city" of Naphtali, and gave its name to 
the lake on which it stood. Tiberias is 
supposed by Jerome to have afterwards 
occupied its site. 

CHl'OS, an island in the Archipelago, 
between Lesbos and Samos, on the coast 
of Asia Minor, now called Scio. It is 
thirty miles long and ten wide. Paul 
passed this way as he sailed southward 
from Mitylene to Samos, Acts 20:15. 

CHIS'LEU, the ninth month of the 
Hebrews, beginning with the new moon 
of December, Neh. 1:1; Zech. 7:1. 

CHIT'TIM, or Kittim, descendants of 
Javan, son of Japheth ; and the land set- 
tled by them, Gen. 10:4. Chittim seems 
to denote primarily the island Cyprus, 
and also to be employed, in a wider sense, 
to designate other islands and countries 
adjacent to the Mediterranean, as for 
instance, Macedonia, Dan. 11:30, and 
Piome, Num. 24:24. 

CHI'UN, the name of an idol worship- 
ped by the Israelites in the desert, Amos 
5:26 ; Acts 7:43. It was most probably 
the planet Saturn, worshipped by eastern 
nations as an CA'il spirit to be propitiated 
by sacrifices. See Eemphan. 

CIIORAZIN, a town in Galilee, near 
to Capernauin and Bethsaida, on the 
north-west shore of the sea of Galilee. 
Jerome says it was two miles from Ca- 
pernaum. No traces of its name re- 
main ; but Ptobinsou with strong proba- 
bility locates it at the modern Tcll-hum, 
on the northern shore of the sea of Gal- 
ilee, three miles north-east of Caperna- 
um. It was upbraided by Christ for its 
impenitence. Matt. 11:21; Luke 10:13. 

CHRIST, anointed, a Greek Avord, an- 
swering to the Hebrew Messiah, the 
consecrated or anointed one, and given 
preeminently to our blessed Lord and 
Saviour. See Messiah and Jesus. 

The ancient Hebrews, being instructed 
by the prophets, had clear notions of the 
Messiah ; but these became gradually 
depraved, so that when Jesus appeared 
in Judea, the Jews entertained a false 
conception of the Messiah, expecting a 
temporal monarch and conqueror, who 
should remove the Pioman yoke and 
sul)ject the whole world. Hence they 
were scandalized at the outward appear- 
ance, the humility, and seeming weak- 
ness of our Saviour. The modern Jews, 
92 



indulging still greater mistakes, form to 
themselves ideas of the Messiah utterly 
unknown to their forefathers. 

The ancient prophets had foretold that 
the Messiah should be God, and man ; 
exalted, and abased ; master, and servant; 
priest, and victim ; prince, and subject ; 
involved in death, yet victor over death ; 
rich, and poor ; a king, a conqueror, glo- 
rious — and a man of griefs, exposed to 
infirmities, unknown, in a state of ab- 
jection and humiliation. All these con- 
trarieties were to be reconciled in the 
person of the Messiah; as they really 

■ were in the person of Jesus. 

; It is not recorded that Christ ever re- 
ceived any external official unction. The 
imction that the prophets and the apos- 
tles speak of is the spiritual and internal 

j unction of grace and of the Holy Ghost, 

! of which the outward unction, with 
which kings, priests, and prophets were 
anciently anointed, was but the figure 

: and symbol. 

The name Chkist is the official title of 

! the Piedeemer ; and is not to be regarded 

• as a mere appellative, to distinguish our 
Lord from other persons named Jesus. 

\ The force of many passages of Scripture 
is greatly weakened by overlooking this. 

j We may get the true sense of such pas- 

i sages by substituting for "Christ," "the 

I Anointed," and where Jews were ad- 

; dressed, ' ' the Messiah. ' ' Thus in Matt. 
2:4, Herod "demanded of them," the 
priests and scribes, ' ' Avhere Christ shoidd 
be born," that is, the Old Testament 
Messiah. Peter confessed, "thou art the 
Messiah," Matt. 16:16. The devils did 
the same, Luke 4:41. In later times the 

; name Jesus Avas comparatively disused ; 
and Christ, as a proper name, Avas used 
instead of Jesus. 

When Ave consider the relation of 
Christ's person, as God and man, to his 

, official Avork as our Prophet, Priest, and 

\ King, and to his states of humiliation 
and glory ; Avhen Ave consider hoAv God 

; is in and\vith him — hoAv all the perfec- 
tions of God are displayed, and all the 

, truths of God exemplified in him ; Avhen 
we consider his various relations to the 

! purposes, covenants, Avord, and ordinan- 
ces of God, and to the privileges, duties, 
and services of saints, in time and to 

i eternity, Ave have a delightful view of 
him as all and in all, Col. 3:11. 

CHRISTS, false. Our Saviour pre- 
dicted that many pretended Messiahs 



CHR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CHU 



would come, Matt. 24:24, and his word 
has been abundantly fulfilled. One of 
them named Coziba lived within one 
hundred years of Christ, had many fol- 
lowers, and occasioned the death of more 
than half a million of Jews. Others 
have continued to appear, even down to | 
modern times. I 

CHRIS'TIANS, a name given at Anti- 
och to those who believed Jesus to be 
the Messiah, a. d. 42, Acts 11.26. It | 
seems to have been given to them by ! 
the men of Antioch as a term of conven- 
ience rather than of ridicule, to designate ' 
the new sect more perfectly than any ' 
other word could do. They generally i 
called each other "brethren," "the ' 
faithful," "saints," "believers;" and J 
were named by the Gentiles, Nazarcnes | 
and Galileans. He only is a real Chris- j 
tian who heartily accepts Christ as his 
teacher, guide, and master, the source of j 
his highest life, strength, and joy, his j 
only Redeemer from sin and hell, his j 
Lord and his God. They who rightly j 
bear Clirist's name and partake of his j 
nature, and they only, shall finally share 
in his glory. 

CHRON'ICLES, the name of two his- 
torical books of the Old Testament, the 
author of which is not known, though 
the general opinion ascribes them to 
Ezra, B. c. 457. In writing them the 
inspired penman made use, not only of ' 
the earlier books of Scripture, but of i 
numerous other public annals, now lost, i 
2 Chr. 9:29; 16:11; 20:34. The first | 
book contains a recapitulation of sacred '\ 
history, by genealogies, from the begin- j 
ning of the world to the death of David, j 
The second book contains the history of 
the kings of Judah, without those of 
Israel, from the beginning of the reign 
of Solomon only, to the return from the j 
captivity of BalDylon. In this respect it ! 
ditfers from the books of Kings, which 
give the history of the kings of both 
Judah and Israel. In many places, where i 
the history of the same kings is related, ; 
the narrative in Chronicles is almost a ' 
copy of that in Kings ; in other places, 
the one serves as a supplement to the [ 
other. In the Septuagint, these books 
are called Paraleipomena, that is, things 
omitted. The two books of Chronicles 
dwell more on ecclesiastical matters than 
the books of Kings ; they enlarge upon j 
the ordinances of public worship ; and j 
detail minutely the preparations of David j 



I for the building of the temple, and its 
' erection and dedication by Solomon ; the 
I histories of the other kings also are 
i specially full in respect to their relig- 
j ious character and acts, 1 Chr. 13:8-11 ; 
! 2 Chr. 11 : 13 ; 19 : 8-11 ; 26 : 16-19, etc. 
I The Chronicles should be read in con- 
I nection with the books of Samuel and 
the Kings ; treating of the same periods, 
I they illustrate each other, and form a 
continuous and instructive history, show- 
ing that religion is the main source of 
national prosperity, and ungodliness of 
adversity, Pro v. 14:34. The details of 
these books may be studied with interest, 
in view of their bearing upon the com- 
ing and the kingdom of our Lord Jesus 
Christ. The whole period treated of in 
the Chronicles is about 3,500 years. 

CHRYS'OLITE, a transparent precious 
stone, having the color of gold with a 
mixture of green, and a fine lustre. Rev. 
21:20. Many suppose it to be the topaz 
of the moderns. 

CHRYSOP'RASUS, the tenth of those 
precious stones which adorned the foun- 
dation of the heavenly Jerusalem, as 
seen bj^ John the Evangelist. Its color 
was green, inclining to gold, as its name 
imports. Rev 21:20. 

CHUN, elsewhere called Berothah, 

wllicll SGG 

CHURCH. Tlie Greek word trans- 
lated church signifies generally an as- 
sembly, either common or religious ; 
and it is sometimes so translated, as in 
Acts 19:32, 39. In the New Testament 
it usually means a congregation of re- 
ligious worshippers, either Jewish, as 
Acts 7:38, or Christian, as Matt. 16:18 ; 
1 Cor. 0:4. The latter sense is the more 
common one ; and it is tbus used in a 
twofold manner, denoting, 

1. The universal Christian church : 
either the invisible church, consisting of 
those whose names are written in heav- 
en, whom God knows, but whom we 
cannot infallibly know, Heb. 12:23; or 
the visible church, made up of the pro- 
fessed followers of Christ on earth. Col. 
1:24; 1 Tim. 3:5, 15. 

2. A particular church or body of pro- 
fessing believers, who meet and worship 
together in one place ; as the churches 
of Rome, Corinth, Ephesus, Philippi, 
etc., to which Paul addressed epistles. 

CHURN'ING, Prov. 30:33. See But- 
ter. 

CHU'SHAN-RISHATHA'IM, a king of 
93 



CHU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CIR 



Mesopotamia, who oppressed the Israel- 
ites eight years, a. m. 2591-9, but was 
defeated by Othniel, Caleb's nephew, 
Judg. 3:8-10. 

CHU'ZA, see Joanna. 

CILI'CIA, the south-eastern province 
of Asia Mnor, bounded north by the 
Taurus range, separating it from Cappa- 
docia, Lycaonia, and Isauria, south by 
the MecUterranean, east by Syria, and 
west by Pamphylia. The western part 
had the appellation of Aspera, or rough ; 
while the eastern was called Campestris, 
or level. This country Avas the province 
of Cicero when proconsul ; and its chief 
town, Tarsus, was the birthplace of the 
apostle Paul, Acts 6 : 9. Many Jews 
dwelt in Cilicia, and maintained fre- 
quent intercourse with Jerusalem, where 
they joined the other Jews in opposing 
the progress of Christianity. Paul him- 
self may have taken part in the public 
discussion with Stephen, Acts 0:9 ; 7:58. 
After his conversion he visited his na- 
tive province. Acts 9: 30; Gal. 1:21, and 
established churches, which were ad- 
dressed in the letter of the council at 
Jerusalem, Acts 15 : 23. TTie apostle 
once afterwards made a missionary tour 
among these churches, his heart yearn- 
ing to behold and to increase their pros- 
perity, Acts 15:36, 41. 




CIN'NAMON, one of the ingredients 
in the perfumed oil with which the tab- 
ernacle and its vessels were anointed, Ex. 
30:23; Prov. 7:17; Song 4:14. Ifis 
the inner bark of a tree growing about 
twenty feet high, and being peeled of!" in 
thin strips curls as it is found in market. 
94 



It is of a dark red color, of a poignant 
taste, aromatic, and very agreeable. That 
of the finest quality comes from Ceylon, 
Rev. 18:13. 

CIRCUMCIS'ION, a cutting around, be- 
cause in this rite the foreskin was cut 
away. God commanded Abraham to use 
circumcision, as a sign of his covenant ; 
and in obedience to this order, the patri- 
arch, at ninety-nine years of age, was 
circumcised, as also his son Ishmael, 
and all the males of his household, Gen. 
17:10-12. God repeated the precept to 
Moses, and ordered that all who intend- 
ed to partake of the paschal sacrifice 
should receive circumcision ; and that 
this rite should be performed on chil- 
dren on the eighth dav after their birth, 
Ex. 12:44; Lev. 12:3'; John 7:22. The 
Jews have always been very exact in 
observing this ceremony, and it appears 
that they did not neglect it when in 
Egypt, Josh. 5:1-9. 

All the other nations sprung from 
Abraham besides the Hebrews, as the 
Ishmaelites, the Arabians, etc., also re- 
tained the practice of circumcision. At 
the present day it is an essential rite of 
the Mohammedan religion, and though 
not enjoined in the Koran, prevails wher- 
ever this religion is found. It is also 
practised in some form among the Abys- 
sinians, and various tribes of south Afri- 
ca, as it was by the ancient Egyptians. 
But there is no proof that it was prac- 
tised upon infants, or became a general, 
national, or religious custom, before God 
enjoined it upon Abraham. 

The Jews esteemed un circumcision as 
a very great impurity ; and the great- 
est olience they could receive was to be 
called ' ' imcircumcised. ' ' Paul frequent- 
\\ mentions the Gentiles under this term, 
not opprobriously, Rom. 2:26, in oppo- 
sition to the Jews, Avhom he names ' ' the 
circumcision," etc. 

Disputes as to the observance of this 
rite by the converts from heathenism to 
Christianity occasioned much trouble in 
the early church, Acts 1 5 ; and it was 
long before it was well understood that 
"in Christ Josus neither circumcision 
availeth any thing, nor uncircumcision, 
but a ncAv creature," Gal. 5:2, 3; 6:15. 

Tlie true circumcision is that of the 
heart ; and those are ' ' uncircumcised in 
heart and ears," who will not obey the 
law of God nor embrace the gospel of 
Christ. 



CIS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY, 



CLA 



CIS'TERNS and reservoirs were very 
common in Palestine, both in the coun- 
try and in cities. During half the year 
no rain falls, and never-failing streams 
and springs are rare indeed. The main 
dependence of a large portion of the pop- 
ulation was upon the water which fell in 
the rainy season and was preserved in 
cisterns, 2 Sam. 17 : 18. Dr. Robinson 
alludes to immense reservoirs within and 
under the area of the temple, supplied 
by rainwater and by the aqueduct from 
Solomon's pools, and says, "These of 
themselves, in case of a siege, would fur- 
nish a tolerable supply. But in addition 
to these, almost every house in Jerusa- 
lem, of any size, is miderstood to have 
at least one or more cisterns, excavated 
in the soft limestone rock on which the 
city is built. The house of ]\Ir, Lan- 
neau, in which we resided, had no less 
than four cisterns ; and as these are but 
a specimen of the manner in which all 
the better class of houses are supplied, I 
subjoin here the dunensions : 

LENGTH. BREADTH. DEPTH. 

I. 15 feet. 8 feet. 12 feet. 

II. 8 " 4 " 15 " 

III. 10 " 10 " 15 " 

IV. 30 " 30 " 20 " 
The water is conducted into them dur- 
ing the rainy season, and with proper 
care remains pure and sweet during the 
whole summer and autumn." Such cis- 
terns, and others more properly called 
tanks and pools, were provided in the 
fields for irrigation, and at intervals 
along the highways, for the accommo- 
dation of travellers, Psa. 84 : 6. The 
same causes led to the erection, near all 
the chief cities, of large open reservoirs 
for public use. These were built of mas- 
sive stones, and in places where the win- 
ter rains could be easily conducted into 
them. Many such reservoirs, and ruins 
of others, yet remain. See Bethesda, 
SiLOAM, Solomon's Pools. 

CIT'Y. The towns and cities of Pales- 
tine were commonly built on heights, 
for better security against robbers or in- 
vaders. These heights, surrounded by 
walls, sometimes formed the entire city. 
In other cases, the citadel alone crowned 
the hill, around and at the base of which 
the town was built ; and in time of dan- 
ger the surrounding population all took 
lefuge in the fortified place. Larger 
towTis and cities were often not only de- 
fended by strong outer walls, with tow- 



ers and gates, but by a citadel or castle 
within these limits— a last resort when 
the rest of the city was taken, Judg. 
9:46,51. The ^"fenced cities" of the 
Jews, Deut. 3 : 5, were of various sizes 
and degrees of strength ; some being sur- 
rounded by high and thick stone walls, 
and others by feebler ramparts, often of 
clay or sun-dried bricks, and sometimes 
combustible, Isa. 9 : 10 ; Amos 1 : 7-14. 
They were also provided with watch- 
men, Psa. 127:1 ; Song 5:7. The streets 
of ancient towns were usually narrow, 
and often unpaved. Some cities were 
adorned with vast parks and gardens ; 
this was the case with Babylon, which 
embraced an immense space within its 
walls. It is impossible at this day to 
form any reliable estimate of the popu- 
lation of the cities of Judea. Jerusalem 
is said by Josephus to have had 150,000 
inhabitants, and to have contained, at 
the time of its siege by the Romans, more 
than a million of persons crowded in its 
circuit of four miles of wall. See Gate, 
Refuge, Watchmen. 

City of David, usually denotes mount 
Zion, the south-west section of Jerusa- 
lem, which David took from the Jebu- 
sites, and occupied by a palace and city 
called by his own name. In Luke 2:11, 
Bethlehem his native city is meant. 

City of God, Deut. 12:5; Psa. 46:4, 
and The Holy City, Neh. 11:1, names 
of Jerusalem. Its modern name is El- 
Kuds, the Holy. 

CLAU'DA, a small island near the 
south-west shore of Crete, approached 
by Paul in his voyage to Jerusalem, 
Acts 27 : 16. It is now called Gozzo, and 
is occupied by about thirty families. 

CLAU'DIA, a Christian woman, prob- 
ably a convert of Paul at Rome, 2 Tim. 
4:21. 

CLAU'DIUS C^'SAR, fifth emperor 
of Rome, succeeded Caius Caligula, a. d. 
41, and was followed by Nero, after a 
reign of thirteen years. He endowed 
Agrippa with royal authority over Ju- 
dea, which on the death of Agrippa again 
became a province of Rome, a. d. 45. 
About this time probably occurred the 
famine foretold by Agabus, Acts 11:28. 
In the ninth year of his reign, he ban- 
ished all Jews from Rome, Acts 18:2. In 
A. D. 43-44. he made a military expedi- 
tion to Britain. His death was caused 
by poison, from the hand of his wife and 
niece Agrippina. 

95 



CLA 



BIBLE DlCnOXAUV. 



COL 



CLAUDIUS FELIX. See Felix. 

CLAU'DIUS LYS'IAS. See Lysias. 

CLAY" designed for earthenware was 
trodden by ttie feet to mix it well, Isa. 
41 : 25, was moulded c*n a wlieel, and 
then baked in a kiln, Jer. 18:^; 43:9. 
The potter's art is referred to in Scrip- 
ture to illustrate man's dependence upon 
God, Lsa. 04 : 8 ; Rom. 9 : 21. See Pot- 
ter. Clay seems to have been also used 
in sealing^ as wax is with us. Job 38:14. 
The bricks of Bal\vlon are found marked 
with a lurge seal or stamj), and modem 
travellers tind the locks of doors in east- 
ern khans and granaries sealed on the 
outside with clay. 

CLEAN and unclean, terms often used 
in the Bible in a ceremonial sen.se ; as- 
signed to certain animals, and to men in 
certain cases, bv the law of Moses. Lev. 
11-15; Num. 19: Deut. 14. A dLstinc- 
tion between clean and unclean animals 
existed l>efore the deluge. Gen. 7:2. The 
Mosaic law was not merely arbitrary, but 
grounded on reasons connected with an- 
imal sacrifices, with health, ^^ ith the sep- 
aration of the Jews from other nations, 
and their practise of moral puritv. Lev. 
11:43-45; 20:24-20; Deut. 14:2,3,21. 
The ritual law was still observed in the 
time of Christ, but under the gospel is 
annulled, Acts 10:9-10. 

Ceremonial uncleanness was contract- 
ed by the Jews in various ways, volun- 
tarily and involuntarily. It was remov- 
ed, usually at the evening of the same 
day, by bathing. In other cases a week, 
or even forty or fifty days, and some sac- 
riticidl offerings, were required. 

CLEMENT, mentioned in Phil. 4:3. 
It is conjectured, though without evi- 
dence, that this is the same Clement who 
was afterwards a Itishop at Home, com- 
monly called Clemens Komanus. The 
church at Corinth having been dL'^turbed 
l\v divisions, Clement wrote a letter to 
the Corinthians, which wiis so much es- 
teemed by the ancients, that they read 
it publiclv in manv churches. I 

CLEOPHAS, tlie husband of 3Lary, 
John 19:25, called also Ali'JIEIS, which 
Bee. The Cleopas mentioncxi in Luke 
24: 18, probably was a different person. I 

CLOTHES. See Garmkats. , 

CLOUD, Pillar of, the miraculous 
token of the divine presence and care, 
Ex. 14 : 24 ; 10 : 10 ; Num. 12 : 5, which 
guided the Israelites in the desert ; it 
was a means of protection and perhaps j 
9G 



of shade by day, and gave them light bv 
night, Ex. 13:21, 22; 14:19, 20. By it 
God directed their movements. Num. 
9:15-23; 14 : 14 ; Deut. 1 : 33. See the 
beautiful apijlication of the image to the 
future church in lsa. 4:5. 

CLOUDS, in the summer season of 
Palestine, were an unl«x)ked-for phe- 
nomenon, 1 Sam. 12:17, 18, and rising 
from off" the Mediterranean, betokened 
rain, 1 Kin. 18:44 ; Luke 12:54. Clouds 
are the symbol of armies and multitudes, 
probably l)y their grand and majestic 
movements, lsa. 00:8; Jer. 4:13; Ileb. 
12:1. They l>etokened the presence of 
Jehovah, as on mount Sinai, Ex. 19:9 ; 
24:12-18; in the temple, Ex. 40:34; 
1 Kin. 8:10; in the cloudy pillar, and 
on the mount of Transfiguration. They 
are found in manv representations of the 
majestvof God, Psa. 18:11, 12; 97:2, and 
of Christ, Matt. 24:30; Rev. 14:14-10. 

CNI'DUS, a town and peninsula of 
Doris in Caria, jutting out from the 
south-west corner of ARia, Minor, l>e- 
tween the islands of Rhodes and Cos. 
It had a fine harbor, and was celebrated 
for the worship of Venus. Paul passed 
by it in his voyage to Rome, Acts 27:7. 

COAL, usually in Scripture, charcoal, 
or the embers of fire. Mineral coal is 
now procured in mount Lebanon, eight 
hours from Beirut ; but we have no cer- 
tainty that it was known and used by 
the jews. The following passages are 
those which most strongly suggest this 
substance, 2 Sam. 22:9, 13; Job 41:21. 

COCK'ATRICE, an old English word 
of obscure origin, used by our translat- 
ors to designate the Hebrew Tzepha, or 
Tsiphoni, a serpent of a highly venom- 
ous character, lsa. 14:29; 59:5; Jer. 
8:17. See Serpent. 

COCK'-CROWING, the third watch of 
the night, in the time of Christ. See 
Hour. 

COCK'LE, a plant growing among 
wheat, Job 31:40. The Hebrew Avord 
seems to denote; some noisome weed 
which infests cultivated grounds. 

COLOS'SE, a city of Phrygia, situated 
on a hill near the junction of the Lycus 
with the Meander, and not far from the 
cities Hierapolis and Laodicea, Col. 2:1 ; 
4:13, 15. AVith these cities it was de- 
stroyed by an earthquake in the tenth 
year of Nero, about a. d. 05, while Paul 
was yet living. It was soon rebuilt. 
The church of Christians in this city, to 



COL 



niBLE DICTIONARY. 



COX 



whom raul wrot<\ sooins to have Iwcn 
C^athorod by Kjviiihnu^. Col. \:-. Com- 
\YMc 1 :7, 8, 0, and 4: 12, 1;5. In modern 
timos tho })laoc is oalK «l Chonos. 

Ct)L08'SIANS. EmsTLE to thk, wa.<; 
written by Paul, from Kome, a. r>. 02. 
The occasion of the letter w.os the intel- 
li;::ence brouLrht him by Epaphras, Col. 
l:(>-8. respectinji" the internal state of 
the church, whith apparently he himself 
had not yet visited. Col. 2:1. thouirh fa- 
miliar with their history and afiairs. Acts 
lt>:G; lS:2o. Some Jewi.-^h jihiloso))her 
j>rofessing Christianity, but mingling 
with it a snpei-stitious regard for the law 
and other erroi-s. seems to have gained 
a iLuigerons ascendancy in the church. 
Paul shows that all our hoi>e of sjilva- 
tion is in Christ the only mediator, in 
whom all fulness dwells ; he cautions 
the Colossians against the errors intro- 
duced among them, as inconsistent with 
the gospel, and incites them by most 
persuivsive arguments to a temper and 
conduct worthy of their Christian char- 
acter. The epistle was written at the 
same time with that to the Ejihesians. 
and W!is sent by the same beaier. The 
two closely resemble each other, and 
should be studictl together. 

COM'FORTEU, cJreek P.\r'acletb, an 
advocate, teacher, or ct)nsoler. This title 
is given to our Saviour: " We have an 
5uiv(X\ite {^yirarhU) with the Father. Je- 
sus Clirist the righteous,'" 1 .lohn 2: 1. 
But more frequent Iv it designates the 
Holy Spirit. He is the " other Comfort- 
er," succeeding Christ, the great promis- 
ed blessing of the Christian church, John 
14: lU, 17,^20 : 15 : 1(1 : Luke 24:49; Acts 
1:4. The English word Comfi>rtcr does 
not adequately describe the ollicx^ of the 
Paraclete, who w;is not only tii console, 
but to aid and direct them, as Christ luul 
done. The disciples found the promise 
fuKilled to them. Hie Comforter aided 
them when called bet'ore councils : guid- 
ed them into all truth respecting the 
plan of SiUvation ; brought to their re- 
membraiRv the words and de(^(is of 
Christ ; and revealed to them things to 
come. His presence wjvs accompanied I 
by signal triumphs of grace, and made [ 
amends for the absence of Christ. Ihe ! 
chunh is still \mder tlie dispens;ition of 
the ComfiMter. anxl still he convinces the 
world of sin. of righteousness, suid of the , 
judgment to come. 

COM'MOX. profane, ceremonial! v nn- i 



clean, Mark 7 : 2, 5 ; Acts 10 : 14, 16 ; 
Kom. 14; 14. 

CONCIMOX, aiifiiuj. a U^rm of re- 
protwh. applied to certain Judaizing 
tt^achers at Philipju. jis mere cutters of 
the llesh ; in contrjust with the true cir- 
cumcision, those who were created anew 
in Christ .Tcsus unto riglitoousness and 
true holiness. Phil. ;^:2.' 

CON'CrPIXE, a term which, in mod- 
ern authors, commonly signilies a woman 
who, without being married to a man, 
lives with him !is his wife; but in the 
IMble the wonl conmhine is understood iu 
another sense -meaning a lawful wife, 
but of a second.ary rank. She dirtered 
from a jiropcr wife in that she w;is not 
married by solemn stipulation, but only 
betrothed : .she brought no dowry with 
her, and had no share in the government 
of the family She w;vs liable to be re- 
pudiated, or sent away with a gift, den. 
21:14, and her children might he treated 
in the s;ime way, and not share in their 
father's inheritance. Gen. 25 : 6. One 
cause of iN)neubinage is shown in the his- 
tory of Abraham and Jacob. C.en. IG ; oO. 
Concubinage, however, l>ecame a gen- 
eral custom, and the law of Mo.ses re- 
stricted its abuses, Ex. 21 : 7-0 ; Deut. 
21 : 10-14, but never .sanctioned it. The 
gospel hiVR restoreti the original law of 
marriage. Gen. 2:24; Matt. l'»:5: 1 Cor. 
7:2, and concubinage is ranked with for- 
nication and adultcrv. 




CO'XEY, an old English name for the 
rabbit ; used in Scriptme to translate 
the Hebrew SHArnAN, which agrees with 
the Ashkoko or Svrian Hvrax. Ja^y. 11:5: 
Deut. 14:7: Psa". 104: IS: Pro v. 80:26. 
Tliis animal is ext<nnallv of the size and 
form of the rabbit, and of a brownish 
1)7 



(OX 



BIBLE DKTIOXAllY. 



COP 



color. It is, however, much clumisier 
in its structure, A*-ithout taiJ, and hav- 
ing long bristly hairs scattered through 
the fur. The feet are naked below, and 
the nails flat and rounded, except those 
on the inner t<:»e of the hind feet, which 
are long and awl-shajx-d. They cannot 
•lig, but reside in the clefts of rocks. 
They are called by Solomon, '"wise," 
and "a feeble folk ;" they are timid and 
gregarious in their habits, and so gentle 
and quiet, that they shrink from the 
shadow of a paiising bird. The name of 
Spain is said to have Ijeen given to it by 
Phceuician voyagers, who seeing its west- 
em coast overrun with animals resem- 
bling the shaphan, callerl it HLspania. or 
Coney-land. Some eminent interpreters 
think the shaphax means the Jerlx^a. 

CONI'AH. See Jehoiachix. 

COX SCIENCE is that faculty common 
to all free moral agents, Kom. 2:l:i-15, 
in virtue of which we discern 1 jet ween 
right and wrong, and are prompted to 
choose the former and refuse the latter. 
Its appointed sj*here is in the regulation, 
according to the will of God revealed in 
nature and the Bible, of aU our being 
and actions so Lxt as these have a moral 
character. The existence of this faculty 
proves the soul accoimtable at the Ijar of 
its Creator, and its voice is in an impor- 
tant sen-se the voice of God. We feel 
that when pure and fully informed, it is 
an unerring guide to duty, and that no 
posBible array of inducements can justify 
us in disregarding it. In man, however, 
though this conviction that we must do 
what is right never fails, yet the value 
of con.science is greatly impaired by its 
inhering in a depraved soul, whose evil 
tendencies warp and pervert our judg- 
ments on all subjects. Thus Paul verily 
thought that he ought to pensecute the 
followers of Christ, Acts 20:9. His sin 
was in his culpal^le neglect to enlighten 
his conscience by all the means in his 
power, and to purify it by di\'ine grace. 
A terrible array of conscientious errors 
and persecutions, which have infested 
and afficted the church in all ages, 
warns us of our indiWdual need of per- 
fect liirht and sanctiMng grace. A 
' ' good ' ' and ' ' pure ' ' conscience. 1 11m. 
1:5: 3:9, is sprinkled with Christ's 
blood, clearly diicems the will of God, 
and urges us to obey it from gospel mo- 
tives ; in proportion as we thus olx-y it. 
it is "void of oflFeuce," Acts 24:16, and 
98 



its apjjrobation is one of the most essen- 
tial elements of happiness. A "weak," 
or irresolute and blind conscience, 1 Ccr. 
8:7; a "defiled" conscience, the slave 
of a corrupt heart. Tit. I : 15 ; Heb. 
10: 22 : and a ' * seared ' ' conscience, 1 Tim. 
4:2, hardened against the law and the 
gospel alike, unless changed by grace, 
will at length bc<-ome an avenging cx^n- 
science, the in.strument of a fearful and 
eternal remorse. ITie case of Judas shows 
its terrific power. No bodily tortures 
can equal the agony it inflicts; and 
though it may slumljer here, it will 
hereafter Ije like the worm that never 
dies and the lire that never can le 
quenched. 

CON\'EN'IENT, suitable and right, 
Eom. 1:28. 

COXVEESxVTIOX, in the Bible, usti- 
ally means the whole tenor of one's life, 
in intercourse with his fellow-men. Gal. 
1:13; Eph. 4:22; I Pet 1:15. Another 
word is employed in Phil. 3:20, which 
means, "our aJiizenfhip is in heaven." 
For conversation in the mc-dem sense of 
discourse, the English version generally 
has communication, 2 Kin. 9:11 ; Matt. 
5:37; Eph. 4:29. etc. 

CO'OS, a anall island of the Grecian 
archipelago, at a short distance from the 
south-west point of Afcia Minor. Paul 
pa.ssed it in his voyage to Jerusalem, 
Acts 21:1. It is now called Stanchio. 
It was celebrated for its fertility, for 
wine and silkworms, and for the manu- 
facture of silk and ct>tton of a Ijeautiful 
texture. 

COFPEE, one of the primitive metals, 
and the mc-st ductile and malleable after 
gold and silver. Of this metal and zinc 
is made brass, which is a modem inven- 
tion. There is little doubt but that cop- 
per is intended in those passages of our 
translation of the Bible which speak of 
brass. Copper was known prior to the 
flood, and was wrought by Tubal-cain, 
Gen. 4:22. Hiram of T>Te was a cele- 
brated worker in cc'pper. 1 Kin. 7 : 14. 
Palestine abounded in it, Deut. 8:9, and 
David amassc-'l great quantities to Ije 
emploved in building the temple. 1 Chr. 
22:3-14. In Ezra 8:27. two vessels are 
mentioned "of fine c-opper, precious as 
gold." lliis was proliably a metal cora- 
pounded of c-opper, with gold or silver, 
or l>oth. It was extoUed for its l^eauty, 
solidity, and rarity, and for some uses 
was preferred to gold itself. Some com- 



COH 



lilJJLE DICTIONARY. 



COU 



pound of this kind may have been used 
for the small mirrors mentioned in Ex. 
38 : 8 ; Job 37 : 18. See Brass. 




COR'AL, a liard, calcareous, marine 
production, produced by the labors of 
millions of insects, and often resembling 
in tigure the stem of a plant, divided 
into branches. It is of various colors, 
black, white, and red. The latter is the 
most valuable. It is ranked by Job, 
28 : 18, and Ezekiel, 27 : 16, among pre- 
cious stones. It abounds in the Red sea ; 
and the islands of the South seas are 
often coral reefs, covered over -with 
earth. The word "rubies" in Prov. 
3: 15 ; 8:11; 20 : 15 ; 31 : 10, is thought 
by many to mean ornaments of coral. 

COR'BAX, a sacred gift, a present de- 
voted to God, or to his temple. Matt. 
2 3: 18. Our Saviour reproaches the Jews 
with cruelty towards their parents, in 
miking a corban of what should have 
bjen appropriated to their use. The son 
would say to his needy parents, " It is a 
gift— whatsoever thou mightest be prof- 
ited by me," that is, I have already de- 
voted to God that which you request of 
me, Mark 7:11; and the traditionary 
teachings of the Jewish doctors would 
enforce such a vow, and not sulYer him 
to do aught for his parents against it, 
although it was contrary to nature and 
reason, and made void the law of God 
as to honoring parents. IMatt. 15 : 3-9. 
The Pharisees, and the Talmudists their 
successors, permitted even debtors to 
defraud their creditors by consecrating 
their debt to God ; as if the property 
were their own, and not rather the right 
of their creditor. 



CORIAN'DER, a small round seed of 
an aromatic plant. The plant is a na- 
tive of China, and is widely ditiused in 
Asia and the south of Europe. Its seeds 
are planted in ^larch. They are em- 
ployed as a spice in the East, and are 
much used by druggists, confcctionarists, 
etc. The manna which fell in the wil- 
derness Avas like coriander-seed, Exod. 
10:31; Num. 11:7. See M.vxxa. 

CORTNTH, see page 100. 

CORIN'THIANS, Epistle I. This was 
written by Paul at Ephesus, about a. d. 
57, upon the receipt of intelligence re- 
specting the Corinthian church, convey- 
ed by members of the family of Chloe, 
chap. I : 11, and by a letter from the 
church requesting advice, chap. 7 :1, 
probably brought by Stcphanus, etc., 
chap. 16:17. Certain factions had arisen 
in the church, using his name and those 
of Peter, Apollos, and of Christ himself, 
in bitter partisan contentions. In the 
first part of this h.'tter he endeavors to 
restore harmony among them, by reunit- 
ing them to the great and sole Head of 
the church. He then takes occasion to 
put them on their guard against teach- 
ers of false philosophy, and resting their 
faith on the wisdom of men instead of 
the simple but mighty word of God. He 
proceeds, in chap. 5, to reprove them 
for certain gross immoralities tolerated 
among them, such as they had formerly 
practised like all around them, but 
which he charges them to banish from 
the church of Christ. He replies to their 
queries respecting celibacy and marriage, 
and the eating of food offered to idols ; 
and meets several errors and sins preva- 
lent in the church by timely instructions 
as to disputes among brethren, decorum 
in public assemblies, the Lord's supper, 
the resurrection of believers, true chari- 
ty, and the right use of spiritual gifts, 
in which the Corinthian Christians ex- 
celled, but not without a mixture of os- 
tentation and disorder. He directs them 
as to the best method of Chi-istian be- 
neficence, and closes with friendly greet- 
ings. 

Epistle II. This was occasioned by 
intelligence received through Titus, at 
Philippi. Paul learned of the favorable 
reception of his former letter, and the 
good effects produced, and yet that a 
party remained opposed to him— accus- 
ing iiim of fickleness in not fulfilling his 
promise to visit them ; blaming liLs se- 
99 



COR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



COR 



verity towards the incestuous person ; 
and charging him \dth an arrogance 
and assumption unsuited to his true 
authority and his personal appearance. 
In the course of his reply he answers all 
these objections ; he enlarges upon the 
excellence of the new covenant, and the 
duties and rewards of its ministers, and 



on the duty of the Corinthian Christians 
as to charitable collections. He then 
vindicates his own course, his dignity 
and authority as an apostle, against 
those who assailed him. His last words 
invite them to penitence, peace, and 
brotherly love. This epistle seems to 
have been written soon after the lirst. 




MODERN CORINTH. 



COR'INTH, called anciently Ephyra, 
the capital of Achaia, and seated on the 
isthmus which separates the Ionian sea 
from the ^gean, and hence called bijjia- 
ris, ' ' on two seas. ' ' The city itself stood 
a little inland ; but it had two ports, Le- 
chasum on the west, and Cenchrea on 
the east. Its position gave it great com- 
mercial and military importance ; for 
while the traffic of the east and west 
poured through its gates, as over the 
isthmus of Darien the commerce of two 
oceans, it was also at the gate of the 
Peloponnesus, and was the highway be- 
tween Northern and Southern Greece. 
Its defence, besides the city walls, was 
in the Acro-corinth, a mass of rock, ris- 
ing 2,000 feet above the sea, with pre- 
cipitous sides, and with room for a town 
upon its summit. Corinth thus became 
one of the most populous and wealthy 
100 



cities of Greece ; but its riches produced 
pride, ostentation, effeminacy, and all 
the vices generally consequent on plen- 
ty. Lasciviousness, particularly, was 
not only tolerated, but consecrated here, 
by the worship of Yenus, and the noto- 
rious prostitution of numerous attend- 
ants devoted to her. Corinth was de- 
stroyed by the Eomans, b. c. 146. It 
was afterwards restored by Jnlius Ctesar, 
who planted in it a Roman colony ; but 
though it soon regained its ancient splen- 
dor, it also relapsed into all its former 
dissipation and licentiousness. Paul ar- 
rived at Corinth, a. d. 52, Acts 18:1, and 
lodged with Aquila and his wife Priscil- 
la, who, as well as himself, were tent- 
makers. Supporting himself by this la- 
bor, he remained at Corinth a year and 
a half, preaching the gospel at first to 
the Jews, and afterwards more success- 



COR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



COR 



fully to the Gentiles. During this time 
he wrote the epistles to the Thessalo- 
nians. Twice at later periods he revis- 
ited this city, Acts 20:2; 1 Cor. 16:3; 
2 Cor. 12 : 14 ; 18 : 1. The second visit 
was a short one, made apparently from 
Ephesus. During the third, he wrote 
the epistles to the Romans, etc. Apol- 
los followed him in his labors at Cor- 
inth, and Aquila and Sosthenes were 
also among its early ministers, Acts 
18 : 1 ; 1 Cor. 1:1; 16 : 19. Its site is now 
unhealthy and almost deserted, with few 
vestiges of its former greatness. 

COR'MOEANT, a water-bird, about 
the size of a goose. It lives on fish, 
which it catches with great dexterity ; 
and is so voracious and greedy, that its 
name has passed into a kind of prover- 
bial use. The Hebrew word translated 
"cormorant" in Isa. 34:11 ; Zeph. 2:14, 
should rather be translated, as it is in 
other passages, "pelican," Lev. 11:17. 

CORN, in the Bible, is the general 
word for grain of all kinds, including 
various seeds, peas, and beans. It never 
means, as in America, simply maize, or In- 
dian corn. Palestine was anciently very 
fertile in grain, which furnished in a 
great measure the support of the inhab- 
itants. "Corn, wine, and oil-olive" 
were the staple products, and wheat 
and barley still grow there luxuriantly, 
when cultivated. Wheat was often eaten 
in the field, the ripe ear being simply 
rubbed in the hands to separate the ker- 
nels, Deut. 23:25; Matt. 12:1. Parched 
wheat was a part of the ordinary food of 
the Israelites, as it still is of the Arabs, 
Ruth 2 : 14; 2 Sam. 17 : 28, 29. Their 
methods of preparing grain for the man- 
ufacture of bread were the following : 
The threshing Avas done either by the 
staff or the flail, Isa. 28:27, 28; by the 
feet of cattle, Deut. 25:4 ; or by "a sharp 
threshing instrument having teeth," 
Isa. 41 : 15, which was something resem- 
bling a cart, drawn over the corn by 
means of horses or oxen. See Thresh- 
ing. When the grain was threshed, it 
was separated from the chaff and dust by 
throwing it forward across the wind, by 
means of a winnowing fan, or shovel, 
Matt. 3:12; after which the grain was 
sifted, to separate all impurities from it, 
Amos 9:9; Luke 22:31. Hence we see 
that the threshing-floors were in the 
open air, and if possible on high ground, 
as travellers still find them in tictual use, 



Judg. 6:11; 2 Sam. 24 : 18. Tlie grain 
thus obtained was sometimes pounded in 
a mortar. Num. 11:8; Rev. 18:22, but 
was commonly reduced to meal by the 
hand-mill. This consisted of a lower 




millstone, the upper side of which was 
slightly concave, and an upper mill- 
stone, the lower surface of which was 
convex. These stones were each about 
two feet in diameter, and half a foot 
thick ; and were called ' ' the nether 
millstone," and the rider. Job 41 : 24 ; 
Judg. 9 : 53 ; 2 Sam. 11 : 21. Tlie hole 
for receiving the corn was in the centre 
of the upper millstone ; and in the oper- 
ation of grinding, the lower was fixed, 
and the upper made to move round upon 
it -nith considerable velocity by means of 
a handle. The meal came out at the 
edges, and was received on a cloth spread 
under the mill on the ground. Each 
family possessed a mill, and the law for- 
bade its being taken in pledge, Deut. 
24 : 6 ; one among innumerable examples 
of the humanity of the Mosaic legisla- 
tion. These mills are still in use in the 
East, and in some parts of Scotland. Dr. 
E. D. Clarke says, "In the island of Cy- 
prus I observed upon the ground the sort 
of stones used for grinding corn, called 
querns in Scotland, common also in Lap- 
land, and in all parts of Palestine. These 
are the primeval mills of the world ; and 
they are still found in all com coun- 
tries where rude and ancient customs 
have not been liable to those changes 
introduced by refinement. The employ- 
ment of grinding with these mills is con- 
fined solely to females, who sit on the 
101 



COR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



COT 



ground with the mill before them, and 
thus may he said to be "behind tlie 
mill," Ex. 11:5; and the practice illus- 
trates the prophetic observation of our 
Saviour concerning the day of Jerusa- 
lem's destruction : "Two women shall be 
grinding at the mill ; one shall be taken 
and the other left," Matt. 24:41. To 
this feminine occupation Samson was 
degraded, Judg. 16:21. The women al- 
ways accompany the grating noise of the 
stones with their voices ; and when ten 
or a dozen are thus employed, the fury 
of the song rises to a high pitch. As the 
grinding was usually performed in the 
morning at daybreak, the noise of the 
females at the hand-mill was heard all 
over the city, and often awolce their 
more indolent masters. The Scriptures 
mention tlie want of this noise as a 
mark of desolation, Jer. 25:10; Rev. 
18:22. 

CORNE'LIUS, a Roman centurion, sta- 
tioned at CjBsarea in Palestine, supposed 
to have been of a distinguished family in 
Rome. He was " the first gentile con- 
vert ;" and the story of his reception of 
the gospel shows how God broke down 
the partition-wall between Jews and Gen- 
tiles. When first mentioned. Acts 10:1, 
he had evidently been led by the Holy 
Spirit to renounce idolatry, to worship 
the true God, and to lead, in the midst 
of profligacy, a devout and beneficent 
life ; he was prepared to receive the Sav- 
iour, and God did not fail to reveal Him. 
Cornelius was miraculously directed to 
send for Peter, who was also miracu- 
lously prepared to attend the summons. 
He went from Joppa to Ca^sarea, thirty- 
five miles, preached the gospel to Corne- 
lius and his friends, and saw with won- 
der the miraculous gifts of the Spirit 
poured upon them all. Providence thus 
explained his recent vision in the trance ; 
he nobly discarded his Jewish prejudices, 
and at once began his great work as apos- 
tle to the Gentiles by receiving into the 
church of Christ those whom Christ had 
so manifestly accepted. Acts 10; 11. 

CORNER-STONE, a massive stone, 
usually distinct from the foundation, 
Jer. 51:26 ; and so placed at the corner 
of the building as to bind together the 
two walls meeting upon it. Such a stone 
is found at Baalbek, twenty-eight feet 
long, six and a half feet Avide, and four 
feet thick. 

Our Lord is compared in the New Tes- 
102 



tament to a corner-stone in three differ- 
ent points of view. First, as this stone 
lies at the foundation, and serves to give 
support and strength to the building, so 
Christ, or the doctrine of a Saviour, is 
called the chief corner-stone, Eph. 2:20, 
because this doctrine is the most impor- 
tant feature of the Christian religion — as 
a system of truths, and as a living power 
in the souls of men. Further, as the 
corner-stone occupies an important and 
conspicuous place, Jesus is compared to 
it, 1 Pet. 2 : 6, because God has given him, 
as the Mediator, a dignity and conspicu- 
ousness above all others. Lastly, since 
men often stumble against a projecting 
corner-stone, Christ is so called. Matt. 
21 : 42, because his gospel will be the 
cause of aggravated condemnation to 
those wdio reject it. 

COR'NET, a wind instrument of mu- 
sic, of a curved form, 1 Chr. 15:28 ; Dan. 
3:5, 7. See Music. 

COTES, inclosures for the safe keeping 
of sheep, 2 Chr. 32:28. See Sheep. 

COT'TAGE, a rustic tent or shelter, 
made perhaps of boughs, Isa. 24 : 20. 




COT'TON was a native product of In- 
dia, and perhaps of Egypt, and is sup- 
posed to be intended in some of the pas- 
sages where the English version has 
"fine linen." It has been much dis- 
puted whether cotton cloth was used by 
the ancient Hebrews and Egj'ptians, or 
not ; but minute examination of the 
cloths in which Egyptian mummies were 
Avrapped, proves that this material was 
sometimes used, especially for children. 
See Flax, Linen. 



cou 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CRE 



COUCH. See Bed. 

COUN'CIL is occasionally taken for 
any kind of assembly ; sometimes for 
that of the Sanhedrim ; at others, for a 
convention of pastors met to regulate 
ecclesiastical affairs. Thus the assembly 
of the apostles, etc., at Jerusalem, Acts 
15, to determine whether the yoke of 
the law should be imposed on gentile 
converts, is commonly reputed to be the 
first council of the Christian church. See 
Sanhedrim. 

COUR'SES, the order in which the 
priests were on duty at the temple. See 
Abia. 

COURT, an inclosed space or yard 
within the limits of an oriental house, 
2 Sam. 17 : 18. For the courts of the tem- 
ple, see Temple. The tabernacle also had 
a court. All oriental houses are built in 
the form of a hollow square around a 
court. See House. 

COVENANT. The word testamentum 
is often used in Latin to express the 
Hebrew word which signifies covenant ; 
whence the titles. Old and New Testa- 
ments, are used to denote the old and 
new covenants. See Testament. 

A covenant is properly an agreement 
between two parties. VVhere one of the 
parties is infinitely superior to the other, 
as in a covenant between God and man, 
there God's covenant assumes the nature 
of a promise, Isa. 59:21; Jer. 31:33, 
34; Gal. 3:15-18. The first covenant 
with the Hebrews was made when the 
Lord chose Abraham and his posterity 
for his people ; a second covenant, or a 
solemn renewal of the former, was made 
at Sinai, comprehending all who ob- 
serve the law of Moses. TTie "new 
covenant" of which Christ is the Me- 
diator and Author, and which was con- 
firmed by his blood, comprehends all 
who believe in him and are born again, 
Gal. 4:24; Heb. 7:22; 8:6-13; 9:15- 
23; 12:24. The divine covenants were 
ratified by the sacrifice of a victim, to 
show that without an atonement there 
could be no communication of blessing 
and salvation from God to man. Gen. 
15:1-18; Ex. 24:6-8; Heb. 9:6. Emi- 
nent believers among the covenant peo- 
ple of God were favored by the estal)lish- 
ment of particular covenants, in which 
he promised them certain temporal fa- 
vors ; but these were only renewals to 
individuals of the "everlasting cove- 
nant," with temporal types and pledges 



of its fulfilment. Thus God covenanted 
with Noah, Abraham, and David, Gen. 
9:8, 9; 17:4, 5; Psa. 89:3, 4; etc., and 
gave them faith in the Saviour after- 
wards to be revealed, Rom. 3:25; Heb. 
9:15. 

In common discourse, we usually say 
the old and new testaments, or cove- 
nants — the covenant between God and 
the posterity of Abraham, and that which 
he has made with believers by Jesus 
Christ ; because these two covenants con- 
tain eminently all the rest, which are 
consequences, branches, or explanations 
of them. The most solemn and perfect 
of the covenants of God with men is that 
made through the mediation of our Re- 
deemer, which must subsist to the end 
of time. The Son of God is the guaran- 
tee of it ; it is confirmed with his blood ; 
the end and object of it is eternal life, 
and its constitution and laws are more 
exalted than those of the former cove- 
nant. 

Theologians use the phrase ' ' covenant 
of works ' ' to denote the constitution 
established by God with man before the 
fall, the promise of which was eternal 
life on condition of obedience, Hos. 6:7: 
Rom. 3:27; Gal. 2:19. They also use 
the phrase, "covenant of grace or rt- 
demption," to denote the arrangement 
made in the counsels of eternity, in vir- 
tue of which the Father forgives and 
saves sinful men redeemed by the death 
of the Son. 

CRACK'NELS, a sort of hard brittle 
cakes, 1 Kin. 14:3. 

CRANE, see next page. 

CREA'TION, (1,) the act by which 
God calls into existence things not pre- 
viously in being — material or spiritual, 
visible or invisible, Psa. 148:5; Rev. 
4:11 ; (2,) the moulding or reconstitut- 
ing things, the elements of which previ- 
ously existed; and (3,) the things thus 
"created and made," 2 Pet. 3:4; Rev. 
3:14 ; 5:13. It is probably in the first 
of these senses the word ' ' created " is to 
be understood in Gen. 1:1, though some 
understand it in the second sense. In 
either case the idea of the eternity of 
matter is to be rejected, as contrary to 
sound reason and to the teachings of 
Scripture, Prov. 8:22-31; John iTl-S; 
Heb. 11:3. 

Creation is exclusively the work of 
God. The Father, the Son, and the 
Spirit arc each in turn named as its au- 



CRE 



BIBLE DICTIONARr. 



CRE 



thor, Isa. 40:28; Col. 1:16; Gen. 2:2. 1 
It is a work the mysteries of which no \ 
finite mind can apprehend ; and yet, as j 
it reveals to us the invisible things of I 
God, Rom. 1:20, we may and ought to | 
learn what he reveals respecting it not | 
only in revelation, but in his works. 
These two volumes are from the same j 
divine hand, and cannot but harmonize ' 
with each other. Tlae Bible opens with | 
an account of the creation unspeakably 
majestic and sublime. The six days there 
spoken of have usually been taken for our 
present natural days ; but modern geo- 



ages into six short days, and created the 
world as he did Adam, in a state of ma- 
turity, embodying iia its rocks and fos- 
sils those rudimental forms of animal and 
vegetable life which seem naturally to 
lead up to the existing forms. 

The ' ' creature ' ' and ' ' the whole cre- 
ation," in Piom. 8: 19-22, may denote 
the irrational and inferior creation, 
which shall be released from the curse, 
and share in the glorious liberty of the 
sons of God, Isa. 11 : 6 ; 35 : 1 ; 2 Pet. 
3:7-13. The bodies of believers, now 
subject to vanity, are secure of full de- 



logical researches have given rise to the i liverance at the resurrection — ' ' the re- 
idea that "day" here denotes a longer I demption of our body," Eom. 8:23. 
period. The different rocks of our 
globe lie in distinct layers, the com- 
parative age of which is supposed to 
have been ascertained. Only the 
most recent have been found to con- 
tain human remains. Older layers 
present in turn different fossil re- 
mains of animals and plants, many 
of them supposed to be now extinct. 
These layers are deeply imbedded 
beneath the present soil, and yet 
appear to be formed of matter wash- 
ed into the bed of some primeval 
sea, and hardened into rock. Above 
this may lie numerous other strata 
of different materials, but which ap- 
pear to have been deposited in the 
same manner, in the slow lapse of 
time. These layers are also thrown 
up and penetrated all over the world 
by rocks of still earlier formations, 
apparently once in a melted state. 

There are several modes of recon- 
ciling these geological discoveries 
with the statements of Scripture : -^ 
First, that the six days of Gen. 1 de- 
note six long epochs — periods of al- 
ternate progressive formation and revo- 
lution on the surface of the earth. To 
the Lord ' ' a thousand years are as one 
day," Psa. 90:2,4; 2 Pet. 3:5-10; Rev. 
20. Secondly, that the long epochs in- 
dicated in the geological structure of the 
globe occurred before the Bible account 
commences, or rather in the interval 
between the first and second verses of 
Gen. 1 . According to this interpretation, 
verse 2 describes the state of the earth at 
the close of the last revolution it experi- 
enced, preparatory to God's fitting it up 
for the abode of man as described in 
the verses following. Thirdly, that God 
compressed the work of those untold 
104 




THE DEMOISELLE, OR XUMIDIAN CRANE. 

CRANE. In Isa. 38:14, and Jer. 8:7, 
two birds are mentioned, the sus and the 
AGUR, the first rendered in our version 
crane, the second swallow. Bochart 
says the sus, or sis, is the swallow ; the 
agur, the crane. The Numidian crane, 
supposed to be referred to, is about three 
feet in length, is bluish-grey, with the 
cheeks, throat, breast, and tips of the 
long hinder feathers l)lack, with a tuft of 
white feathers behind each eye. "Like 
a crane, or a swallow, so did I chatter :" 
there is peculiar force and beauty in the 
comparison here made between the dy- 



CRE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CRO 



ing believer and migratory birds about 
to take their departure to a distant but 
more genial clime. They linger in the 
scenes which they have frequented, but 
instinct compels them to remove. 

CRES'CENS, an assistant of the apos- 
tle Paul, and probably one of the seventy 
disciples ; supposed to have exercised his 
ministry in Galatia, 2 Tim. 4:10. 

CRETE, a large island, now called 
Candia, in the Mediterranean, originally 
peopled probably by a branch of the 
Caphtorim. It is celebrated by Homer 
for its hundred cities. Being surround- 
ed by the sea, its inhabitants were excel- 
lent sailors, and its vessels visited all 
coasts. They were also famous for arch- 
ery, which they practised from their in- 
fancy. The Cretans were one of the three 
K's against whose unfaithfulness the 
Grecian proverb cautioned — Kappado- 
cia, Kilicia, and Krete. In common 
speech, the expression, "to Cretanize," 
signified to tell lies ; which helps to ac- 
count for that detestable character which 
the apostle has given of the Cretans, that 
they were "always liars," brutes, and 
gormandizers, as Epimenides, a Cretan 
poet, described them. Tit. 1:12, 13. 

Crete is famous as the birthplace of 
the legislator Minos ; and in the Bible, 
for its connection with the voyage of 
Paul to Rome, Acts 27. The ship first 
made Salmone, the eastern promontory 
of the island, and took shelter at Fair 
Havens, a roadstead on the south side, 
east of cape ^Matala. After some time, 
and against Paul's warning, they set sail 
for Phenice, a more commodious harbor 
on the western part of the island ; but 
were overtaken by a fierce wind from the 
east-north-east, Avhich compelled them 
to lie to, and drifted them to Malta. 
Paul is supposed to have visited Crete 
afterwards, in connection with one of his 
visits to Asia Minor, I Tim. 1:3 ; Phile. 
22. Here he established gospel institu- 
tions, and left Titus in the pastoral 
charge, Tit. 1:5. 

CRIM'SON, 2 Chr. 2 : 7-14 ; 3 : 14. See 
Purple. 

CRISP'ING-PINS irons for curling the 
hair, Isa. 3:22. 

CRIS'PUS, president of the synagogue 
at Corinth, converted under the preach- 
ing of Paul, Acts 18:8, and baptized by 
him, 1 Cor. 1 : 14. 

CROSS, a kind of gibbet made of pieces 
of wood placed transversely, whether 




crossing at right angles, one at the top 
of the other, T, or below the top, f , or 
diagonally, X. Death by the cross was 
a punishment of the meanest slaves, and 
was a mark of infamy, Deut. 21 :23 ; Gal. 
3 : 13. This punishment was so common 
among the Romans, that pains, afflic- 
tions, troubles, etc. , were called ' ' cross- 
es. ' ' Our Saviour says, that his disciples 
must take up the cross and follow Him. 
Though the cross is the sign of ignominy 
and suflerings, yet it is the badge and 
glory of the Christian. 

The common Avay of crucifying was by 
fastening the criminal with nails, one 
through each hand, and one through 
both his feet, or through each foot. 
Sometimes they were bound with cords, 
which, though it seems gentler, because 
it occasions less pain, was really more 
cruel, because the sufferer Avas hereby 
made to languish longer. Sometimes 
they used both nails and cords for fasten- 
ings ; and Avhen tlais was the case, there 
was no difficulty in lifting up the per- 
son, together with his cross, he being 
sufficiently supported by the cords ; near 
the middle of the cross also there was a 
wooden projection, which partially sup- 
ported the body of the sufferer. Before 
they nailed him to the cross, they gen- 
erally scourged him with whips or leath- 
ern thongs, which was thought more se- 
vere and more infamous than scourging 
with cords. Slaves who had been guilty 
of great crimes were fastened to a gibbet 
or cross, and were thus led about the 
city, and beaten. Our Saviour was load- 
ed vnili his cross, and as he sunk imder 
the burden, Simon the Cyrenian was 
constrained to bear it after him and with 
him, Mark 15:21. 

After the person had been nailed to 
the cross, a stupefying draught was some- 
times administered, in order to render 
him less sensible to pain, an alleviation 
which our Saviour did not accept, Matt. 
105 



CPtO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CRY 



27 : 34 ; Mark 15 : 23 ; though he seems 
afterwards to have taken a little of the 
common beverage of the soldiers. Sent 
by the Father to bear the heavy load of 
penal suffering for a lost race, he felt 
that he had no right to the palliatives 
resorted to in ordinary cases, and perfect- 
ly lawful except in his OAvn. "The cup 
which my Father hath given me, shall 
I not drink it?" John 18:11. He drank 
it, and to the very dregs. The cross 
being erected under the burning sun, the 
wounds made by the scourge and the 
nails soon occasioned a general fever and 
an intolerable thirst. The blood, inter- 
rupted in its regular flow, accumulated in 
various parts of the body, and caused pain- 
ful congestions . Every slight writhing of 
the sufferer increased his angiush, which 
found no relief but in final mortification 
and death . Those who were fastened up- 
on the cross lived in that condition sever- 
al days, and sometimes a Avcek or more. 
Hence Pilate was amazed at our Saviour's 
dying so soon, because naturally he must 
have lived longer, Mark 1 5 . 41. The legs 
of the two thieves were broken, to hasten 
their death, that their bodies might not 
remain on the cross on the Sabbath day, 
Deut. 21:23 ; Josh. 8:29 ; but the cruci- 
fied were usually left hanging, under the 
eye of guards, till their bodies fell to the 
ground, or were devoured by birds and 
beasts of prey. 

CROWN. There are two distinct He- 
brew terms rendered crown. The one 
represents such headdresses as we should 
designate coronet, band, mitre, tiara, 
garland, etc. The other is generally 
applied to the headdresses of kings. The 
former was a simple fillet or diadem 
around the head, variously ornamented. 
Newly-married persons of both sexes 
wore crowns on their wedding-day, Song 
3:11; Ezek. 16:12. The crowns of kings 
were sometimes Avhite fillets, bound 
round the forehead, the ends falling back 
on the neck ; or were made of gold tis- 
sue, adorned with jewels. That of the 
Jewish high-priest was a fillet, or dia- 
dem, tied with a ribbon of a hvacinth 
color, Ex. 28:36; 39:30. Occasionally 
the crown was of pure gold, and was 
worn by kings, 2 Chr. 23:11, sometimes 
when they went to battle, 2 Sam. 1:10 ; 
12:30. It was also worn by queens, 
Esth. 2:17. The crown is a symbol of 
honor, power, and eternal life, Prov. 
12:4; Lam. 5:16; 1 Pet. 5:4. Crowns 
106 




ANTIQUE GARLANDS, DIADEMS, AND CROWNS. 

or garlands were given to the successful 
competitors at the Grecian games, to 
which frequent allusion is made in the 
Epistles, 2 Tim. 4:7,8. 




CRUSE, a small vessel for holding 
water and other liquids, 1 Sam. 26:11. 
The above cut represents various antique 
cups, travelling flasks, and cruses, like 
those still used in the East. 

CRYS'TAL. Tlie same Hebrew word 
is rendered bv our translators, crvstal, 
Ezek. 1:22; frost, Gen. 31:40; and ice, 
Job 6:16. Tlie word primarily denotes 
ice ; and the name is given to a perfectly 
transparent and glass-like gem, from its 



CUB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



CYM 



resemblance to this substance, Job 28: 17: 
Eev. 4:6; 21:11. 

CU'BIT, a measure used among the 
ancients. A cubit was originally the 
distance from the elbow to the extrem- 
ity of the middle finger, which is the 
fourth part of a well-proportioned man's 
stature. The Hebrew cubit, according 
to some, is twenty-one inches ; but oth- 
ers fix it at eighteen. The Talmudists 
observe that the Hebrew cubit was larger 
by one quarter than the Roman. 

CU'CUMBEIl, a vegetable very plenti- 
ful in the East, especially in Egypt, Num. 
11:5, where they are esteemed delicacies, 
and form a great part of the food of the 
lower class of people, especially during 
the hot months. The Egyptian cucum- 
ber is similar in form to ours, but larger, 
being usually a foot in length. It is 
described by Hasselquist as greener, 
smoother, softer, sweeter, and more di- 
gestible than our cucumber. 

CUM'MIN, a plant much like fennel, 
and which produces blossoms and branch- 
es in an umbellated form. Its seeds yield 
an aromatic oil, of a warm, stimulating 
nature, Isa. 28 : 25-27 . Our Lord reproved 
the scribes and Pharisees for so very care- 
fully paying tithe of mint, anise, and cum- 
min, and yet neglecting good works and 
obedience to God's law. Matt. 23:23. 

CUP. This word is taken in Scripture 
both in a proper and in a figurative 
sense. In a proper sense, it signifies a 
common cup, of horn, or some precious 
metal. Gen. 40:13; 44:2; 1 Kin. 7:26, 
such as is used for drinking out of at 
mccils ; or a cup of ceremony, used at 
solemn and religious meals — as at the 
passover, when the father of the family 
pronounced certain blessings over the 
cup, and having tasted it, passed it 
round to the company and his whole 
family, who partook of it, 1 Cor. 10:16. 
In a figurative sense, a cup is spoken of 
as filled with the portion given to one 
by divine providence, Psa 11:6; 16:5; 
with the blessings of life and of grace, 
Psa. 28:5 ; with a thank-offering to God, 
Ex. 29 : 40 ; Psa. 116 : 18 ; with liqiior 
used at idolatrous feasts, 1 Cor. 10 : 21 ; 
with iove-potions, Rev. 17:4; with sore 
afflictions, Psa. 65 : 8 ; Isa. 51 : 17 ; and 
with the bitter draught of death, which 
was often caused by a cup of hemlock or 
some other poison, Psa. 75:8. See Matt. 
16:28 ; Luke 22 : 42 ; John 18 : 11. See 
Crusb. 



CUSH, I. , the eldest son of Ham, and 
father of Nimrod, Scba, Havilah, Sab- 
tah, Raamah, and Sabtecha, most of 
whom settled in Arabia Felix, Gen. 
10:6-8. 

II. The countries peopled by the de- 
scendants of Cush, and generally called 
in the English Bible, Ethiopia, though 
not always. But under this name there 
seem to be included not less than three 
difterent countries : 

1. The oriental Cush, comprehending 
the regions of Persis, Chusistan, and Su- 
siana, in Persia. It lay chiefly to the 
eastward of the Tigris. Hither we may 
refer the river Gihon, Gen. 2:18 ; Zeph. 
3:10. See Eden. 

2. TTie Hebrews also, in the opinion of 
many, used Cush and Cushan, Hab. 3:7, 
to designate the southern parts of Arabia, 
and the coast of the Red sea. From this 
country originated Nimrod, who estab- 
lished himself in Mesopotamia, Gen. 10 : 8. 
The "Ethiopian woman," too, whom 
Moses married during the march of the 
Israelites through the desert, came prob- 
ably from this Cush, Exod. 2:16-21; 
Num. 12:1; 2 Chr. 21:16. 

3. But, more commonly, Cush signifies 
Ethiopia proper, lying south and south- 
east of Eficypt, and now called Abys- 
sinia, Isa. "l8 : 1 ; 20 : 3-5 ; Jer. 13 : 23 ; 
Ezek. 29:10; Dan. 11:43. 

CUTH'ITES, a people who dwelt be- 
yond the Euphrates, and were thence 
transplanted into Samaria, in place of 
the Israelites who had before inhabited 
it. They came from the land of Cush, or 
Cutha, in the East ; their first settlement 
being in the cities of the Medes, subdued 
by Shalmaneser and his predecessors. 
See Cusii. Tlie Israelites were substi- 
tuted for them in those places, 2 Kin. 
17:24, 30. 

CYM'BAL, a musical instrument con- 
sisting of two broad plates of brass, of a 
convex form, which being struck to- 
gether, produce a shrill, piercing sound. 
From Psa. 150:5, it would appear that 
both hand-cymbals and finger-cymbals, 
or castagnets, were used. They were 
used in the temple, and upon occasions 
of public rejoicings, 1 Chr. 13:8; 16:5, 
as they are by the Armenians at the 
present day. In 1 Cor. 13:1, the apos- 
tle deduces a comparison from sounding 
brass and ' ' tinkling ' ' cjnnbals ; perhaps 
the latter words had been better ren- 
dered clanging or clattering cj-mbalg, 
107 



CYP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DAG 




HAND AND FINGER CYMBALS, AND TAMBOURINE 

Since such is the nature of the instru- 
ment. See Music. 

CY'PRESS, an evergreen tree, resem- 
bling in form and size the Lombardy 
poplar. Its wood is exceedingly durable, 
and seems to have been used for making 
idols, Isa. 44: 14. The cypress is thought 
to be intended in some of the passages 
where "fir-tree" occurs, 2 Sam. 6:5, 
etc. 

CYPRUS, a large island in the Med- 
iterranean, situated in the north-east 
part of that sea between Cilicia and 
Syria, It is about one hundred and forty 
miles long, and varies from five to fifty 
miles in breadth. Its inhabitants were 
plunged in all manner of luxury and 
debauchery. Their principal deity was 
Venus, who had a celebrated temple at 
Paphos. The island was extremely fertile, 
and abounded in wine, oil, honey, wool, 
copper, agate, and a beautiful species of 
rock crystal. There were also large for- 
ests of cypress-trees. Of the cities in the 
island, Paphos on the western coast, and 
Salamis at the opposite end, are men- 
tioned in the New Testament. The gos- 
pel was preached there at an early day. 
Acts 11:19. Barnabas and Mnason, and 
other eminent Christians, were natives of 
this island, Acts 11 : 20 ; 21 : 16. The 
apostles Paul and Barnabas made a mis- 
sionary tour through it, a. d. 44, Acts 
18 : 4-13. See also Acts 15 : 39 ; 27 : 4. 

CYRE'NE, a city and province of Lib- 
ya, west of Egypt, between the Great 
Syrtis and the Mareotis, at present call- 
ed Cairoan, in the province of Barca. It 
in« 



was sometimes called Pentapolis, from 
the five principal cities which it con- 
tained — Cyrene, Apollonia, Arsinoe, Be- 
renice, and Ptolemais. From hence came 
Simon the Cyrenian, father of Alexander 
and Rufus, on whom the Roman soldiers 
laid a part of our Saviour's cross, Matt. 
27:32; Luke 23:26. There were many 
Jews in the province of Cyrene, a great 
part of whom embraced the Christian 
religion, though others opposed it with 
much obstinacy, Acts 11:20; 13:1. Also 
i j^cts 6' 9 

CYRENIUS, or Publius Sulpitius Qui- 
RiNUS, according to his Latin appellation, 
governor of Syria, Luke 2:2. According 
to history, Quirinus was not properly 
governor of Syria till some years after 
this date ; and the only census of that 
time mentioned by secular historians 
took place when Christ was eight or ten 
years old. The passage in Luke may 
be translated, "This enrolment took 
place first under Cyrenius governor of 
Syria. ' ' Compare Acts 5 : 37. 

C Y'RUS, son of Cambyses king of Per- 
sia, and Mandane, daughter of Astyages 
king of the Medcs. He aided his uncle 
Cyaxares (called ' ' Darius the Mede ' ' in 
the Bible) in conquering Asia Minor, 
and afterwards their joint forces cap- 
tured Babylon and overran the Assyrian 
empire. He married his cousin, the 
daughter of Cyaxares, and thus at length 
inherited and united the crowns of Per- 
sia and Media. Cyrus was foretold by 
the prophet Isaiah, 44 : 28 ; 45 : 1-7, as 
the deliverer and restorer of Judah, as 
lie proved to be, 2 Chr. 36:22, 23 ; Ezra 
1 : 1-4. The prophet Daniel was his fa- 
vorite minister, Dan. 6 : 28. 



D. 



DAB'ERATH, a Levitical town in the 
borders of Zebulun and Issachar, Josh. 
19:12; 21:28; 1 Chr. 6:72. Its site is 
probably that of the modern Deburieh, 
a small village at the foot of mount Ta- 
bor on the north-west. 

DA'GON, fish-god, a national idol of 
the Philistines, with temples at Gaza, 
Ashdod, etc., 1 Chr. 10:10. The temple 
at Gaza was destroyed by Samson, Judg. 
16:21-30. In that at Ashdod, Dagon 
twice miraculously fell down before the 
ark of God ; and in the second fall his 
head and hands were broken off, leaving 



DAL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



DAM 




only the body, which was in the form of 
a large fish, 1 Sam. 5 : 1-9. See Josh. 
15:41; 19:27. There were other idols 
of like form among the ancients, partic- 
ularly the goddess Derceto or Atergatis ; 
and a similar form or ' ' incarnation ' ' of 
Vishnu is at this day mucli worshipped 
in India, and like Dagon is destined to 
he prostrated in the dust before the true 
God. 

DALMANU'THA, a town or village 
near the city of Magdala, Mark 8 : 10. 
Compare Matt. 15:39. The exact situa- 
tion of this place is uncertain ; it lay, 
however, on the western shore of the 
sea of Galilee, north of Tiberias. 

DALMA'TIA, a province of Europe on 
the east of the Adriatic sea, and forming 
part of Illyricum. It was contiguous to 
Macedonia, Upper Mcesia, and Liburnia, 
from which latter it was divided by the 
river Titius. Hither Titus was sent by 
Paul to spread the luiowledge of Chris- 
tianity, 2 Tim. 4:10. 

DAM'ARIS, an Athenian lady, honor- 
ably distinguished as one of tlie few who 
embraced Christianity at Athens under 
the preaching of Paul, Acts 17:34. 

DAMAS'CUS, a celebrated metropolis 
of Syria, first mentioned in Gen. 14:15 ; 
15:2, and now probably the oldest city 
on the globe. It stands on the river 
Barada, the ancient Chrysorrhoas, in a 
beautiful and fertile plain on the east 
and south-east of Anti-Lebanon. See 
Abana. This plain is about fifty miles 
in circumference ; it is open to the des- 
ert of Arabia on the south and east, and 
is bounded on the other sides by the 
mountains. The region around and i 



north of Damascus, including probably 
the valley between the ridges of Leba- 
non and Anti-Lebanon, is called in the 
Scriptures, " Syria of Damascus, " 2 Sam. 
8:5, and by Strabo, Crelesyria. This 
city, which at first had its own kings, 
was taken hj David, 2 Sam. 8:5, 6, and 
by Jeroboam II., 2 Kings 14:28. Its 
history at this period is to be found in 
the accoimts given of Naaman, Ben-ha- 
dad, Hazael, and Piczin. It was subdued 
by Tiglath-pileser, 2 Kin. 16 : 9 ; and 
was afterwards subject to the Assyrians, 
Babylonians, Persians, Seleucidee, and 
Romans. In the days of Paul it appears 
to have been held, for a time at least, 
by Aretas, king of Arabia Petraa, the 
father-in-law of Herod Antipas. At this 
period the city was so much thronged by 
the Jews, that, according to Josephus, 
ten thousand of them, by command oi 
Nero, were put to death at once. It is 
memorable to Christians as the scene of 
the miraculous conversion of that most 
illustrious "servant of the Lord Jesus 
Christ," the apostle Paul, Acts 9:1-27 ; 
22: 1-16. Since 1506, Damascus has been 
held by the Turks ; it is the metropolis 
of ' ' the Pashalic of Damascus, ' ' and has 
a population of about one hundred and 
fifty thousand. The Arabs call it Esh- 
shams. It is still celebrated, with the 
surrounding country, by all travellers, 
as one of the most beautiful and luxuri- 
ant regions in the world. The orientals 
themselves call it the ' ' Paradise on 
earth," and it is pretended that Moham- 
med refused to enter it, lest he should 
thereby forfeit his heavenly Paradise. 
The plain around the city is well water- 
ed and of exuberant fertility ; and the 
eye of the traveller fi'om any direction is 
fascinated by the view — a wilderness of 
verdure, interspersed with innumerable 
villas and hamlets, with gardens, foun- 
tains, and groves. A nearer view of the 
city discloses much that is oftensive to 
the senses, as well as to the spirit. It 
is the most purely oriental city yet re- 
maining of all that are named in the 
Bible. Its public buildings and bazaars 
are fine ; and many private dwellings, 
though outwardly mean, are decorated 
within in a style of the most costly lux- 
ury. Its position has made it from the 
very first a commercial city, Ezek. 27 : 18. 
The cloth called Damask is supposed to 
have originated here, and Damascus steel 
has never been equalled. It still carries 
109 



DAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DAN 



on an extensive traffic in woven stuffs of 
silk and cotton, in fine inlaid cabinet 
work, in leather, fruits, sweetmeats, etc. 
For this purpose huge caravans assemble 
here at intervals, and traverse, just as of 
old, the desert routes to remote cities. 
Here too is a chief gathering-place of pil- 
grims to Mecca. People from all the 
nations of the East resort to Damascus, 
a fact which shows its importance as 
a missionary station. An encouraging 
commencement has been made by Eng- 
lish Christians, and the fierce and bigot- 
ed intolerance of its Mussulman popula- 
tion has begun to give way. A street is 
still found ii ere called "Straight," prob- 
ably the same referred to in Acts 9:11. 
It runs a mile or more through the city 
from the eastern gate. 

DAMNA'TION, the state of being ex- 
cluded from God's mercy, and condemn- 
ed to the everlasting punishment of the 
wicked. This is now the sense of the 
word damnation, in our language ; but 
at the time when the Bible was trans- 
lated, it signified the same as condem- 
nation. The words damn and damna- 
tion ought therefore to be still so under- 
stood, in such passages as Kom. 13 : 2 ; 
14:23; 1 Cor. 11:29. 

DAN, a judge, I., a son of Jacob by 
Bilhah, Gen. 30:3; 35:25. The tribe 
of Dan was second only to that of Ju- 
dah in numbers before entering Canaan, 
Num. 1:39; 26:43. A portion was as- 
signed to Dan, extending south-east from 
the seacoast near Joppa. It bordered on 
the land of the Philistines, with whom 
the tribe of Dan had much to do, Judg. 
13-16. Their territory was fertile, but 
small, and the natives were powerful. 
A part of the tribe therefore sought 
and conquered another home, Josh. 19 ; 
Judg. 18. 

II. A city originally called Laish, 
Judg. 18:29, at the northern extremity 
of Israel, in the tribe of Naphtali. 
"From Dan to Beersheba" denotes the 
whole extent of the land of promise, 
Dan being the northern city, and Beer- 
sheba the southern one. Dan was seat- 
ed at the foot of mount Hermon, four 
miles west of Paneas, near one source of 
the Jordan, on a hill now called Tell-el- 
kady. Laish at one time belonged to 
Zidon, and received the name of Dan 
from a portion of that tribe who con- 
quered and rebuilt it, Judg. 18. It was 
an idolatrous city even then, and was 

no 



afterwards the seat of one of the golden 
calves of Jeroboam, 1 Kin. 12:28; Amos 
8:14. Though once and again a very 
prosperous city, Judg. 18 : 10 ; Ezek. 
27:19, only slight remains of it now 
exist. 

DANCING. The Hebrew word signi- 
fied "to leap for joy," Psa. 30:11 ; and 
the action of the lame man healed by 
Peter and John, Acts 3:8, more nearly 
resembled the Hebrew dancing than the 
measured artificial steps of modern times 
do. The Jewish dances were expressive 
of religious joy and gratitude. Some- 
times they were in honor of a conqueror, 
as in the case of David, 1 Sam. 18:6, 7 ; 
when he had slain the Philistine giant, 
"the women came out of all the cities 
of Israel singing and dancing." It was 
practised on occasions of domestic joy. 
See the case of the prodigal son's return. 
In the religious dance, the timbrel was 
used to direct the ceremony, and some 
one led, whom the rest followed with 
measured step and devotional songs; 
thus Miriam led the women of Israel, 
Ex. 15:20, 21, and king David the men, 
2 Sam. 0:14; Psa. 160:4. Several im- 
portant conclusions have been drawn 
from a careful comparison of the por- 
tions of Scripture in which there is allu- 
sion to dancing. It was religious in its 
character ; practised exclusively on joy- 
ous occasions ; only by one of the sexes , 
usually in the daytime, and in the open 
air : no instances are on record in which 
the two sexes united in the exercise ; and 
it was not practised for amusement. The 
exceptions to this latter assertion are the 
"vain fellows," alluded toby Michal, 
2 Sam. 6 : 20, the ungodly rich ftimilies re- 
ferred to by Job, 21:11, and the daugh- 
ter of Herodias, Mark 14: 6. Among the 
Greeks and Romans dancing was a com- 
mon pastime, resorted to in order to en- 
liven feasts, and also on occasions of 
domestic joy. Still Cicero says, "No 
one dances, unless he is either drunk or 
mad ;" and these words express the pre- 
vailing sense as to the impropriety of 
respectable individuals taking part in 
the amusement. Hence the gay circles 
of Rome, as is the case in the East at the 
present time, derived their entertain- 
ment from the performances of profes- 
sional dancers. These were women of 
abandoned character ; and their dances, 
like those in heathen temples, were 
often grossly indecent, Isa. 23:16. 



DAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DAN 



DAN'IEL, I., called Belteshazzar by 
the Chaldeans, a prophet descended from 
the royal family of David, who was 
carried captive to Babylon, when very 
j^oung, in the fourth year of Jehoiakim 
Idng of Jiidah, b. c. 606. He was chosen, 
witli his three companions, Hananiah, 
Mishael, and Azariah, to reside at Neb- 
uchadnezzar's court, where he received 
a suitable education, and made great 
progress in all tlie sciences of the Chal- 
deans, but declined to pollute himself 
by eating provisions from the king's ta- 
ble, Avhich would often be ceremonially 
unclean to a Jew, or defiled by some con- 
nection with idol-worship. At the end 
of their three years' education, Daniel 
and his companions excelled all others, 
and received honorable appointments in 
the royal service. Here Daniel soon dis- 
played his prophetic gifts in interpreting 
a dream of Nebuchadnezzar, by whom he 
was made governor of Babylon, and head 
of the learned and priestly class. He 
seems to have been absent, perhaps on 
some foreign embassy, when his three 
companions were cast into the fiery fur- 
nace. At a later period he interpreted 
another dream of Nebuchadnezzar, and 
afterwards the celebrated vision of Bel- 
shazzar — one of whose last works was 
to promote Daniel to an office much 
higher than he had previously held dur- 
ing his reign, Dan. 5:29; 8:27. 

After the capture of Babylon by the 
Medes and Persians, under Cyaxares and 
Cyrus, Daniel was continued in all his 
high employments, and enjoyed the 
favor of these princes until his death, 
except at one short interval, when the 
envy of the other officers prevailed on 
the king to cast him into the lions' den, 
an act which recoiled on his foes to 
their own destruction. During this pe- 
riod he earnestly labored, by fiisting and 
prayer as well as by counsel, to secure 
the return of the Jews to their own land, 
the promised time having come, Dan. 9. 
He lived to see the decree issued, and 
many of his people restored ; but it is 
not known that lie ever revisited Jeru- 
salem. In the third year of Cyrus, he 
had a series of visions disclosing the 
state of the Jews till the coming of the 
promised Redeemer; and at last we see 
him calmly awaiting the peaceful close 
of a well-spent life, and the gracious res- 
urrection of the just. Daniel was one of 
the most spotless characters upon record. 



His youth and his age were alike devot- 
ed to God. He maintained his integrity 
in the most difiicult circumstances, and 
amid the fascinations of an eastern court 
he was pure and upright. He confessed 
the name of God before idolatrous prin- 
ces ; and would have been a martyr, but 
for the miracle which rescued him from 
death. His history deserves the care- 
ful and prayerful study of the young, 
and the lessons which it inculcates are 
weighty and rich in instruction. 

II. The second son of David, also 
called Chileab, I Chr. 3:1 ; 2 Sam. 3:3. 

III. A descendant of Ithamar, the 
fourth son of Aaron. He was one of 
the chiefs who accompanied Ezra from 
Babylon to Judea, and afterwards took a 
prominent part in the reformation of the 
people, Ezra 8:2. 

D ANTED, Book of. This is a mixture 
of history and prophecy. The first six 
chapters are chiefly historical, and the 
remainder prophetical. It was complet- 
ed about B. c. oo-I. The wonders related 
are of a peculiar and striking character, 
and were designed to show the people of 
God that, amid their degeneracy, the 
Lord's hand was not shortened that it 
could not save ; and also to exhibit to 
their enemies that there was an essential 
difference between Jehovah and idols, 
between the people of God and the 
world. The ixrophecies contained in the 
latter part of the book extend from the 
days of Daniel to the general resurrec- 
tion. The Assyrian, the Persian, the 
Grecian, and the Boman empires are de- 
scribed under appropriate imagery. The 
precise time of Christ's coming is told ; 
the rise and fall of antichrist, and the 
duration of his power, are accurately 
determined ; the victory of Christ over 
his enemies, and the universal preva- 
lence of his religion are clearly pointed 
out. The book is filled with the most 
exalted sentiments of piety and devout 
gratitude. Its style is simple, clear, and 
concise, and many of the prophecies are 
delivered in language so plain and cir- 
cumstantial, that some infidels have as- 
serted that they were written after the 
events they describe had taken place. 
Sir Isaac Newton regards Daniel as the 
most distinct and plain of all the proph- 
ets, and most easy to be understood ; 
and therefore considers that in things 
relating to the last times, lie is to be re- 
garded as the key to the other prophets. 
Ill 



DAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DAV 



With respect to the genuineness and 
authenticity of the book, there is the 
strongest evidence, botli internal and 
external. We have tlie testimony of 
Christ himself. Matt. 24:15 ; of St. John 
and St. Paul, who have copied his proph- 
ecies ; of the Jewish church and nation, 
who have constantly received this book 
as canonical ; of Josephus, who recom- 
mends him as the greatest of the proph- 
ets ; and of the Jewish Targums and 
Talmuds, which frequently cite his au- 
thority. As to the internal evidence, the 
style, the language, the manner of writ- 
ing, perfectly agree with the age ; and 
especially, he is proved to have been a 
prophet by the exact fulfilment of his 
predictions. This book, like that of 
Ezra, is written partly in HebrcAV, and 
partly in Chaldee, the prevailing lan- 
guage of the Babvlonians. 

I. DAIII'US THE MEDE, Dan. 5:31 ; 
9:1; 11:1, was son of Astyages king of 
the Medes, and brother of Mandane 
mother of Cyrus, and of Amy it the moth- 
er of Evil-merodach and grandmother of 
Belshazzar: thus he was uncle, by the 
mother's side, to Evil-merodach and to 
Cyrus. The Hebrew generally calls him 
Darius ; the Septuagint, Artaxerxes ; and 
Xenophon, Cyaxares. Darius dethroned 
Belshazzar king of the Chaldeans, and 
occupied the throne till his death two 
years after, when it reverted to the illus- 
trioxis Cyrus. In his reign Daniel was 
cast into the lions' den, Dan. 6. 

XL DARI'US HYSTAS'PIS, spoken of 
in Ezra 4-7, Haggai, and Zechariah, as 
the king who renewed the permission to 
rebuild the temple, given to the Jews by 
Cyrus and afterwards recalled. He suc- 
ceeded Smerdis, the Magian usurper, 
B. c. 521, and reigned thirty-six years. 
He removed the seat of government to 
Susa, whereupon Babylon rebelled against 
him ; but he subdued the rebellion and 
broke down the walls of Babylon, as was 
predicted, Jer. 51:58. 

III. DAPJ'US CODOMA'NUS, Neh. 
12:22, was one of the most brave and 
generous of the Persian kings. Alexan- 
der the Great defeated him several times, 
and at length subverted the Persian mon- 
archy, after it had been established two 
hundred and six years. Darius was killed 
by his own generals, after a short reign 
of six years. Thus were verified the 
prophecies of Daniel, ch. 8, who had fore- 
told the enlargement of the Persian nion- 
112 



archy, under the symbol of a ram, butt- 
ing with its horns westward, northward, 
and southward, which nothing could re- 
sist ; and its destruction by a goat hav- 
ing a very large horn between his eyes, 
(Alexander the Great,) coming from the 
west, and overrunning the world with- 
out touching the earth. Nothing can be 
added to the clearness of these prophe- 
cies, so exactly describing what in due 
time took place and is matter of history. 

DARK'NESS, the absence of natural 
light. Gen. 1:2, and hence figuratively a 
state of misery and adversity. Job 18:6 ; 
Psa. 107 : 10 ; Isa. 8 : 22 ; 9:1; also the 
absence of the sun and stars, and hence 
the fall of chief men and national con- 
vulsions, Isa. 13 : 10 ; Acts 2 : 20. " Works 
of darkness," are the impure mysteries 
practised in heathen worship, Eph. 5:11. 
' ' Outer darkness ' ' illustrates the gloom 
of those on whom the gates of heaven 
are closed. Matt. 8:12. The darkness in 
Egypt, Ex. 10:21-23, was miraculous; 
also that which covered all Judea with 
sympathetic gloom at the crucifixion of 
Christ, Luke 23 : 43. This could not 
have been caused by an eclipse of the 
sun ; for at the Passover the moon Avas 
full, and on the opposite side of the 
earth from the sun. 

DATE, the fruit of the palm-tree. See 
Palm. 

DA'THAN, one of the rebels, in com- 
pany with Korah, against the authority 
of Moses and Aaron, Num. 16. 

DAVID, beloved, the youngest son of 
Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, born in 
Bethlehem b. c. 1085 ; one of the most 
remarkable men in either sacred or sec- 
ular history. His life is fully recorded 
in 1 Sam. 16 to 1 Kin. 2. He was "the 
Lord's anointed," chosen by God to be 
king of Israel instead of Saul, and con- 
secrated to that office by the venerable 
prophet Samuel long before he actually 
came to the throne, I Sam. 16:1-13, for 
which God prepared him by the gift of 
his Spirit, and a long course of vicissi- 
tudes and dangers. In his early pasto- 
ral life he distinguished himself by his 
boldness, fidelity, and faith in God ; and 
while yet a youth was summoned to 
court, as one expert in music, valiant, 
prudent in behavior, and comely in per- 
son. He succeeded in relieving from 
time to time the mind of king Saul, op- 
pressed by a spirit of melancholy and 
remorse, and became a favorite attend- 



DAV 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DAV 



ant, ver. 21 ; but on the breaking out of 
war with tlie Philistines lie seems to 
have been released, and to have returned 
to take care of his father's flock. Prov- 
idence soon led him to visit the camp, 
and gave to his noble valor and faith 
the victory over the giant champion Go- 
liath. He returned to court crowned 
with honor, received a command in the 
army, acquitted himself well on all occa- 
sions, and rapidly gained the conlidence 
and love of the people. The jealousy of 
Saul, however, at length drove him to 
seek refuge in the wilderness of Judea ; 
where he soon gathered a band of six 
hundred men, whom he kept in perfect 
control and employed only against the 
enemies of the land. He was still pur- 
sued by Saul with implacable hostility ; 
and as he would not lift his hand against 
his king, though he often had him in his 
power, he at length judged it best to 
retire into the land of the Philistines. 
Here he Avas generously received ; but 
had found the difficulties of his position 
such as he could not honorably meet, 
when the death of Saul and Jonathan 
opened the way for him to the promised 
throne. 

He was at once chosen king over the 
house of Judah, at Hebron ; and after 
about seven years of hostilities was unan- 
imously chosen king by all the tribes of 
Israel, and established himself at Jemsa- 
lem — the founder of a royal family which 
continued till the downfall of the Jewish 
state. His character as a monarch is 
remarkable for fidelity to God, and to 
the great purposes for which he was call- 
ed to so responsible a position. The ark 
of God he conveyed to the Holy City with 
the highest demonstrations of honor and 
of joy. The ordinances of worship were 
remodelled and provided for with the 
greatest care. He administered justice 
to the people with impartiality, and gave 
a strong impulse to the general prosper- 
ity of the nation. His wisdom and en- 
ergy consolidated the Jewish kingdom ; 
and his warlike skill enabled him not 
only to resist with success the assaults of 
invaders, but to extend the bounds of the 
kingdom over the whole territory prom- 
ised in prophecv— from the Eed sea and 
Egypt to the Euphrates, Gen. 15 : 18 ; 
Josh. 1:3. With the spoils he took in 
war he enriched his people, and provided 
abundant materials for the magnificent 
temple he purposed to build in honor of 



Jehovah, but which it was Solomon's 
privilege to erect. 

David did not wholly escape the de- 
moralizing influences of prosperity and 
unrestricted power. His temptations 
were numerous and strong ; and though 
his general course was in striking con- 
trast with that of the kings around him, 
he fell into grievous sins. Like others 
in those days, he had numerous wives, 
and his later years were imbittered by 
the evil results of polygamy. His crimes 
in the case of Uriah and Bathsheba 
were heinous indeed ; but on awaking 
from his dream of folly, he repented in 
dust and ashes, meekly submitted to 
reproof and punishment, and sought and 
found mercy from God. Thenceforth 
frequent afflictions reminded him to be 
humble and self-distrustful. There were 
discords, profligacy, and murder in his 
own household. The histories of Ta- 
mar, Amnon, and Absalom show what 
anguish must have rent their father's 
heart. The rebellions of Absalom. She- 
ba, and Adonijah, the femine and plague 
that afflicted his people, the crimes of 
Joab, etc., led him to cry out, "0 that I 
had wings, like a dove ; then would I fly 
away, and be at rest." Yet his trials 
bore good fruit. His firmness and de- 
cision of character, his humility, noble- 
ness, and piety shine in his last acts, 
on the occasion of Adonijah' s rebellion. 
His charge to Solomon respecting the 
forfeited lives of Joab and Shimei, was 
the voice of justice and not of revenge. 
His preparations for the building of the 
temple, and the public service in which 
he devoted all to Jehovah, and called on 
all the people to bless the Lord God of 
their fathers, crown with singular beau- 
ty and glory the life of this eminent 
servant of God. After a reign of forty 
years, he died at the age of seventy-one. 

The mental abilities and acquirements 
of David were of a high order ; his gen- 
eral conduct was marked by generosity, 
integrity, fortitude, activity, and perse- 
verance ; and his religious character em- 
inently adorned by sincere, fervent, and 
exalted piety. He was statesman, war- 
rior, and poet all in one. In his Psalms 
he frankly reveals his whole heart. They 
are inspired poems, containing many 
prophetic passages, and wonderfully fitted 
to guide the devotions of the people of 
God so long as he has a chinch on earth. 
Though first sung by Hebrew tongues 
113 



DAY 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DEB 



in the vales of Bethlehem and on the 
heights of Zion, they sound as sweetly in 
language;^ then unknown, and are dear 
to Christian hearts all round the world. 
In introducing them into the temple ser- 
vice, David added an important means 
of instruction and edification to the for- 
mer ritual. 

In his kingly character, David was a 
remarkable type of Christ ; and his con- 
quests foreshadowed those of Christ's 
kingdom. His royal race was spiritually 
revived in the person of our Saviour, 
who was descended from him after the 
flesh, and who is therefore called "the 
Son of David," and is said to sit upon 
his throne. 

DAY. The day is distinguished mto 
natural, civil, and artificial. The natu- 
ral day is one revolution of the earth on 
its axis. The civil day is that, the begin- 
ning and end of wiiicli are determined 
by the custom of any nation. The He- 
brews began their day in the evening. 
Lev. 23 : 32 ; the Babylonians at sunrise ; 
and we begin at midnight. The artifi- 
cial day is the time of the sun's continu- 
ance above the horizon, which is une- 
qual according to difterent seasons, on 
account of the obliquity of the equator. 
The sacred writers generally divide the 
day into twelve hours. The sixth hour 
always ends at noon throughout the 
year ; and the twelfth hour is the last 
hour before sunset. But in summer, all 
the hours of the day were longer than 
in winter, while those of night were 
shorter. See Hours, and Three. 

The word day is also often put for an 
indeterminate period, for the time of 
Christ's coming in the flesh, and of his 
second coming to judgment, Isa. 2 : 12 ; 
Ezek. 13:5; John 11:24; 1 Thess. 5:2. 
The prophetic "day" usually is to be 
understood as one year, and the pro- 
phetic "year" or "time" as 360 days, 
Ezek. 4:6. Compare the three and a 
half years of Dan. 7:25, with the forty- 
two months and twelve hundred and 
sixty days of Rev. 11:2, 3. 

DEA'CON. The original meaning of 
this word is an attendant, assistant, 
helper. It is sometimes translated min- 
ister, that is, servant, as in Matt. 20:26; 
2 Cor. 6:4; Eph. 3:7. Deacons are first 
mentioned as officers in the Christian 
church in Acts 6, where it appears that 
their duty was to collect the alms of the 
church, and distribute them to such as 
114 



I had a claim upon them, visiting the poor 
i and sick, widows, orphans, and sufferers 
; under persecution, and administering all 

1 necessary and proper relief. Of the seven 
j there named, Philip and Stephen are 

afterwards found laboring as evangelists. 
The qualifications of deacons are speci- 
fied in ITim. 3:8-12. 

DEACONESS. Such women were 
called deaconesses as served the church 
in those offices in which the deacons 
could not with propriety engage ; such 
as keeping the doors of that part of the 
church where the women sat, privately 
instructing those of their own sex, and 
visiting others imprisoned for the faith. 
In Rom. 16:1, Phebe is said to be a " ser- 
vant ' ' of the church at Cenchrea ; but 
in the original Greek she is caUed dea- 
coness. 

DEAD SEA. See Sea. 

DEATH is taken in Scripture, first, 
for the separation of body and soul, the 
first death, Gen. 25 : II ; secondly, for 
alienation from God, and exposure to 
his wrath, I John 3 : 14, etc. ; thirdly, 
for the second death, that of eternal dam- 
nation. Death was the penalty affixed 
to Adam's transgression. Gen. 2:17; 
3:19; and all his posterity are trans- 
gressors, and share the curse inflicted 
upon him. Christ is "our life." All 
believers share his life, spiritually and 
I eternally ; and though sin and bodily 
death remain to afflict them, their sting 
is taken away, and in the resurrection 
the last enemv shall be trampled under 
foot, Rom. 5:i2-21 ; I Cor. 15. 

Natural death is described as a yield- 
ing iq5 of the breath, or spirit, expiring, 
Psa. 104:29 ; as a return to our original 
dust. Gen. 3 : 19 ; Eccl. 12:7 ; as the soul's 
laying off" the body, its clothing, 2 Cor. 
5:3,4, or the tent in which it has dwelt, 

2 Cor. 5:1 ; 2 Pet. 1:13, 14. The death 
of the believer is a departure, a going 
home, a falling asleep in Jesus, Phil. 
1:23; Matt. 26:24; John 11:11. 

The term death is also sometimes used 
for any great calamity, or imminent dan- 
ger threatening life, as persecution, 2Cor. 
1:10. " The gates of death, ' ' Job 38 : 17, 
signify the unseen world occupied by de- 
parted spirits. Death is also figuratively 
used to denote the insensibility of Chris- 
tians to the temptations of a sinful world, 
Col. 3:3. 

DE'BIR, a word, an oracle, Judg. 1:11, 
a place called also Kirjath-sepher, a 



DEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DEE 



city of books ; and Kirjatii-sannaii, a 
city of literature, Josh. 15:15,49. Judg- 
ing from the names, it appears to have 
been some sacred place among the Ca- 
naanites, and a repository of their rec- 
ords. It was a city in the south-west 
part of Judea, conquered from the Ana- 
kim by Joshua, but recaptured by the 
Canaanites, and resubdued by Othniel, 
and afterwards given to the priests, Josh. 
10:38, 39; 15:15-17 ; 21:15. Its site is 
wholly lost. There was another Debir 
in Gad, and a third on the border of 
Benjamin, Josh. 13:2G; 15:7. 

DEB'ORAH, I., a prophetess, and wife 
of Lapidoth, judged the Israelites, and 
dwelt under a palm-tree between Ramah 
and Bethel, Judg. 4:4, 5. She sent for 
Barak, directed him to attack Sisera, 
and promised him victory. Barak, how- 
ever, refused to go luiless she accompa- 
nied him, which she did, but told him 
that the success of the expedition would 
be imputed to a woman and not to him. 
After the victory, Deborah composed a 
splendid triumphal song, which is pre- 
served in Judg. 5. 

II. The nurse of Rebekah, whom she 
accompanied from Aram into Canaan, 
Gen. 24. At her death, near Bethel, she 
was buried witli honorable marks of af- 
fection, Gen. 35:8. There is something 
very beautiful in this simple and artless 
record, which would scarcely find a place 
in our grand histories, treating only of 
kings, statesmen, and renowned war- 
riors. They seldom take the trouble of 
erecting a memorial to obscure worth 
and a long life of humble usefulness. 

DEBTOR, one under obligations, 
whether pecuniary or moral, Matt. 
23 : 16 ; Rom. 1 : 14 ; Gal. 5:3. If the 
house, cattle, or goods of a Hebrew 
would not meet his debts, his land 
might be appropriated for this purpose 
until the year of Jubilee, or his person 
might be reduced into servitude till he 
had paid his debt by his labor, or till the 
year of Jubilee, which terminated He- 
brew bondage in all cases. Lev. 25:29- 
41; 2 Kin. 4:1; Neh. 5:3-5. 

DECALOGUE, the ten principal com- 
mandments, Exod. 20 : 3-17, from the 
Greek words deka, ten, and logos, word. 
The Jews call these precepts, The Ten 
Words. The usual division of the ten 
commandments among Protestants, is 
that which Josephus tells us was em- 
ployed by the Jews in his day. 



DECAP'OLIS, (from the Greek words, 
deka, ten, and poZw, a city,) a country in 
Palestine, which contained ten principal 
cities, on both sides of the Jordan, chief- 
ly the east, Matt. 4 : 25 ; Mark 5 : 20 ; 
7:31. According to Pliny, they were, 
Scythopolis, Philadelphia, Raphame, Ga- 
dara. Hippos, Dios, Pella, Gerasa, Cana- 
tlia, and Damascus. Josephus inserts 
Otopos instead of Canatha. Though 
within the limits of Israel, the Decapolis 
was inhabited by many foreigners, and 
hence it retained a foreign appellation. 
This may also account for the numerous 
herds of swine kept in the district, ^latt. 
8 : 30 ; a practice which was forbidden by 
the Mosaic law. 

DE'DAN, I., the grandson of Gush, 
Gen. 10:7 ; and II., the son of Jokshan, 
Abraham's son by Keturah, Gen. 25:3. 
Both were founders of tribes frequently 
named in Scripture. The descendants of 
the Cushite Dedan are supposed to have 
settled in southern Arabia, near the Per- 
sian gulf, in which there is an island 
called by the Arabs Daden. The de- 
scendants of the Abrahamite Dedan liv- 
ed in the neighborhood of Idumita, Jer. 
49 : 8. It is not clear, in all cases where 
the name occurs, which of the tribes is 
intended. It was probably the Cushite 
tribe which was employed in trade. The 
"travelling companies" of Dedan are 
mentioned by Isaiah, 21 : 13. They are 
also named with the merchants of Tar- 
shish by Ezekiel, 38:13, and were cele- 
brated on account of their trade with the 
Phoj^nicians. 

DEDICA'TIOX, a religious ceremony 
by which any person, place, or thing 
was devoted to a holy purpose. Thus 
the tabernacle and the first and second 
temples were dedicated to God, Ex. 40 ; 
1 Kin. 8 ; Ezra 6. The Jews also prac- 
tised a certain dedication of walls, houses, 



etc., Deut. 20:5; Neh. V. 



The "feast 



of the dedication" was a yearly com- 
memoration of the cleansing ancl reded- 
ication of the temple, when polluted by 
Antiochus Epiphanes, John 10:22. 

DEEP and DEPTHS. Tlie deep, or the 
great deep, signifies in Scripture, hell, the 
l^lace of punishment, the bottomless pit, 
Luke 8:31, compare Rev. 9:1; 11 : 7 ; 
the grave, Rom. 10:7 ; the deepest parts 
of the sea, Psa. 69 : 15 ; 107 : 26 ; chaos 
in the beginning of the world, Gen. 1:2. 
See Hell. 

DEER, a wild quadruped, of a middle 
115 



DEF 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DEL 




THE FALLOW-DEER. 

size between the stag and the roebuck ; 
its horns turn inward, and are large and 
flat. The Mlow-deer is naturally very 
timorous : it was reputed clean, and good 
for food, Deut. 14:5. Young deer are 
noticed in Proverbs, Songs, and Isaiah, 
as beautiful creatures, and very swift, 
Prov. 5:19. See Hind. 

DEFILE', DEFILEMENT. Many 
were the blemishes of person and con- 
duct which, under the Jewish ceremo- 
nial law, were esteemed defilements : 
some were voluntary, some involuntary ; 
some were inevitable, being defects of 
nature, others the consequences of per- 
sonal transgression. Under the gospel, 
defilements are those of the heart, of the 
mind, the temper, the conduct. Moral de- 
filements are as numerous, and as strong- 
ly prohibited under the gospel as ever, 
though ceremonial defilements have ceas- 
ed. Matt. 15 : 18 ; Rom. 1 : 24. See Clean. 

DEGREES', Psalms of, is the title pre- 
fixed to fifteen psalms, from Psa. 120 to 
Psa. 134 inclusive. Of this title com- 
mentators have proposed a variety of ex- 
planations. The most probable are the 
following : First, pilgrim songs, sung by 
the Israelites while going up to Jerusalem 
to worship ; compare Psa. 122:4 ; but to 
this explanation the contents of only a 
few of these psalms are approi:)riate, as 
for instance, of Psa. 122. Secondly, oth- 
ers suppose the title to refer to a species 
of rhythm in these psalms; bv which 
116 



the sense ascends, as it were, by degrees, 
one member or clause frequently repeat- 
ing the words with which the preceding 
member closes. Thus in Psa. 121, 

1. I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills, 
From whence cometh my help. 

2. My help cometh from the Lord, 
Who made heaven and earth. 

3. He will not suffer thy foot to be moved ; 
Thy keeper will not slumber. 

4. Lo, no< slumber ViOV sleep will the keeper 

of Israel. 

But this solution does not well apply to 
all these psalms. 

DEHA'VITES, a people beyond the 
Euphrates, who furnished colonists for 
Samaria, 2 Kin. 17:24; Ezra 4:9; sup- 
posed to be the Dahae, on the east of the 
Caspian sea, and under the Persian gov- 
ernment. 

DELI'LAH, a Philistine woman, whom 
Samson loved, and who betrayed him to 
the enemies of Israel, Judg. 16. 

DEL'UGE, that universal flood which 
was sent upon the earth in the time of 
Noah, and from which there were but 
eight persons saved. Moses' account of 
this event is recorded in Gen. 6-8. See 
Akk of Noah. The sins of mankind were 
the cause of the deluge ; and most com- 
mentators agree to place it a. m. 1656, 
B. c. 2348. After the door of the ark 
had been closed upon those that were to 
be saved, the deluge commenced : it 
rained forty days ; ' ' the fountains of the 
great deep were broken up, and the win- 
dows of heaven were opened." All men 
and all creatures living on the land per- 
ished, except Noah and those with him. 
For five months the waters continued to 
rise, and reached fifteen cubits above the 
highest summits to which any could fly 
for refuge ; "a shoreless ocean tumbled 
round the world." At length the wa- 
ters began to abate ; the highest land 
appeared, and the ark touched ground 
upon mount Ararat. In three months 
more the hills began to appear, Forty 
days after, Noah tested the state of the 
earth's surface by sending out a raven ; 
and then thrice, at intervals of a week, 
a dove. At length he removed the cov- 
ering of the ark, and found the flood had 
disappeared ; he came forth from the ark, 
reared an altar, and off'ered sacrifices to 
God, who appointed the rainbow as a 
pledge that he would no more destroy 
mankind with a flood. 



DEM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



DEV 



Since all nations have descended from 
the family then preserved in the ark, it 
is natural that the memory of such an 
event should be perpetuated in various 
national traditions. Such is indeed the 
fact. These traditions have been found 
among the Egyptians, Chaldeans, Phoe- 
nicians, Greeks, Hindoos, Chinese, Jap- 
anese, Scythians, and Celts, and in the 
western hemisphere among the Mexi- 
cans, Peruvians, and South sea island- 
ers. Much labor has been expended in 
searching for natural causes adequate 
to the production of a deluge ; but we ^ 
should beware of endeavoring to account | 
on natural principles for that which the 
Bible represents as miraculous. 

In the New Testament, the deluge is 
spoken of as a stupendous exhibition of 
divine power, lilce the creation and the 
final burning of the world. It is applied 
to illustrate the long suffering of God, 
and assure us of his judgment on sin, 
2 Pet. 3:5-7, and of the second coming 
of Christ, Matt. 24:38. 

DE'MAS, a fellow-laborer with Paul at 
Thessalonica, who afterwards deserted 
him, either discouraged by the hard- 
ships of the work, or allured by the love 
of the world. Col. 4 : 14 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 10 ; 
Phile. 24. 

DEME'TKIUS, L, a goldsmith of Eph- 
esus, who made models of the famous 
temple of Diana at Ephesus, which he 
Rold to foreigners. Acts 19 : 24-41. Ob- 
serving the pi'ogress of the gospel, not 
in Ephesus only, but in the regions 
around, he assembled his fellow-crafts- 
men, and represented that, by this new 
doctrine, not only their trade would suf- 
fer, but the worship of the great Diana 
of Ephesus was in danger of being en- 
tirely forsaken. This produced an up- 
roar and riot in the city, which the town- 
clerk with difficulty appeased by firm- 
ness and persuasion. 

II. A disciple, and probably a minis- 
ter, of high repute, 3 John 12. He may 
have been formerly the silversmith of 
Ephesus ; but this can be neither proved 
nor disproved. 

DER'BE, a small town of Lycaonia, in 
Asia Minor, to which Paul and Barnabas 
fled from Lystra, a. d. 41, Acts 14 : 20. 
It lay at the foot of the Taurus moun- 
tains on the north, sixteen or twenty 
miles east of Lystra. The two mission- 
aries gained many disciples here, and 
among them perhaps Gaius, who after- 



wards labored with Paul, Acts 14:21; 
20:4. 

DES'EBT. The Scriptures, by "des- 
ert," generally mean an uncultivated 
place, a wilderness, or grazing tract. 
Some deserts were entirely dry and bar- 
ren ; others were beautiful, and had 
good pastures. David speaks of the 
beauty of the desert, Psa. 65 : 12, 13. 
Scripture names several deserts in the 
Holy Land. Other deserts particularly 
mentioned, are "that great and terrible 
wilderness ' ' in Arabia Petnca, south of 
Canaan, Num. 21 : 20 ; also the region 
between Canaan and the Euphrates, Ex. 
23 : 31 ; Deut. 11 : 24. The pastures of 
this wilderness are clothed in winter and 
spring with rich and tender herbage ; 
but the heat of summer soon burns this 
up, and the Arabs are driven to seek 
pasturage elsewhere. 

DEUTERON'OMY, or the repetition 
of the law, the fifth book of the Penta- 
teuch, so called by the Greeks, because 
in it Moses recapitulates what he had 
ordained in the preceding books, Deut. 
1:1-6; 29:1; 31:1; 33. This book con- 
tains the history of what passed in the 
wilderness from the beginning of the 
eleventh month, to the seventh day of 
the twelfth month, in the fortieth year 
after the Israelites' departure from 
Egypt, that is, about six weeks, b. c. 
1451. That part which mentions the 
death of Moses was added afterwards, 
very probaltly by Jo.shua. 

The book of Deuteronomy is the sub- 
lime and precious valedictory address of 
the inspired "man of God," now ven- 
erable for his age and experience, and 
standing almost in the gate of heaven. 
He gives the people of God his fatherly 
counsel and blessing, and then goes up 
into mount Pisgah alone to die. He re- 
counts the dealings of God with them ; 
recapitulates his laws ; shows them why 
they should love him, and how they 
should serve him. It is full of tender 
solicitude, wise instruction, faithful 
warning, and the zealous love of a pa- 
triot and a prophet for the people of 
God, whom he had borne on his heart 
so long. It is often quoted by later in- 
spired writers, and V)y our Lord, Matt. 
4:4, 7, 10. 

DEVTL, a fallen angel ; and particu- 
larly the chief of them, the devil, or Sa- 
tan. He is the great principle of evil in 
the world ; and it is his grand object to 
117 



DEV 



BIBLE DICTIONAlir. 



DIA 



counteract the good which God desires 
to do. He exerts himself, especially with 
his angels, to draw away the souls of 
men from embracing salvation through 
Jesus Christ. 

His name signifies the calumniator, 
or false accuser ; as the Hebrew Satan 
means the adversary. But the Scrip- 
tures give him various other appella- 
tions descriptive of his character. He is 
called, ' ' The prince of this world," John 
12:31; " The prince of the power of the 
air, ' ' Eph. 2:2; " The god of this Avorld, ' ' 
2 Cor. 4:4; "The dragon, that old ser- 
pent, the devil," Rev. 20:2 ; "That wick- 
ed one," 1 John 5: 18; "A roaring lion," 
1 Pet. 5:8; "A murderer," "a liar," 
John 8:44; "Beelzebub," Matt. 12:24; 
"Belial," 2 Cor. 6:15; "The accuser of 
the brethren," Rev. 12:10. He is every- 
where shown to be full of malignity, cru- 
elty, and deceit, hating God and man. 
He is ceaselessly active in his efforts to 
destroy souls, and uses innumerable de- 
vices and wiles to adapt his temptations 
to the varying characters and conditions 
of men, enticing wicked men, and even 
good men at times, as well as his own 
angels, to aid in his work. Almost the 
whole world has been under his sway. 
But he is a doomed foe. Christ shall 
bruise the serpent's head ; shall dispos- 
sess him from the world, as he has done 
from individuals, and at length confine 
him for ever in the place prepared for 
him and his angels. Matt. 25:41. 

The word "devils" occui-s frequently 
in the gospels ; but it is the translation 
of a different Greek word from that used 
to denote the devil, and might be ren- 
dered "demons." The Bible applies the 
other word only to Satan — -"the devil, 
and his angels," who are like their 
leader in nature and in actions. There 
are many examples in the New Testa- 
ment of persons possessed by demons. 
These are often called demoniacs. Some 
have argued that these were afflicted by 
natural diseases, such as epilepsy, in- 
sanity, etc., and were not possessed by 
evil spirits. But our Saviour speaks to 
and commands the demons who actuated 
the possessed, which demons answered 
and obeyed, and gave proofs of their 
presence by tormenting those whom they 
were obliged to quit. Christ alleges, as 
proof of his mission, that the demons are 
cast out ; he promises his apostles the 
same power that he himself exercised 
118 



against those wicked spirits. Campbell 
says, ' ' When 1 find mention made of the 
number of demons in particular posses- 
sions, their actions so particularly distin- 
guished from the actions of the man pos- 
sessed, conversations held by the former 
in regard to the disposal of them after 
their expulsion, and accounts given how 
they were actually disposed of — when I 
find desires and passions asciibed partic- 
ularly to them, and similitudes taken 
from the conduct which they usually 
observe, it is impossible for me to deny 
their existence." 

DEW. The dews hi Palestine and 
some other oriental countries are very 
copious, and serve very greatly to sus- 
tain and promote vegetation in seasons 
when little or no rain falls. Maundrell 
tells us that the tents of his company, 
when pitched on Tabor and Hermon, 
"were as wet with dew as if it had rain- 
ed on them all night," Judg. 6:38 ; Song 
5:2. Dew was especially heavy near the 
mountains, and just before and after the 
rainy season. It was prized as a precious 
boon of Providence, Gen. 27:28; Deut. 
33 : 28 ; 1 Kin. 17 : 1 ; Job 29:19 ; Hag. 
1:10; Zech. 8:12. The dew furnishes 
the sacred penmen with many beautiful 
allusiuns, Deut. 32 : 2 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 12 ; 
Psa. 110 : 3 ; Prov. 19 : 12 ; Hos. 14 : 5 ; 
Mic. 5:7. 




ANTIQUE STONE SUN-DIAL. 

DIAL, an instrument much used be- 
fore the invention of clocks, to tell the 
time of day by the progress of the sun's 
shadow. The dial of Ahaz, 2 Kin. 20:11 ; 
I-;a. 38:1-9, seems to have been peculiar 
either in structure or size, and was per- 
haps borrowed from Babylon or Damas- 



DIA 



BIBLE DICTlOXAlir 



DIG 



cus, 2 Kin. 16 : 10. The causing the 
shadow iipon it to go back ten degrees, 
to assure king Hezekiah of his recovery 
from sickness, was probably effected not 
by arresting and turning backwards the 
revolution of the earth, but by a mirac- 
ulous refraction of the sun's rays, ob- 
served onl}' in Judea, though the fame 
of it reached Babylon, 2 Chr. 32:31. 

DI'AMOND, the hardest and most 
brilliant of gems, very rare and costly. 
The largest diamonds known in the 
world, procured from India and Brazil, 
are guarded among the royal treasures 
of England, Eussia, etc., and valued at 
immense sums. Common diamonds are 
used not only for ornaments, but for cut- 
ting and graving hard substances, Jer. 
17:1. The Hebrew word here used is 
called "adamant" in Ezek. 3:9; Zech. 
7 : 12. See Adamant. There is another 
Hebrew word also translated "dia- 
mond," Ex. 28:18; 39:11; Ezek. 28:13, 
and thought by some to mean the topaz. 
The diamond is carbon in its purest and 
crystalline form. 

DIANA, or Ar'temis, a celebrated god- 
dess of the llomans and Greeks, and one 
of their twelve superior deities. In the 
heavens she was Luna, (the moon,) on 
earth Diana, in the unseen world Hecate. 
8he was invoked by women in childbirth 
under the name of Lucina. She was usu- 
ally represented Avith a crescent on her 
head, a bow in her hand, and dressed in 
a hunting-habit, because she was said to 
preside over forests and hunting. Diana 
was said to be the daughter of Jupiter 
by Latona, and twin sister of Apollo. 
As Hecate, she was regarded as sangui- 
nary and pitiless ; as goddess of hunt- 
ing and the forests, she was chaste, but 
haughty and vindictive ; as associated 
with the moon, she was capricious and 
wanton. The Diana of Ephesus was like 
the Syrian goddess Ashtoreth, and ap- 
pears to have been worshipped with im- 
])ure rites and magical mysteries. Acts 
19:19. Her image, fobled to have fallen 
down from Jupiter in heaven, seems to 
h ive been a block of wood tapermg to 
the foot, with a female bust above cov- 
ered with many breasts, the head crown- 
ed with turrets, and each hand resting 
on a staff. It was of great antiquity, and 
highly venerated. 

The temple of this goddess was the 
pride and glory of Ephesus. It was 425 
feet long, and 220 broad, and had 127 



columns of wliite marble, each 60 feet 
high. Its treasures were of immense 
value. It was 220 years in building, 
and was one of the seven wonders of the 
world. In the year when Alexander the 
Great was born, b. c. 356, it was burned 
down by oiie llerostratus, in order to 
immortalize his name, but was after- 
wards rebuilt with even greater splen- 
dor. The "silver shrines for Diana," 
made by Demetrius and others, were 
probably small models of the same for 
domestic use, and for sale to travellers 
and visitors. Ancient ccins of Ephesus 
represent the shrine and statue of Diana, 
with a Greek inscription, meaning "of 
the Ephesians," Acts 19:28, 34, 35. 

DI'BON, Di'MON, Isa. 15 : 9, and Di'- 
BON-GAD', Num. 33 : 45, 46, a town of 
Gad, Num. 32 : 34, but afterwards of 
Reuben, Josh. 13:17. It lay in a plain 
just north of the Arnon, and was the 
lirst encampment of the Israelites upon 
crossing that river. Later we find it in 
the hands of the Moabites, Isa. 15:2; 
Jer. 48 : 22. Traces of it remain at a 
place noAv called Diban. 

DIK'LAH, a tribe descended from Jok- 
tan. Gen. 10:27, and dwelling in South- 
ern Arabia, or perhaps near the head of 
the Persian gulf. 

DI'NAH, daughter of Jacob by Leah, 
Gen. 30:21, his only daughter named in 
Scripture. While the family were so- 
jomning near Shalem, she heedlessly 
associated with the Canaanitish maid- 
ens, and fell a victim to the seductive 
arts of Shechem, a young prince of the 
land ; but was perfidiously and savagely 
avenged by Simeon and Levi, her full 
brothers, to the great grief of Jacob 
their father. Gen. 34 ; 49 : 5, 7. She 
seems to have gone with the family to 
Egypt, Gen. 46:15. 

DIONYSTUS, a member of the court 
of the Areopagus at Athens, converted 
under the preaching of Paul, Acts 17:34. 
Tradition says that he was eminent for 
learning, that he was ordained by Paul 
at Athens, and after many labors and 
trials, suffered martyrdom by lire. Tlie 
works ascribed to him are spurious, be- 
ing the product of some unknown writer 
in the fourth or fifth centur3\ 

DIOT'REPHES, an influential mem- 
ber, perhaps minfeter, of some early 
church, censured by John for his jealous 
ambition, and his violent rejection of 
the beat Christians, 3 John 9, 10. 
119 



DIS 



BIBLE BICTIONAUY 



DOE 



DISCERN'ING OF SPIRITS, 1 Cor. 
12:10, a miraculous gift of the Holy 
Ghost to certain of the early church, 
empowering them to judge of the real 
character of those who professed to love 
Christ, and to be inspired to teach in his 
name, 1 John 4:1 ; 2 John 7. Compare 
Acts 5: 1-10; 13:6-12. 

DISCI'PLE, a scholar, Matt. 10:24. In 
the New Testament it is applied princi- 
pally to the followers of Christ ; some- 
times to those of John the Baptist, Matt. 
9:14, and of the Pharisees, Matt. 22:16. 
It is used in a special manner to point 
out the twelve, Matt. 10:1 ; 11 :1 ; 20:17. 
A disciple of Christ may now he defined 
as one who believes his doctrine, rests 
upon his sacrifice, imbibes his spirit, im- 
itates his example, and lives to do his 
work. 

DISCOV'ER, Mic. 1:6, to uncover, or 
lay 1:)are. 

DISEAS'ES were introduced into the 
world by sin, and have been greatly 
increased by the prevalence of corrupt, 
indolent, and luxurious habits. Besides 
the natural causes of diseases, evil spir- 
its were charged with producing them 
among the Hebrews, Job 2:7; Mark 
9 : 17 ; Luke 13 : 16 ; 2 Cor. 12 : 7. The 
pious Jews recognized the hand of God 
m sending them, Psa. 39:9-11 ; 90:3-12 ; 
*and in many cases special diseases were 
sent in punishment of particular sins, 
as Abimelech, Gehazi, Jehoram, Uzziah, 
Miriam, Herod, the Philistines, etc., 
and those who partook of the Lord's 
supper unworthily, 1 Cor. 11:30. Christ 
manifested his divine goodness and pow- 
er by healing every form of disease ; and 
in these cases, as in that of king Asa, 
2 Chr. 16 : 12, it is shown that all the 
skill of physicians is in vain without 
God's blessing. The prevalent diseases 
in Bible lands were malignant fevers, 
cutaneous diseases, palsy, dysentery, and 
ophthalmia. Almost every form of bod- 
ily disease has a counterpart in the mal- 
adies of the soul. 

DISPENSATION, the charge of pro- 
claiming the gospel of Christ, 1 Cor. 
9 : 17 ; Eph. 3 : 2. Also the scheme or 
plan of God's dealings with men. In 
the Patriarchal, Mosaic, and Christian 
dispensations, God has commenced, en- 
larged, and perfected his revelation of 
himself and his grace to this world, Eph. 
1:10; Col. 1:25. The whole develop- 
ment of his great plan has been gradual, 
120 



and adapted at every stage to the exist- 
ing state of the human familv. 

DIVINATION. The Eastern people 
were fond of divination, magic, and the 
pretended art of interpreting dreams 
and acquiring a knowledge of futurity. 
When Moses published the law, this 
disposition had long been common in 
Egypt and the neighboring countries ; 
and to correct the Israelites' inclination 
to consult diviners, wizards, fortune-tell- 
ers, and interpreters of dreams, it was 
forbidden them under very severe pen- 
alties, and the true spirit of prophecy 
was promised to them as infinitely supe- 
rior, Ex. 22:18 ; Lev. 19:26, 31 ; 20: 27. 
Those were to be stoned who pretended 
to have a familiar spirit, or the spirit 
of divination, Deut. 18 : 9-12 ; and the 
prophecies are full of invectives against 
the Israelites who consulted such, as 
well as against false prophets, who se- 
duced the people, Isa. 8:19; 47:11-14; 
Ezek. 13:6-9. A fresh impulse to these 
superstitions was gained from inter- 
course with the Chaldeans, during the 
reign of the later kings of Judah and 
the captivities in Babylon, 2 Kin. 21:6 ; 
2 Chr. 33:6. See Magic, Sorcerers. 

Divination was of several kinds : by 
water, fire, earth, air ; by the flight of 
birds, and their singing ; by lots, dreams, 
arrows, clouds, entrails of sacrifices, pre- 
tended communication with spirits, etc. , 
Ezek. 21:21. 

DIVORCE' was tolerated by Moses for 
sufficient reasons, Deut. 24:1-4 ; but our 
Lord has limited it to the single case of 
adultery. Matt.. 5:81, 32. 

DOC'TOR or the Law may perhaps 
be distinguished from scribe, as rather 
teaching orally, than giving written 
opinions, Luke 2 : 46. It implies one 
learned in the divine law\ Doctors of 
the law were mostly of the sect of the 
Pharisees, but are distinguished from 
that sect in Luke 5:17, where it appears 
that the novelty of our Saviour's teach- 
ing drew together a great company both 
of Pharisees and doctors of the law. 

DOD'ANIM, or Rodanim, 1 Chr. 1:7, 
a people descended from Japhet through 
Javan, Gen. 10:4. They are associated, 
by the above passage, and by dim ety- 
mological inferences, with the i.sland of 
Rhodes or some location on the north 
coast of the Mediterranean. 

DO'EG, an Edomite, overseer of Saul's 
flocks. At Nob he witnessed the relief 



DOG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



DRA 



kindly furnished to David when fleeing 
from Saul, by Ahimelech the high-priest, 
and carried a malicious and distorted re- 
port of it to his master. Tlie king gladly 
seized the opportunity to wreak his pas- 
sion on a helpless victim ; and when the 
Jews around him refused to slay the 
priests of God, infamously used the will- 
ing services of this alien and heathen. 
Doeg not only slew Ahimelech and 
eighty-four other priests, but put the 
town in which they dwelt to the sword, 
1 Sam. 21; 22. David forebodes his 
wretched fate, Psa. 52 ; 120 ; 140. 

DOGS were held in great contempt by 
the Jews, but were worshipped, as well 
as cats, by the Egyptians. Among the 
Jews, to compare a person to a dog was 
the most degrading expression possible, 
1 Sam. 17:43; 24:14; 2 Sam. 9:8. The 
state of dogs among the Jews was the 
same that now prevails in the East, 
where, having no owners, they run 
about the streets in troops, and are fed 
by charity or caprice, or live on such 
oiial as they can pick up. As they are 
often on the point of starvation, they 
devour corpses, and in the night even 
attack living men, Psa. 59 : 6, 14, 15 ; 
1 Kin. 14: 11. In various places in Scrip- 
ture the epithet ' ' dogs ' ' is given to cer- 
tain classes of men, as expressing their 
insolent rapacity. Matt. 7:6 ; Psa. 22:16; 
Phil. 3:2, and their beastly vices, Deut. 
23:18; 2 Pet. 2:22; Rev. 22:15. 

DOR, a royal city of the Canaanites, 
on the Mediterranean between Coesarea 
and mount Carmel ; after the conquest 
it was assigned to Manasseh, Josh. 11 :2; 
12:23; 17:11; 1 Kin. 4:11; IChr. 7:29. 
There is now a small port there, with 
about 500 inhabitants. 

DOR'CAS in Greek, the same as Tabi- 
TiiA in Syriac, that is, gazelle, the name 
of a pious and charitable woman at Jop- 
pa. whom Peter raised from the dead, 
Acts 9:36-42. 

DO'THAN, or DoTHA'iN, the place 
where Joseph was sold to the Ishmael- 
ites. Gen. 37:17, and where the Sja-ians 
were smitten with blindness at Eiisha's 
word, 2 Kin. 6:13. It was on the cara- 
van-route from Syria to Egypt, about 
eleven miles north of Samaria. 

DOVES were clean according to the 
Mosaic ritual, and were offered in sacri- 
fice, especially by the poor, Gen. 15:9; 
Lev. 5:7; 12:0-8; Luke 2:24. Several 
kinds of doves or pigeons frequented the 




THE EASTERN CARRIER-DOVE. 

Holy Land ; and the immense flocks of 
them sometimes witnessed illustrate a 
passage in Isaiah, 60:8. They are sym- 
bols of simplicitv, innocence, and fidel- 
ity, Hos. 7:11 ; Matt. 10:16. The dove 
was the chosen harbinger of God's re- 
turning favor after the flood. Gen. 8, and 
Avas honored as an emblem of the Holy 
Spirit, Matt. 3:16. See Turtledove. 

DOVES' DUNG. It is said, 2 Kin. 
6:25, that during the siege of Samaria, 
"the fourth part of a cab," little more 
than half a pint, "of doves' dung was 
sold for live pieces of silver, ' ' about two 
and a half dollars. As doves' dung is 
not a nourishment for man, even in the 
most extreme famine, the general opin- 
ion is, that it Avas a kind of chick-pea, 
lentil, or tare, which has very much the 
appearance of doves' dung. Great quan- 
tities of these are sold in Cairo to the 
pilgrims going to Mecca ; and at Damas- 
cus there are many shops where nothing 
else is done but preparing chick-peas. 
These, parched in a copper pan, and 
dried, are of great service to those who 
take long journeys. 

DOW'RY. In eastern countries the 
bridegroom was required to pay the fa- 
ther of his betrothed a stipulated por- 
tion, in money or other valuables, pro- 
portioned to the rank and station of the 
family to which she belonged ; this Avas 
the dowry. Jacob purchased his Avives 
by his services to their father. Gen. 
29:18-27; 34:12; Ex. 22:16-17; ISam. 
18:25; Hos. 3:2. 

DPiAG'ON answers, in the English Bi- 
ble, to the Hebrew Avord signifying a sea- 
monster, huge serpent, etc. Thus in 
Deut. 32:33, Jer. 51:34, and Rev. 12, it 
evidentlv implies a huge serpent : in 
Isa. 27 :' 1 : 51 : 9 ; Ezek. 29 : 3, it niav 
121 



Dr. A 



UiliLE iJiCTiOXAKV. 



DLIV 



iintan llie crocodile, or any large sea- I 
monster ; Avhile in Job C0:29 ; Lam. 4:3 ; { 
Mic. 1:8, it seems to refer to some wild , 
animal of the desert, most probably the | 
jackal. The animal known to modern j 
naturalists under the name of dragon, is ; 
a harmless species of lizard, found in Asia I 
and Africa. 

DRAG 'ON- WELL, Keh. 2:13; proba- I 
bly the fountain of Gihon, on the west 
side of Jerusalem. 

DRAM, Ezra 2:G9, a gold coin of Per- 
sia, worth about five dollars. 

DRAUGHT, a cess-pool or receptacle 
for filth, 2 Kin. 10 : 27 : Matt. 15 : 17. 
Also, all the fishes taken at one drawing 
of a net, Luke 5:9. 

DREAM. The orientals, and in partic- 
ular the Jews, greatly regarded dreams, 
and applied for their interpretation to 
those who rmdertook to explain them. 
We see the antiquity of this custom in 
the history of Pharaoh's butler and bak- 
er. Gen. 40 ; and Pharaoh himself and 
Nebuchadnezzar are also instances. God 
expressly forbade his people to observe 
dreams, and to consult explainers of 
them. He condemned to death all who 
pretended to have prophetic dreams, 
even though what they foretold came to 
pass, if they had any tendency to pro- 
mote idolatry. Dent. 13:1-3. But they 
Avere not forbidden, when they thought 
they had a significant dream, to address 
the* prophets of the Lord, or the high- 
priest in his ephod, to have it explained. 
The Lord frequently made known his 
will in dreams, and enabled persons to 
explain them. Gen. 20:3-7; 28:12-15; 
1 8am. 28:6; Dan. 2; Joel 2:28; Matt. 
1 : 20 ; Acts 27 : 22. Supernatural dreams 
are distinguished from visions, in that 
the former occurred during sleep, and 
the latter when the person was awake. 
God spoke to Abimelech in a dream, but 
to Abraham by vision. In both cases he 
left on the mind an assurance of the cer- 
tainty of whatever he revealed. Both 
are now superseded by the Bible, our 
sure and sufficient guide through earth 
to heaven. 

DREGS. See Leks. 
DRESS'ES. See GARirexxs. 
DRINK'-OFFERING, a small quantity 
of wine, part of which Avas to be poured 
on the sacrifice or meat-offering, and the 
residue given to the priests, Ex. 29:40 ; 
Lev. 23:18 ; Num. 15:5, 7. It may have 
been appointed as an acknowledgment 
122 



that all the blessings of the earth are 
from God, Gen. 35:14. 

DRO]M'EDARY. See Camel. 
DROUGHT w^as an evil to which Pal- 
estine was naturally subject, as no rain 
fell from May to September. During 
these months of summer, the ground 
became parched and cleft, the streams 
and springs became dry, and vegetation 
was kept from extinction by the dews at 
night and by artificial irrigation. If rain 
did not come in its season and abun- 
dantly, the distress was general and 
dreadful. A drought therefore is threat- 
ened as one of God's sorest judgments. 
Job 24 : 19 ; Jer. 50 : 38 ; Joel 1 : 10-20 ; 
Hag. 1 :11 ; and there are many allusions 
to its horrors in Scripture, Deut. 28:23 ; 
Psa. 32:4; 102:4. 

DRUNK'ENNESS is referred to in the 

Bible both in single instances and as a 

habit. Its folly is often illustrated, Psa. 

107:27; Isa. 19:14; 24:20; 28:7, 8, its 

guilt denounced, Isa. 5:22, its ill results 

traced, 1 Sam. 25 : 36 ; 1 Kin. 16 : 9 ; 

20:16, and its doom shown, 1 Cor. 6:9, 

10. It is produced by wine. Gen. 9:21 ; 

21:33 ; Jer. 23:9 ; Eph. 5:18, as well as 

by "strong drink," 1 Sam. 1:13-15; 

Isa. 5:11. Hence the use of these was 

forbidden to the priests at the altar. Lev. 

10:9; and all are cautioned to avoid 

them, Prov. 20 : 1 ; 23 : SO. To tempt 

I others to drunkenness is a sin accursed 

i of God, 2 Sam. 11 : 13 ; Hab. 2 : 15, 16. 

j Its prevalence in a community is inse]> 

arable from the habitual use of any in- 

I ebriating liquor. Hence the eflorts made 

by the wise and good to secure absti- 

I nence from all intoxicating drinks, 1 Cor. 

! 8:13. See Wine. 

j DRUSIL'LA, the youngest daughter 
of Plerod Agrippa I., and sister of the 
! younger Agrippa and Bernice, celebrated 
j for her beauty and infamous for her li- 
centiousness. She was first espoused to 
Epiphanes, son of Anticchus king of Co- 
magena, on condition of his embracing 
the JeAvish religion ; but as he after- 
Avards refused to be circumcised, Drusilla 
Avas given in marriage by her brother to 
Azizus king of Emessa. When Felix 
came as governor of Judea, he persuaded 
her to abandon her husband and her re- 
ligion, and become his Avife. Paul bore 
testimony before them to the truth of 
the Christian religion, Acts 24:24. She 
and her son afterAvards perished in an 
eruption of Vesuvius. 



■DUK 



lilBLE DKTIOXAllY. 



EAG 



DUKE. In Gen. 30:15-43, is a long 
list of "dukes " of EJom ; but the word 
duke, from the Latin dux, merely signi- 
fies a leader, and not an order of nobili- 
ty ; and the word chief or sheikh would 
have been preferable in our translation, 
iChr. 1:51. 

DUL'CIMER, Dan. 3:5, 10, an instru- 
ment of music, which tlie rabbins de- 
scribe as a sort of bagpipe, composed of 
two pipes connected with a leathern sack, 
and of a harsh, screaming sound. The 
modern dulcimer is an instrument of a 
triangular form, strung with about fifty 
wires, and struck with an iron key while 
lying on the table before the performer. 
See ]\Irsrc. 

DU']MAH, a tribe and country of the 
Ishmaelites in Arabia, Gen. 25 : 11 ; 1 Chr. 
1:30 ; Isa. 21:11. Tliis is doubtless the 
same Avhich is still called by the Arabs 
"Duma the stony" and "the Syrian 
Duma," situated on the confines oi the 
Arabian and Syrian desert, with a for- 
tress. 

DUXG. Among the Israelites, the 
dung of animals was used not only for 
manure, but, when dried, for fuel. In 
districts where wood is scarce, the in- 
habitants are very careful in collecting 
the dung of camels or asses ; it is mixed 
v/ith chopped straw, and dried. It is 
not unusual to see a Avholc village with 
portions of this material adhering to the 
walls of the cottages to dry ; and towards 
the end of autumn it is piled in conical 
heaps or stacks on the roof. It is em- 
ployed in heating ovens, and for other 
similar purposes, Ezek. 4 : 12-16. The 
use of dung for manure is intimated in 
Isa. 25:10. 

DU'RA, the plain in Babylon where 
Nebuchadnezzar set up his golden im- 
age, Dan. 3:1. 

DUST, Josh. 7:6. Dust or ashes put 
upon the head was a sign of mourning ; 
sitting in the dust, a sign of affliction, 
Lam. o:2'J; Isa. 47:1. "Dust" is also 
put for the grave, Gen. 3:19 ; Job 7:21. 
It signifies a multitude. Gen. 13:16, and 
a low and mean condition, 1 Sam. 2:8. 
We have two remarkable instances of 
casting dust recorded in Scripture, and 
they seem to illustrate a practice com- 
mon in Asia : those who demanded jus- j 
tice against a criminal were accustomed i 
to throw dust upon him, signifying that 
he deserved to be cast into the grave. 
Shimei cast dust upon David when he 



fled from Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 10:13. The 
Jews treated the apostle Paul in a simi- 
lar manner in the same city : ' ' They 
cried out, ' Away with such a fellow from 
the earth ; for it is not fit that he should 
live.' And as they cried out, and cast 
ofl' their clothes, and threw dust into the 
air, the chief captain commanded him to 
be brou2:ht into the castle," Acts 22:22- 
24. To" shake off the dust of the feet 
against another was expressive of entire 
renunciation. Matt. 10:14; Mark 6:11; 
Acts 13 : 51. The threatening of God, 
recorded in Deut. 28:24, "The Lord 
shall make the rain of thy land powder 
and dust: from heaven shall it come 
down upon thee, until thou be destroy- 
ed," means that instead of fertilizing 
rains, clouds of fine dust, raised from 
the parched ground and driven by fierce 
and burning winds, shall fill the air. 
Of such a rain of dust, famine and dis- 
ease would be the natural attendants. 
See WixD. 



E. 



EA'GLE, Job 39 : 27-30, a large and 
very powerful bird of prey, hence called 
the King of birds. There are several 
species of eagle described by naturalists, 




and it is probable that this word in the 
Bible comprehends more than one of 
these. The noble eastern species, called 
by Mr. Bruce "the golden eagle," meas- 
ures eight feet four inches from wing to 
wing ; and from the tip of his tail to the 
point of his beak, when dead, four feet 
123 



EAR 



BIBLE DlCTiUNAKV. 



EAS 



seven inches. Of all known birds, the 
eagle flies not only the highest, Frov. 
23:5 ; Jer. 49:16 ; Obad. 4, hut also with 
the greatest rapidity. To this circum- 
stance there are several striking allusions 
in the sacred volume, 2 Sam. 1:23 ; Job 
9 : 26 ; Lam. 4 : 19. Among the evils 
threatened to the Israelites in case of 
their disobedience, the prophet names 
one in the following terms : ' ' The Lord 
shall bring a nation against thee from 
far, from the end of the earth, as swift 
as the eagle flieth," Deut. 28:49. The 
march of Nebuchadnezzar against Jeru- 
salem, is predicted in similar terms : 
"Behold, he shall come up as clouds, 
and his chariots as a whirlwind : his 
horses are swifter than eagles," Jer. 
4 : 13 ; 48 : 40 ; 49 : 22 ; Hos. 8 : 1. This 
bird was a national emblem on Persian 
and Roman standards, as it now is on 
United States' coins. 

The eagle, it is said, lives to a great 
age ; and like other birds of prey, sheds 
his feathers in the beginning of spring, 
after which his old age assumes the ap- 
pearance of youth. To this David al- 
ludes, when gratefully reviewing the 
mercies of Jehovah : ' ' Who satisfieth 
thy mouth with good things, so that thy 
youth is renewed like the eagle's," Psa. 
103:5 ; Isa. 40:31. The careful pains of 
the eagle in teaching its young to fly, beau- 
tifully illustrate God's providential care 
over Israel, Ex. 19:4; Deut. 32:11, 12.' 

The eagle is remarkable for its keen 
sight and scent. Its flesh, like that of 
all birds of prey, was unclean to the 
Jews ; and is never eaten by any body, 
unless in cases of necessity, Matt. 24 : 28 ; 
Luke 17:37. 

EARTNG, an old agricultural term for 
ploughing. Thus, in Isa. 30 : 24, it is 
said, "The oxen also, and the young 
asses which far," that is, plough, "the 
ground." So also in Gen. 45:6; Exod. 
34:21; Deut. 21:4; 1 Sam. 8:12. 

EAR'NEST, a pledge of the perform- 
ance of a promise ; or part of a debt, 
paid in assurance of the payment of the 
whole ; or part of the price, paid down 
to confirm a bargain ; or part of a ser- 
vant's wages, paid at the time of hiring, 
to ratify the engagement. In the New 
Testament it describes the gifts of God 
to his people here, as the assurance and 
commencement of the far superior bless- 
ings of the life to come, 2 Cor. 1 : 22 ; 5 : 5 ; 
Eph. 1:18, 14. 

124 



EAR'-RINGS. See Rings. 

EARTH. In both Hebrew and Greek 
the same word is used to denote the 
earth as a whole, and a particular land. 
Only the context can enable us to decide 
in which of these senses it is to be taken 
in a given passage. Thus in Matt. 27:45 
we might, so far as the original word is 
concerned, render either "there was 
darkness over all the land," or over all 
the earth. The expression "all the 
earth ' ' is sometimes used hyperbolical ly 
for a large portion of it, Ezra 1 : 2. The 
word is used of the whole world, or its 
surfece, in distinction from the heavens ; 
of the mould or arable land of the world ; 
of the people who inhabit the world, etc. 
In a moral sense, earthly is opposed to 
what is heavenly, spiritual and holv, 
John 3:31; 1 Cor. 15 : 47 ; Col. 3:2; 
James 3 : 15. * ' The lower parts of the 
earth," means the unseen world of the 
dead, Psa. 63:9; Isa. 44:23; Eph. 4:9. 

EARTH'QUAKE, a convulsion of the 
earth common in volcanic regions, and 
well known in all parts of the world ; 
probably occasioned by the action of in- 
ternal heat or fire. Scriptiu'e speaks of 
several earthquakes, Ninn. 16 ; 1 Kin, 
19:11, 12. One occurred in the twenty- 
seventh 5'ear of Uzziah king of Judah, 
and is mentioned in Amos 1:1; Zech. 
14 : 5. A very memorable earthquake 
was that at our Saviour's death, Matt. 
27 : 51, which some suppose extended 
throughout the world. Palestine has 
been often visited by earthquakes. So 
late as 1837 one occurred in the vicinity 
of the sea of Galilee, by which about a 
third part of Tiberias was destroyed, and 
thousands of people perished there and 
in the towns near by. Earthquakes Avere 
among the calamities foretold as con- 
nected with the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem, Matt. 24:7 ; and history proves the 
truth of the prediction. 

The word earthquake is also used fig- 
urativelv to denote God's power and 
wrath, as in Psa. 18:7; 46:2; 104:32, 
etc. ; and as an emblem of a great civil 
or national catastrophe. Matt. 24:7, 29; 
Rev. 16:18, 19. 

EAST. The HebreAvs, in speaking of 
the different quarters of the heaven, al- 
ways suppose the face to be turned tow- 
ards the east. Hence "before," or "for- 
wards," means the east; "behind" is 
the west, the right-hand is south, and 
the left-hand, north. Besides the ordi- 



EAS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EAT 



nary meanings of the word east, Josh. 
4:1U; Psa. 10i]:12, the Jews often used 
it to designate a large region lying north- 
east and south-east as well as east of Pal- 
estine, including Syria and Arabia near 
at hand, and Babylonia, Assyria, Arme- 
nia, etc. , with the whole region from the 
Caspian sea to the Arabian gulf, Gen. 
29 : 1 ; Num. 23 : 7 ; Judg. 6 : 3 ; 7 : 12 ; 
8:10. The wise men who visited the 
infant Saviour dwelt somewhere in this 
region; and being "in the east," saw 
his star— not east of them, but in the 
direction to guide them to Jerusalem, 
Matt. 2:1, 2. 

EAST WIND. See Wind. 

EAST'ER is improperly put for Pass- 
over, Acts 12 : 4 ; Passover being the 
name of the ancient Jewish festival here 
referred to ; while Easter, from the Sax- 
on goddess Eostre, is the modern name 
of a Christian festival, in commemora- 
tion of the events of Passover- week, and 
fixed at the same period of the year. 

EATTNGr. The Jews would have con- 
sidered themselves polluted by eating 
with people of another religion, or with 
any who were ceremonially unclean or 



disreputable— as with Samaritans, John 
4:9, publicans, Matt. 9:11, or Gentiles, 
Acts 10:28; Gal. 2:12. Eating together 
was an established token of mutual con- 
fidence and friendship, a pledge of friend- 
ly relations between families, which their 
children were expected to perpetuate. 
The rites of hospitality were held sacred ; 
and to this day, among the Arabs, a fugi- 
tive is safe for the time, if he gains the 
shelter of even an enemy's tent. The 
abuse of hospitality was a great crime, 
Psa. 41:9. 

To ' ' eat ' ' a book, is to make its pre- 
cepts, promises, and spirit one's own, 
Jer. 15:16 ; Ezek. 3:1 ; John 4:14 ; Rev. 
10 : 9. So to eat Christ's flesh and drink 
his blood, is to receive him as a Saviour, 
and by a living faith to be imbued with 
his truth, his Spirit, and his heavenly 
life, John 6:32-58. 

Eating, Mode of. The Hebrews an- 
ciently sat at their meals, Gen. 43:33 ; 
1 Sam. 9 : 22 ; 20 : 25 ; Psa. 128 : 3 ; but 
afterwards adopted the practice of reclin- 
ing on table-beds or divans, like the Per- 
sians, Chaldeans, Romans, etc., Amos 
6:4. The accompanying engraving of a 




Roman triclinium, three beds, will illus- 
trate several points obscure to the mod- 
em reader of the Bible. It will be seen 
that three low tables are so placed as 
to form three sides of a hollow square 



accessible to the waiters. Around these 
tables are placed, not seats, but couches, 
or beds, one to each table, formed of 
mattresses stufied. and often highly or- 
namented, Est. 1:6 ; 7:1, 8. The guests 
125 



EAT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EAT 



reclined with their heads to the table, 
each one leaning on his left elbow, and 
therefore using principally his right hand 
in taking food. Observe also that the 
feet of the person reclining being tow- 
ards the external edge of the bed, they 
were much more readily reached by any 
one passing than any other part of the 
person so reclining, Luke 7 : 36-50 ; John 
12:3. 

This mode of reclining at table ren- 
dered it easy for our Lord to wash the 
feet of his disciples at the last supper, 
John 13:5-12, and "wipe them with the 
towel^wherewith he was girded." It also 
explains the position of John at the same 
supper ; for if he reclined next in front 
of the Saviour, he lay as it were in his 
bosom, John 13:23, 25, and might read- 
ily lean back his head upon the Saviour's 
breast. 

It is unknown, however, how far or 
how long this custom displaced the prim- 
itive eastern mode still prevalent in Pal- 
estine and vicinity. The ordinary table 
was no inore than a circular skin or car- 
pet spread upon the lloor, around which 
the family sat on the floor, or on rugs or 
cushions. Sometimes there was a small 
table in the centre, raising the principal 
dish a little above the floor. 

The meals of the Jews were generally 
two, looselv distinguished as dinner and 
supper, Luke 14:12; John 21:12. The 
first meal was usually light, consisting of 
milk, cheese, bread, or fruits, and eaten 
at various hours from early morning to 
the middle of the forenoon. In the ear- 
ly history of the Hebrews, the principal 
meal, corresponding with our dinner, 
was eaten about noon, Gen. 43 : 25 ; 
1 Kin. 20 : 16. At a later period, at 
least on festive occasions, it was taken 
after the heat of the day was over. 
This Avas the " supper." The Jews Avere 
wont to wash their hands before eating, 
a custom rendered necessary by their 
mode of eating, but made by the Phari- 
sees a test of piety, Mark 7:2, 3 ; Luke i 
11:38. Devout Jews, not only in their j 
sacred feasts, but in their daily enjoy- | 
ments at the family meal, recognized the 
Giver of all good, and implored his bless- 
ing on their food, 1 Sam. 9:13; Matt. 
14:19; 15:36; 26:20; Luke 9:16; John 
6:11; 1 Tim. 4 : 3. Some families re- 
peated the twenty-third PsaJm as they 
seated themselves at meals. The food 
consisted of flesh, fish, or fowls, butter, 
126 



honey, bread, and fruits. See Food. An- 
imal food was often cut into small pieces, 
or stewed, and served up in one large 
dish with melted butter, vegetables, etc. 



-p" 










MODERN SYEIAXS AT DINNER. 

Knives, forks, and spoons Avere unknown 
as table-furniture ; and the food Avas con- 
veyed to the mouth by the right hand, 
Prov. 19:24. Each person took a por- 
tion from the dish either Avith his thumb 
and fingers, or Avith the help of a small 
piece of thin bread. Several hands were 
occasionally plunged into the same dish 
at once, John 13:20. The head of the 
family AA^as Avont to send a double por- 
tion of food to a stranger, as an honor, 
and to furnish him a greater variety, 
Gen. 43:31 ; 1 Sam. 1:4 ; 9:22-24 ; and 
often Avould select the choicest morsels 
and present them to his guest Avith his 
own fingers. Compare Puth 2:14, and 
John 13:20. This is still customary in 
the East. After eating, the hands were 
again cleansed by pouring Avater upon 
tiiem, 2 Kin. 3 : 11. See Feast, Wash- 
ing. 

The folloAving description of a dinner 
at Hebron is from Dr. Pobinson. "They 
Avere dining in the true oriental style. 
A very large circular tray of tinned cop- 
per, placed upon a coarse Avooden stool 
about a foot high, served as the table. 
In the centre of this stood a large dish 
Avith a mountain of pillaAV, composed of 
rice boiled and buttered, Avith small 
pieces of meat strcAved through and 
upon it. This Avas the chief dish, al- 
though there Avere also other smaller 
dishes, both of meat and vegetables. 



ECA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EDE 



Around this table ten persons, including 
the three governors— of Gaza, Hebron, 
and Jerusalem — were seated, or rather, 
squatted on their feet. Each had before 
him a plate of tinned copper and a wood- 
en spoon. Some used the spoon without 
the plate ; but the most preferred to cat 
with the fingers of the left hand, with- 
out either spoon or plate. When any 
one had finished, he immediately rose, 
and went and washed his liands by hav- 
ing water poured over them in an ad- 
joining room. The vacant place at table 
was immediately filled by a new comer." 

E'BAL, Deut. 27 ; 28 ; a mountain in 
Ephraim, over against mount Gerizim, 
from which it is separated by a valley 
about five hundred yards wide and three 
miles long, in which stands the town of 
Shechem. Both mountains are much 
alike in length, height, and form, and 
their altitude is stated not to exceed 
seven hundred and fifty or eight hun- 
dred feet from the level of the valley. 
As you journey from Jerusalem, and 
turn to pass through the valley west- 
north-west to Shechem, mount Ebal is 
on the right hand and mount Gerizim 
on the left. Some have described the 
mount of cursing as sterile and desolate, 
and Gerizim as smiling and fertile. But 
at present there is little difference be- 
tween their opposing fronts, which are 
alike steep and barren. Mount Gerizim, 
however, is said to have a more fertile 
background, and to be a little higher 
than mount Ebal. The base of the lat- 
ter is full of sepulchral excavations. See 
Gerizim, SnECHEir. 

EBED'-IMELECH, an Ethiopian ser- 
vant of king Zedekiah, who was instru- 
mental in saving the prophet Jeremiah 
from famishing in a filthy dungeon, and 
was therefore preserved when Jerusalem 
was taken by Nebuzaradan, Jer. 38:7- 
13 ; 39: 15-18. The Lord knoweth them 
that are his. 

EBENE'ZER, stone of help, the place 
wdicre Samuel erected a monument, in 
grateful remembrance of the divine help, 
given in answer to prayer, in a great bat- 
tle with the Philistines. The same place 
had before witnessed the defeat of Israel 
and the capture of the ark, 1 Sam. 4:1 ; 
5:1; 7:5-12. 

E'BER. See Heber. 

EB'ONY, the wood of a tree of no 
great size, growing in India and Africa; 
it is black, hard, heavy, and fine-grain- 



ed, and receives a beautiful polish. It 
was anciently highly prized, Ezek. 27 : 15, 
and is still much used for musical instru- 
ments and fancy articles. 

ECCLESIAS' TES, the preacher, the name 
of a book of the Old Testament, usually 
ascribed to Solomon. Compare 1 Kin. 
3:12 and Eccl. 1:10 ; 1 Kin. 10:21, 27 and 
Eccl. 2:4-9; 1 Kin. 11:3, 4 and Eccl. 
7:26, 28. It appears to have been writ- 
ten by Solomon in his old age, when 
freed from the entanglements of iduLi- 
i try, luxury, and lust, b. c. 977. It is a 
discourse upon the true wisdom ; with 
many isolated precepts, illustrated from 
his own unexampled experience and 
from the most sagacious observation of 
the course of life ; the whole demon- 
strating the vanity of all earthly good, 
and sliowing that there is a better life 
to come, and that the only true wisdom 
is to " fear God and keep his command- 
ments." This, he says, is the conclusion 
of the whole matter, Eccl. 12:13. In 
reading this book, care should be taken 
not to deduce opinions from detached 
sentiments, but from the general scope 
and combined force of the whole. 

E'DEN, a province in Asia, in which 
was Paradise. "The Lord God planted 
a garden eastward in Eden, and there he 
put the man Avhom he had formed," 
Gen. 2:8. The topography of Eden is 
thus described : ' ' And a river went out 
of Eden to water the garden, and from 
thence it was parted, and became into 
four heads. The name of the first 'is 
Pison," etc. 

This obscure passage has received many 
different explanations and applications, 
none of which are fully satisfactory ; and 
now it is impossible to say with certainty 
where Eden lay. Most writers have sought 
for it in some elevated and central region, 
the heights of which w^ould give rise to 
various rivers flowing off in difierent di- 
rections through lower grounds to their 
outlets. Such a region exists in the high 
lands of Armenia, west of mount Ararat 
and 5,000 feet above the sea. Here, with- 
in a circle but a few miles in diameter, 
four large rivers rise : the Euphrates, and 
Tigris, or Hiddekel, flowing south into 
the Persian gulf ; the Araxes, flowing 
north-east into the Caspian sea ; and the 
Phasis, or the Halys, flowing north-west 
into the Black sea. This fourth river 
may have lieen the Pishon of Eden ; and 
the Araxes mav well be the Gihon. since 
111 



EDO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EGY 



both words mean the same, and describe 
its dart-like swiftness. This elevated 
comitry, still beautiful and fertile, may 
have been the land of Eden ; and in its 
choicest portion, towards the east, the 
garden may once have smiled. 

Another location of Eden is now pre- 
ferred by many interpreters — near the 
spot where the Euphrates and Tigris 
form a junction after their long wander- 
ings, a hundred and twenty miles north 
of the Persian gulf, and where the river 
Ulai flows in from the north-east. This 
region may have been greatly changed 
by the lapse of many thousand years, 
and may now bear little resemblance to 
the luxuriant and beautiful plain of 
primeval times. Yet long after the 
flood the plain of Shinar in the same 
region attracted the admiration of the 
sons of Cush, Gen. 10:8-10; 11:2. As 
two of the rivers of Eden bear the fa- 
miliar names of the Euphrates and Ti- 
gris, it seems probable that it was in 
one or the other of the regions above 
named. Wherever it was, it is there no 
more since the fall and the curse. The 
first chapters of the Bible show Paradise 
withdrawn from man's view, and no pil- 
grimage can discover it upon earth. The 
last chapters of the Bible restore to our 
view a more glorious and enduring Par- 
adise : ' ' Blessed are they that do his 
commandments, that they may have 
right to the tree of life." 

E'DOM, red, a name of Esau, Isaac's 
eldest son, appropriate on account of his 
natural complexion, but given, it would 
seem, from the current name of the food 
for which he sold his birthright — " that 
same red," Gen. 25 : 25, 30. See Esau 
and Idumka. 

ED'REI, one of the capitals of Bashan, 
near which Og and his forces were de- 
stroyed, Num. 21 : 33-35 ; Deut. 1:4; 
3:1-3. It afterwards fell within the lim- 
its of Manasseh, Josh. 13:31. Its ruins 
cover a large space ; it was a place of some 
note in the early ages of Christianity and 
in the era of the crusades. It is now call- 
ed Draa, and lies about thirty-five miles 
east of the outlet of the sea of Galilee. 

EG'LON, a king of Moab, who, with 
the help of Amnion and Amalek, sub- 
dued the southern and eastern tribes of 
the Jews. He made Jericho his seat of 
government, and held his power eighteen 
years, but was then slain by Ehud, and 
his people expelled, Judg. 3:12-33. 
128 



E'GYPT, a celebrated country in the 
north of Africa, at the eastern part of 
the Mediterranean sea. The Hebrews 
called it Mizraim, Gen. 10:6, and hence 
it is now called by the Arabs, Mizr. The 
Greeks and Romans called it JIgyptus, 
whence Egypt ; but the origin of this 
name is unknown. 

The habitable land of Egypt is for the 
most part a great valley, through which 
the river Nile pours its waters, extending 
in a straight line from north to south, and 
skirted on the east and west by ranges of 
mountains, which approach and recede 
from the river more or less in different 
parts. Where this valley terminates, 
towards the north, the Nile divides it- 
self, about forty or fifty miles from the 
seacoast, into several arms, which in- 
close the so called Delta. The ancients 
numbered seven arms and mouths ; the 
eastern was that of Pelusium, now that 
of Tineh ; and the western that of Ca- 
nopus, now that of Aboukir. As these 
branches all separate from one point or 
channel, that is, from the main stream, 
and spread themselves more and more 
as they approach the coast, they form 
with the latter a triangle, the base of 
which is the seacoast ; and having thus 
the form of the Greek letter A, delta, this 
part of Egypt received the name of the 
Delta, which it has ever since retained. 
The prophet Ezekiel describes Egypt as 
extending from Migdol, that is, Magdo- 
lum, not far from the mouth of the Pe- 
lusian arm, to Syene, now Essuan, name- 
ly, to the border of Ethiopia, Ezek. 
29 : 10 ; SO : 6, margin. Essuan is also 
assigned by Greek and Arabian writers 
as the southern limit of Egypt. Here 
the Nile issues from the granite rocks of 
the cataracts, and enters Egypt proper. 
The length of the country, therefore, in 
a direct line, is about four hundred and 
fifty miles, and its area about eleven 
thousand square miles. The breadth of 
the valley, between Essuan and the Del- 
ta, is very unequal ; in some places the 
inundations of the river extend to the 
foot of the mountains ; in other parts 
there remains a strip of a mile or two in 
breadth which the water never covers, 
and which is therefore always dry and 
barren. Originally the name Egypt des- 
ignated only the valley and the Delta ; 
but at a later period it came to include 
also the region between this and the Red 
sea. 



E G Y BIBLE DICTIONARY. E G Y 




ANCIENT STATUES OF MEMNON, IN THE PLAIN OF THEBES. 



The country around Syene and the 
cataracts is highly picturesque ; the otli- 
er parts of Egypt, and especially the 
Delta, are uniform and monotonous. 
The prospect, however, is extremely dif- 
ferent, according to the season of the 
year. From the middle of spring, when 
the harvest is over, one sees nothing but 
a grey and dusty soil, so full of cracks 
and chasms that he can hardly pass 
along. At the time of the autumnal 
equinox, the cormtry presents nothing 
but an immeasurable surface of reddish 
or yellowish water, out of which rise 
date-trees, villages, and narrow dams, 
which serve as a means of communica- 
tion. After the waters have retreated, 
and they usually remain only a short 
time at this height, you see, till the end 
of autumn, only a black and slimy mud. 
But in winter, nature puts on all her 
splendor. In this season, the freshness 
and power of the new vegetation, the 
variety and abundance of vegetable pro- 
ductions, exceed every thing that is 
known in the most celebrated parts of 
the European continent ; and Egypt is 
then, from one end of the country to 
6* 



the other, like a beautiful garden, a 
verdant meadow, a held sown with flow- 
ers, or a weaving ocean of grain in the 
ear. This fertility, as is well known, 
depends upon the annual and regular 
inundations of the Nile. Hence Egypt 
was called by Herodotus, ' ' the gift of the 
Nile." See Nile. 

The sky is not less uniform and mo- 
notonous than the earth ; it is constant- 
ly a pure unclouded arch, of a color and 
light more white than azure. The at- 
mosphere has a splendor which the eye 
can scarcely bear, and a burning sun, 
whose glow is tempered by no shade, 
scorches through the whole day these 
vast and unprotected plains. It is al- 
most a peculiar trait in the Egyptian 
landscape, that although not without 
trees, it is yet almost without shade. 
The only tree is the date-tree, which is 
frequent ; but with its tall, slender stem, 
and bunch of foliage on the top, this tree 
does very little to keep off the light, and 
casts upon the earth only a pale and un- 
certain shade. Egypt, accordingly, has 
a very hot climate ; the thermometer in 
summer standing usually at eighty or 
129 



EGY 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EGY 



ninety degrees of Fahrenheit ; and in 
Upper Egypt still higher. The burning 
wind of the desert, iSimoom, or Camsin, 
is also experienced, usually about the 
time of the early equinox. The coun- 
try is not unfrequently visited by swarms 
of locusts. See Locusts. 

In the very earliest times, Egyj^t ap- 
pears to have been regarded under three 
principal divisions ; and writers spoke of 
Upper Egypt or Thebais ; Middle Egypt, 
Heptanouiis or Heptapolis ; and Lower 
Egypt or the Delta, including the dis- 
tricts lying east and west of the river. 
The provinces and cities of Egypt men- 
tioned in the Bible may, in like manner, 
be arranged under these three great di- 
visions : 

1. Lower Egypt. The north-eastern 
point of this was "the river of Egypt," 
(see below,) on the border of Palestine. 
The desert between this point, the Eed 
sea, and the ancient Pelusium, seems to 



have been the desert of Shur, Gen. 20:1, 
now El-Djefer. Sin, " the strength [key] 
of Egypt," Ezek. 30:15, was probably 
Pelusium. The land of Goshen appears 
to have lain between Pelusium, its branch 
of the Nile, and the Pved sea, having been 
skirted on the north-east by the desert of 
Shur ; constituting perhaps a part of the 
province Rameses, Gen. 47:11. In this 
district, or adjacent to it, are mentioned 
also the cities Pithom, Raamses, Pi-Be- 
seth, and On or Hcliopolis. In the prop- 
er Delta itself, lay Tahapanes, that is, 
Taphne or Eaphne : Zoan, the Tanis of 
the Greeks ; Leontopolis, alluded to per- 
haps in Isa. 19:18. West of the Delta 
was Alexandria. 

2. jMiddle Egypt. Here are mention- 
ed Moph or Memphis, and Hanes, the 
Heracleopolis of the Greeks. 

3. Upper Egypt. The southern part 
of Egypt, the Hebrews appear to have 
called Pathros, Jer. 44:1, 15. The Bible 




TEMPLE OF ABOO-SIMBEL. NCBIA. HALF BURIED IN SAND ; STATLTES SIXTY FEET HIGH. 



mentions here only two cities, namely. 
No, or more fully No-Ammon, for which 
the Seventy put Diospolis, the Greek 
name for Thebes, the most ancient capi- 
tal of Egypt, (see Ammon ;) and Syene, 
the southern city and limit of Egypt. 
The chief agricultural productions of 
130 



Egypt are wheat, durrah, or small maize, 
Turkish or Indian corn or maize, rice, 
barley, beans, cucumbers, water-melons, 
leeks', and onions ; also flax and cotton. 
The date-tree and vine are frequent. 
Tlie papyrus is still found in small quan- 
tity, chiefly near Damietta; it is a reed 



EGY 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EGY 



about nine feet higli, as thick as a man's 
tliumb,-with a tuft of down on the top. 
See Book, Bulrush. The animals of 
Egypt, besides tlie usual kinds of tame 
cattle, are the wild ox or buftalo in great 
numbers, the ass and camel, dogs in mul- 
titudes without masters, the ichneumon, 
the crocodile, and the hippopotamus. 

The inhabitants of Egypt may be con- 
sidered as including three divisions : 
1. The Copts, or descendants of the an- 
cient Egyptians. 2. The Fellahs, or 
husbandmen, who are supposed to repre- 
sent the people in Scripture called Phul. 
3. The Arabs, or conquerors of the coun- 
try, including the Tarks, etc. The Copts 
are nominal Ciiristians, and the clerks 
and accountants of the country. They 
have seen so many revolutions in the 
governing powers, that they concern 
themselves very little about the successes 
or misfortunes of those who aspire to 
dominion. The Fellahs suffer so much 
oppression, and are so despised by the 
Bedaween or wandering Arabs, and by 
their despotic rulers, that they seldom ac- 
quire property, and very rarely enjoy it in 
security ; yet they are an interesting race, 
and devotedly attached to their native 
country and the Nile. The Arabs hate 
the Turks ; yet the Turks enjoy most offi- 
ces of government, though they hold their 
superiority by no very certain tenure. 

The most extraordinary monuments of 
Egyptian power and industry were the 
pyramids, which still subsist, to excite 
the wonder and admiration of the world. 
No work of man now extant is so ancient 
or so vast as these mysterious structures. 
The largest of them covers a square area 
of thirteen acres, and is still four hun- 
dred and seventy-four feet high. Tliey 
have by some been supposed to have 
been erected by the Israelites during 
their bondage in Egypt. But the tenor 
of ancient history in general, as Avell as 
the results of modern researches, is 
ag unst this supposition. It is generally 
believed that they were erected more 
thin two thousand years before Christ, 
as the sepulchres of kings. 

But besides these imperishable monu- 
ments of kings long forgotten, Egypt 
abounds in other structures hardly less 
wonderful ; on the beautiful islands above 
the cataracts, near Syene, and at other 
places in Upper Egypt ; and especially in 
the whole valley of the Nile near Thebes, 
including Carnac, Luxor, etc. The tem- 




AVENUE IN THE GREAT HALL OF COLUMNS, AT 
KARNAC, THEBES. 

pies, statues, obelisks, and sphinxes that 
cover the ground astonish and awe the 
beholder with their colossal height, their 
massive grandeur, and their vast ex- 
tent ; while the dwellings of the dead, 
tombs in the rock occupied by myriads 
of mummies, extend far into the adja- 
cant moimtains. The huge columns of 
these temples, their vast walls, and many 
of the tombs, are covered with sculptures 
and paintings which are exceedingly val- 
uable as illustrating the public and the 
domestic life of the ancient Egyptians. 
See SnisiiAK. With these are mingled 
many hieroglyphic records, which have 
begun to yield their long-concealed 
meaning to the inquisitions of modern 
science. Some of these are mere sym- 
bols, comparatively easy to understand. 
But a large portion of them are now 
found to be written with a sort of picto- 
rial alphabet — each symbol representing 
the sound with which its own name 
commences. Thus osir, the name of the 
Egyptian god Osiris, would be represent- 
ed by the picture of a reed, a child, and 
a mouth ; becaiise the initial sounds of 
the Coptic words for these three objects, 
namely. Oke, Si. and Eo, make up the 
1.31 



EGY 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



EGY 




SCULPTURED TABLET, ON A TEMPLE IN UPPER EGYPT, 



name osir. There is, however, great am- 
biguity in the interpretation of these rec- 
ords ; and in many cases the words, when 
apparently made out, are as yet unintel- 
ligihle, and seem to be part of a priestly 
dialect understood only by the learned. 

The early history of ancient Egypt is 
involved in great obscurity. All ac- 
counts, however, and the results of all 
modern researches, seem to concur in 
representing culture and civilization as 
having been introduced and spread in 
Egypt from the south, and especially 
from Meroe ; and that the country in the 
earliest times was possessed by several 
contemporary kings or states, which at 
length were all imited into one great 
kingdom. The common name of the 
Egyptian kings was Pharaoh, which sig- 
nilied sovereign power. History has 
preserved the names of several of these 
kings, and a succession of their dynas- 
ties. But the inclination of the Egyp- 
tian historians to magnify the great an- 
tiquity of their nation, has destroyed 
their credibility. See Pharaoh. 

This ancient and remarkable land is 
often mentioned in Scripture. A gi-and- 
J.S2 



son of Noah seems to have given it his 
name, Gen. 10:6. In the day of Abra- 
ham it was the granary of the world, 
and the patriarch himself resorted thith- 
er in a famine, Gen. 12:10. His wife 
had an Egyptian handmaid, Hagar the 
mother of Ishmael, who also sought a 
wife in Egypt, Gen. 21:9, 21. Another 
famine, in the days of Isaac, nearly 
drove him to Egypt, Gen. 26:2 ; and Ja- 
cob and all his household ended their 
days there, Gen. 39-50. After the escape 
of Israel from their weary bondage in 
Egypt, we read of little intercourse be- 
I tween the two nations for many years. 
' In the time of David and Solomon, men- 
I tion is again made of Egypt. Solomon 
I married an Egvptian princess, 1 Kin. 
I 3 : 7 ; 9 ; 11. But in the fifth year of his 
j son Rehoboam, Judah was humbled at 
! the feet of Shishak, king of Egypt, 2 Chr. 
12 ; and for many generations afterwards 
the Jews were alternately in alliance and 
at war with that nation, until both were 
subjugated to the Assyrian empire, 2 Kin. 
17; 18:21; 23:29; 24; Jer. 25; 37:5; 
41 ; 46. - 
Egypt was conquered by Cambysee, 



EHU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ELA 



and became a province of the Persian 
empire about 5l!5 b. c. Thus it contin- 
ued until conquered by xVlcxander, 350 
B. c, after whose deatli it formed, along 
with Syria, Palestine, Lybia, etc., the 
kingdom of the Ptolemies. After the 
battle of Actium, 30 b. c, it became a 
Iioman province. In the time of Christ, 
great numbers of Jews were residents of 
Alexandria, Leontopolis, and other parts 
of Egypt ; and our Saviour himself found 
an asylum there in his infancy. Matt. 
2:13. Since that time it has ceased to 
be an independent state, and its histoiy 
is incorporated with that of its different 
conquerors and possessors. In a. d. 640, 
it was conquered by the Arabs ; and in 
later periods has passed from the hands 
of the caliphs under the power of Turks, 
Arabs, Kurds, Mamelukes ; and since 
1517, has been governed as a province of 
the Turkish empire. Thus have been 
fulfilled the ancient predictions recorded 
in God's word, Ezek. 29:14, 15; 30:7, 
12, 13; 32:15. Its present population 
is about two millions. 

The religion of Eg}T3t consisted in the 
■worship of the heavenly bodies and the 
powers of nature ; the priests cultivated 
at the same time astronomy and astrol- 
ogy, and to these belong probably the 
wase men, sorcerers, and magicians men- 
tioned in Ex. 7:11, 22. They were the 
most honored and powerful of the castes 
into which the people were divided. It 
was probably this wisdom, in which Mo- 
ses also was learned, Acts 7:22. But the 
Egyptian religion had this peculiarity, 
that it adopted living animals as sym- 
bols of the real objects of worship. The 
Egyptians not only esteemed many spe- 
cies of animals as sacred, which might 
not be killed without the punishment of 
death, but individual animals were kept 
in temples and worshipped with sacrifi- 
ces, as gods. 

"The river of Egypt," Num. 34:5; 
Josh. 15 : 4, 47 ; 1 Kin. 8 : 65 ; 2 Kin. 
24:7; Isa. 27:12; Ezek. 47:19; 48:28, 
(and, according to some. Gen. 15:18, 
though in this passage a different word 
is used signifying a permanent stream,) 
designates the brook El-Arish, emptying 
into the south-east corner of the Medi- 
terranean at Rhinocolura. 

E'HUD, a Benjamite, wdio delivered 
Israel from the Moabites, by first slay- 
ing Eglon their king, and then raising 
an army and defeating his people. He 



judged Israel with honor for many years, 
Judg. 3:12-31; 4:1. 

EK'KON, the most northern city of 
the Philistines, allotted to Judah by 
' Joshua, 15:45, but afterwards given to 
' Dan, 19:43, though it does not appear 
that the Jews ever peaceably possessed 
it. It is memorable for its connection 
with the captivity of the ark and its 
restoration to the Jews, 1 Sam. 6:10; 
6:1-18. The fly-god was worshipped 
here, 2 Kin. 1:2. Its ruin was foretold, 
Amos 1:8; Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9:5, 7. 
Piobinson found its site at the Moslem 
village Akir, some ten miles north-east 
of Ashdod. There are no ruins. 

EL, strength, one of the names of God, 
especially in poetry, Gen. 33 : 18-20. It 
is very often found in proper names, as 
Bethel, Daniel, Elijah, etc. Eloi, like 
Eli, means. My God. 

ELAH, I., a valley in which David 
slew Goliath, 1 Sam. 17:2, 3, 19. It 
was probably about eleven miles south- 
west from Jerusalem. 

II. Son and successor of Baasha, king 
of Israel, b. c. 926. After reigning two 
years, he was slain while intoxicated, 
by Zimri, one of his ofiicers, who suc- 
ceeded him as king. Zimri destroyed 
all the family of Baasha, according to 
the prediction of Jehu, 1 Kin. 16:6-10. 

ELAM, the region afterwards called 
Persia, Gen. 14:1. It was called Elam 
after a son of Shem, Gen. 10:22. It cor- 
responded to the Elymais of Greek and 
Roman writers, wdiich comprehended a 
part of Susiana, now Khusistan, or more 
probably included the whole of Susiana. 
The city Susa, or Shushan, was in it, 
Dan. 8 : 2. See also Acts 2 : 9. 

ELATH, or ELOTH, a city of Idu- 
mea, situated at the northern extremity 
of the eastern gulf of the Red sea, which 
was anciently called the Elanitic gulf, 
and now the gulf of Akaba. Ezion- 
Gaber was also situated here, and very 
near Elath, Deut. 2:8; 1 Kin. 9:26. 
This gulf, although known to the an- 
cients, has been almost unknown to 
modem geographers until the time of 
Burckhardt. This enterprising traveller 
explored it, and gave the first full ac- 
count of it. The great sand valley call- 
ed El-Arabah, and towards the north El- 
Ghor, runs from this gulf to the Dead 
sea. Elath was annexed to Judah by 
David, who established there an exten- 
sive commerce, 2 Sam. 8:14. Solomon 
133 



ELD 



BIBLE DlCTlONARr. 



ELI 



also built ships there, 2 Chr. 8:17, 18. 
In the reign of Joram the Edomites re- 
covered it, but lost it again to Uzziah, 
2 Kin. 8:20; 1-4:22; and he to liezin, 
16:6. Under the rule of the Komans it 
was a flourishing commercial town, with 
the ordinances of Christianity. In 630 
A. B. it fell under the power of Moham- 
med, and is now in ruins. The fortress 
of Akaba, near by, now often visited by 
travellers from mount Sinai to Palestine, 
is only important for the protection of 
pilgrims to Mecca. 

EL'DAD, and ME'DAD, two of the 
seventy elders appointed to aid Moses in 
governing the people. The spirit of 
prophecy coming upon them, they proph- 
esied in the camp at a distance from 
Moses. Joshua censured them for this 
as an irregularity, but they were nobly 
vindicated by Moses, Num. 11:24-29. 

EL'DEIiS OF Israel, the heads of tribes, 
who, before the settlement of the He- 
brew commonwealth, had a government 
and authority over their own families 
and the people. Moses and Aaron treat- 
ed the elders as representatives of the 
nation, Ex. 3:16; 4:29; 12:21. When 
the law was given, God directed Moses 
to take the seventy elders, as well as 
Aaron, and Nadab and Abihu his sons, 
that they might be witnesses, Ex. 24:1, 
9. Ever afterwards we lind this num- 
ber of seventy, or rather, seventy-two, 
elders ; six from each tribe. 

In allusion to the Jewish elders, the 
ordinary governors and teachers of the 
Christian church are called elders, or 
presbyters. Acts 20:17, 28; Titus 1:5, 
7; 1 Pet. 5:1; 2 John 1. 

ELEA'LEH, a town of the Amorites, 
near Heshbon their capital, assigned to 
the tribe of Picuben, Num. 32:3, 37, and 
long afterwards threatened as a city of 
Moab, Isa. 15:4; 16:9; Jer. 48:34. Its 
ruins, now El-Aal, are a mile or more 
north-east of Heshban. 

ELEA'ZAR, I., the third son of Aaron, 
and high-priest after him, Ex. 6:23; 
Num. 20:25-28. The high-priesthood 
continued in his family through seven 
generations ; till the time of Eli, Avhen 
we find it transferred to the line of Itha- 
mar. In the reigns of Saul and David, 
it was restored to the line of Eleazar, 
and so continued till after the captivity. 

11. A son of Abinadab, honored with 
the charge of the ark while it was in his 
father's house, 1 Sam. 7:1. 
134 



III. One of David's champions, 2 Sam. 
23:9; 1 Chr. 11:11-18. 

E'LI, a high-priest of the Jews, the 
first in the line of Ithamar, 1 Sam. 2:27. 
He was also a judge of Israel forty years, 
and was eminent for piety and useful- 
ness, but criminally negligent of family 
discipline. Eor this the judgments of 
God fell upon his house, 1 Sam. 3:11-18. 
In battle with the Philistines his two 
sons were slain, and Israel defeated ; but 
it was the capture of the ark of God that 
broke his heart, 1 Sam. 4. The divine 
threatening was fully performed in the 
day of Abiathar, which see. 

ELPAB, the oldest brother of David, 
towards Avhom his conduct was passion-- 
ate and jealous, thus confirming the 
judgment of Him who looks not on the 
appearance, but the heart, 1 Sam. 16:6, 
7; 17:28. 

ELIAKIM, I., a king of Judah, 2 Kin. 
23:34. Sec Jeuoiakim. 

II. An officer of king Hczekiah's court, 
appointed with others to treat with Kab- 
shakeh, general of the Assyrian forces 
then besieging Jerusalem, 2 Kin. 18 ; 
19 ; Isa. 36 ; 37. See Sennacherib. 

ELIAS, see Elijah. 

ELIASHIB, a high-priest in the days 
of Nehemiah, Avho took part in rebuild- 
ing the wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3 : 1. 
The same person probably was after- 
Avards ccnsiued for profaning the tem- 
ple, by giving the use of one of its cham- 
bers to a heathen and an Ammonite, his 
relative, Deut. 23:3, 4; Neh. 12:10; 
13:1-9. 

ELIE'ZER, I., of Damascus, the law- 
ful heir of Abraham, should he die child- 
less. Gen. 15:2. He is generally assum- 
ed to be the "eldest servant," who was 
sent, sixty-five years afterwards, to ob- 
tain a wife for Isaac, Gen. 24. But as 
the name of the latter is not given ; as 
Abraham had near relatives. Lot and 
others ; and as there is no evidence that 
he ever lived in Damascus, some think 
Eliezer must have been a near relative 
of Abraham residing at Damascus ; and 
that ' ' steward of my house ' ' and ' ' born 
in my house ' ' — literally son of my house. 
Gen.' 15:2, 3— mean the same thing, the 
lawful family heir. 

II. Several others of this name are 
mentioned, Ex. 18:4; 1 Chr. 15:24; 
27:16; 2 Chr. 20:37 ; Luke 3:29. 

EL'IHU, a native of Buz, Gen. 22:21, 
which was probably a city of Edom, Jer. 



ELI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



ELI 



25:23, perhaps Bozrali, Jer. 49:7, 8, 13. 
He came to condole with Job in his ca- 
lamities. Yoiuig, ardent, sagacious, and 
devout, he listened attentively to the 
discourses of Job and his three friends ; 
and at length broke in, with profuse 
apologies, to set them all right, Job 32. 
His address to Job is friendly and sooth- 
ing, yet faithful ; he censures him for 
j ustifying himself, rather than God. The 
adversaries of Job he blames for con- 
demning him as a hypocrite, in their 
ignorance of the wonders of Grod's prov- 
idence. In several sentences he beauti- 
fully expresses his faith in the pardon- 
ing and restoring grace of God towards 
sinners, Job 33:23, 2-1, 27-30, passages 
in probably the oldest book of the Bible 
in the very spirit of the parable of the 
prodigal son. 

ELI'JAH, the prophet, a native of 
Tishbeh in Gilead, 1 Kin. 17:1. His 
parentage and early history are un- 
laiown. His bold faithfulness provoked 
the wrath of Ahab and Jezebel, especial- 
ly when he threatened several years of 
drought and famine as a punishment for 
the sins of Israel, b. c. 908. By the 
divine direction the prophet took refuge 
on the bank of the brook Cherith, where 
he WIS miraculously fed by ravens. 
Thence he resorted to Zarcphath, in Phoe- 
nicia ; where one miracle provided him 
with sustenance, and another restored 
to life the child of his hostess. Return- 
ing to king Ahab, he procured the great 
assembling at mount Carmcl, where God 
''answered by lire," and the prophets of 
Bxal were destroyed. Now too the long 
and terrible drought was broken, and a 
plentiful rain descended at the prophet's 
prayer. Finding that not even these 
mighty works of God would bring the 
nation ani its rulers to repentance, Eli- 
jah was almost in despair. He fled into 
the wilderness, and v/as brought to Ho- 
reb, the mount of God, wdiere he Avas 
comforted by a vision of God's power 
and grace. Again he is sent on a long 
journey to Damascus, to anoint Hazael 
as king of Syria. Jehu also he anoints 
to be king of Israel, and Elisha he sum- 
mons to become a prophet. Six years 
later, he denounces Ahab and Jezebel 
for their crimes in tbe matter of Naboth ; 
and afterwards again is seen foretelling 
the death of king Ahaziah, and calling fire 
from heaven upon two bands of guards 
sent to arrest him. Being now forcAvarn- 



ed of the approach of his removal from 
earth, he gives his last instructions to 
the school of the prophets, crosses the Jor- 
dan miraculously, and is borne to heaven 
in a liery chariot without tasting death, 
leaving his mantle and office to Elisha, 
IKin. 17-19; 21; 2 Kin. 1;2. 

His translation occurred about b. c. 
896. Previously, it is supposed, he had 
written the letter wdiich, eight years 
afterwards, announced to king Jehoram 
his approaching sickness and death, 
2 Chr. 21:12-19. 

Elijah was one of the most eminent 
and honored of the Hebrew prophets. 
He Avas bold, faithful, stern, self-deny- 
ing, and zealous for the honor of God. 
His Avhole character and life are marked 
by peculiar moral grandeur. He bursts 
upon our view Avithout previous notice ; 
he disappears by a miracle. He bears 
the appearance of a supernatural mes- 
senger of heaA^en, Avho has but one AA^ork 
to do, and Avhose mind is engrossed in its 
performance. His history is one of the 
most extraordinary on record, and is 
fraught Avith instruction. It Avas a high 
honor granted to Moses and Elijah, that 
they alone should appear on the mount 
of Transfiguration, many centuries after 
they had gone into heaven — to bear Avit- 
ness of its existence, and commune Avith 
the Saviour concerning his death, Luke 
9:28-35. 

John the Baptist Avas foretold under 
the name of Elias, or Elijah, from his 
resemblance in character and life to the 
ancient prophet of Israel, Mai. 4:5, G; 
Matt. 17:10-13. 

E'LIM, a station of the Israelites, on 
their way to mount Sinai, Ex. 15 : 27 ; 
16 : 1 ; Num. 33 : 9, generally taken to 
be the present "Wady Ghurundel, a broad 
A^alley running south-Avest to the sea, 
about forty miles south-east of Suez. 
Here are fountains and a brook, many 
bushes and shrubs, and a fcAv tamarisks 
and palms. 

ELIM'ELECH, a Bethlehemite, hus- 
band of Naomi, Piuth 1 : 2. 

ELTPHAZ, a native of Teman, and 
friend of Job, Job 2:11. Compare Gen. 
36:10. He seems to haA'e been older 
than Bildad and Zophar, and Avas the 
first to address Job, chs. 4, 5, 15, 22. 

ELIS'ABETH, a devout Avoman. "of 
the daughters of Aaron," the wife of 
Zacharias, and mother of John the Bap- 
tist, Luke 1:5-25, 36, 39-80. 
135 



ELI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EMB 



ELI'SHA, the pupil and successor of 
Elijah, a prophet of Israel during the 
reign of Jehoram, Jehu, Jehoahaz, and 
Joash, B. c. 903-838. He was a native 
of Abel-meholah, where he was at work 
ploughing when Elijali called him to he- 
come a prophet, 1 Kin. 19:16. Some 
years afterwards he witnessed the mirac- 
ulous ascension of Elijah, divided the Jor- 
dan with his mantle, and took his place 
at the head of the schools of the proph- 
ets. During his long ministry he acted 
an important part in the public affairs of 
Israel. Many miracles also were wrought 
at his word ; some of these were, heal- 
ing the waters of Jericho ; supplying the 
widow's cruse with oil, and the allied 
armies of Judah, Israel, and Edom with 
water ; gaining a son for the woman of 
Shunem, and restoring him to life ; heal- 
ing the leprosy of Naaman ; detecting 
and punishing Gehazi. His history is 
recorded in 2 Kin. 2-9; 13:14-21. He 
died lamented by king Joash and tlie 
people ; and a year afterwards, a corpse 
deposited in the same sepulchre was at 
once restored to life. 

ELI'SHAH, a son of Javan, Gen. 10:4. 
"The isles of Elishah," which sent pur- 
ple and scarlet stuffs to Tyre, Ezek. 
27:7, are supposed to mean Greece and 
the adjacent islands. 

ELISH'EBA, the wife of Aaron, Ex. 
6:23. Elisabeth is the same name in 
Greek, Luke 1:5. 

EL'LASAR, Gen. 14:1, 9, perhaps the 
same country as Thelassar, 2 Kin. 19: 12 ; 
Isa. 37:12. The Arabic version calls it 
Armenia. 

ELM, Hos. 4: 13. Tlie original Hebrew 
word here, elsewhere translated oak, prob- 
ably denotes the terebinth. See Oak. 

E'LOI, see El. 

ELUL, a Hebrew month, the twelfth 
of the civil year, and sixth of the ecclesi- 
astical, Neh. 6:15. It included the time 
from the new moon of September to that 
of October. 

EL'YMAS, a Jewish sorcerer in the 
retinue of Sergius Paulus, the Eoman 
proconsul at Paphos in Cyprus. He was 
sharply reproved by Paid, and struck 
with instant blindness for opposing the 
religious inquiries of the proconsul, who 
was abandoning idolatry and supersti- 
tion, and embracing the gospel, Acts 
13:6-12. His blindness was to continue 
"for a season," and may have led to his 
spiritual illumination. 
136 



EMBALM'ING. The process of em- 
balming dead bodies among the Egyp- 
tians was as follows : The embalmers, 
who were looked upon as sacred officers, 
drew the brains through the nostrils 
with a hooked piece of iron, and filled 
the skull with astringent drugs ; they 
drew all the entrails, except the heart 
and kidneys, through a hole cut in the 
left side, washed them in palm-wine, 
and replaced them, filling the cavity 
with astringent and preservative drugs. 
Tlie body was anointed repeatedly with 
oil of cedar, myrrh, cinnamon, etc., about 
thirty days, and was then put into nitre 
for about forty days ; by which process 
it was preserved from decay, retaining 
at the same time a lifelike appearance. 
When Moses says that forty days were 
employed in embalming Jacob, he prob- 
ably speaks of the forty days of his con- 
tinuing in the salt of nitre, not includ- 
ing the thirty days spent in the previous 
ceremonies ; so that, in the whole, they 
mourned seventy days for him in Egypt, 
Gen. 50:2, 3. 

The body was afterwards taken out ol 
the salt, washed, wrapped up in long lin- 
en bandages, dipped in myrrh, and closed 
with gum. It was then restored to the 
relatives, Avho inclosed it in a coffin, and 
kept it in their houses, or deposited it 




in a tomb. Thus the body of Joseph 
was preserved, to be conveyed into the 
land of promise after nearly two centu- 



EME 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ENG 



ries, Gen. 50 ; 20. Great numbers of 
mummies are still found in Egypt, in 
the subterraneous vaults Avhcre they 
■svere deposited two or three thousand 
years ago. 

The common people of that country 
were embalmed by means of bitumen, a 
cheap material and easily managed. 
With this the corpse and its envelopes 
were smeared, with more or less care 
and diligence. Sepulchres have been 
opened in which thousands of bodies 
had been deposited in rows, one on an- 
other, without cohins, preserved in this 
manner. 

The usual embalming of the Jews was 
less elaborate and effectual. It consisted 
mainly in wrapping the body in many 
folds of linen, with a profusion of aro- 
matic spices — myrrh, aloes, etc. Thus 
the body of the Saviour was embalmed 
entire by Joseph and Nicodemus, while, 
ignorant of this, the two Marys and their 
friends were prepared to render him a 
similar honor when the Jewish Sabbath 
was past, John 19:38-40. The practice, 
even in this form, does not appear to 
have been prevalent among the Jews. 
See Burial. 

EM'ERALD, a precious stone of a fine 
green color, found anciently in Ethiopia, 
but in modem times only in South Amer- 
ica, Ex. 28 : 18 ; Ezek. 27 : 1 6 ; 28 : 13. Jo- 
sephus, however, and the Seventy make 
it a gem like a burning coal — the Indian 
rubv. 

EM'ERODS, that is, hemorrhoids, the 
name of a painful disease occasioned by 
tumors, probably the piles, Deut. 28 : 27 ; 
1 Sam. 5:12. 

E'MIM, a gigantic and warlike race, 
who in the time of Abraham occupied 
the country beyond the Jordan, after- 
wards possessed by the Moabites, Gen. 
14:5; Deut. 2:10. 

EMMAN'UEL, a compound Hebrew 
word or name, signifying God icith us. 
It is applied to the Messiah, our Sav- 
iour, who, as having united the divine 
with the human nature, and having 
come to dwell with men, is God with us, 
Isa. 7:14; 8:8; Matt. 1:28. 

EM'MAUS, the village where our Lord 
revealed himself to two of his disciples, 
on the afternoon of his resurrection-day. 
It lay about seven and a half miles, six- 
ty furlongs, north-west from Jerusalem, 
Luke 24 : 13-33. Some manuscripts, how- 
ever, read one hundred and sixty fur- 



' longs, instead of sixty ; and Eusebius and 

i Jerome locate Emmaus at the ancient 

j Nicopolis, twenty miles west-north-west 

; of Jerusalem, where a village called 

I Amwas still exists. Dr. Eobinson in- 

' clines to this location. 

I EN, a fountain, compounded with many 

names of towns and places ; as En-dor, 

En-gedi, En-eglaim, En-shemesh, that 

is, the fountain of Dor, etc. 

EXCHANT'MENTS, deceptive arts and 
charms practised by designing men, and 
classed in the Bible with sorcery, magic, 
divination, witchcraft, and necromancy, 
or professed communication with depart- 
ed spirits. All these are expressly for- 
bidden and denounced in Scripture, Ex. 
22 : 18 ; Lev. 19 : 26, 31 ; 20 : 27 ; Deut. 
18 : 10, 11. The pretended power and 
skill of enchanters was ascribed to infer- 
nal agency, and the art was essentially 
hostile to true religion. Their seeming 
wonders were usually wrought by jug- 
gling tricks or sleight of hand, or by mys- 
teries of science, known to but few. The 
magicians of Egypt are said to have done 
several things "with their enchant- 
ments," Ex. 7-9; Acts 19:19. 

EN'-DOB, a city of Manasseh, Josh. 
17:11, four miles south of mount Tabor, 
near Nain, in the way to Scythopolis, 
Psa. 83 : 9, 10. Here the witch lived 
whom Saul consulted, 1 Sam. 28. The 
pretence of this sorceress that she could 
call up the spirits of the dead from their 
repose, was evidently false. She was 
amazed and appalled when the form of 
Samuel really appeared, sent by God 
himself to put her to shame, and bring 
to king Saul his last warning. 

EN-EGLATM, Ezek. 47 : 10, a town 
on the Dead sea, west of the Jordan's 
mouth. 

EN-GAN'NIM, I., a town of Judah, 
probably near Bethel, Josh. 15:34. 

II. A city of the priests, in Issachar, 
now Jenin, fifteen miles south of mount 
Tabor, Josh. 19:21; 21:29. 

EN-GEDT, fountain of the hd, 1 Sam. 
24:1, 2 ; called also Hazezon-Tamar, that 
is, the city of palm-trees, there being great 
numbers of palm-trees around it, Gen. 



14: 



Chr. 20:1, 2. It stood near the 



middle of the western shore of the Dead 
sea, twenty-five or thirty miles south- 
east of Jerusalem, in the edge of the 
loftiest part of the wilderness of Judea, 
a region full of rocks and caverns, 1 Sam. 
23 : 29 ; Ezek. 47 : 10. See cut in Sea, III. 
137 



ENO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EPH 



The heights of En-gedi are fifteen hun- 
dred feet above the Dead sea. At four 
hundred feet from the sea a tine and co- 
pious fountain, still bearing its ancient 
name, flows down to the sea, watering 
in its cours3 a fruitful valley and a plain 
half a mile square, in both of which ru- 
ins are found. The mountain side was 
formerly terraced, and the w^hole spot 
was an oasis of fertility. Song 1 : 14. 

E'NOCH, I., a son of Cain, in honor 
of whom the first city named in the 
Bible was called Enoch, Gen. 4:17. 

II. "The seventh from Adam," and 
the fcither of Methuselah ; eminent as a 
patriarch who lived near to God, through 
faith in a Redeemer to come, Heb. 11:5, 
13. It was a testimony to his rare piety 
in an ungodly age that he was translated 
Avithout seeing death, like Elijah. He 
had lived only three hundred and sixty- 
five years, a. m. 622-987, Gen. 5:18-24. 
Jude, ver. 14, 15, quotes a traditionary 
prophecy of Enoch, showing his belief in 
a judgment to come. There is an apoc- 
ryphal book bearing the name of Enoch, 
in which similar language occurs. It 
was probably written by some devout 
Christian of the first century, and is only 
valuable for the light it throws on the 
belief of the early church. It was never 
received as canonical. 

E'NON, the place where John bap- 
tized, was near Salim, on the west side 
of the Jordan, John 1:28: 3:26. It is 
supposed to have been eight or ten miles 
south of Beth-shean, and near the Jor- 
dan. 

E'NOS, the grandson of Adam. He 
lived nine hundred and five years, a. m. 
235-1140. Adam, Seth, and Enoch died 
before him ; and Noah was contempo- 
rary with him eightv-four years. Gen. 
4:26; 5:6-11; Luke 3:38. In his days 
"began men to call upon the name of 
the Lord" in organized and systematic 
public worship ; or according to the mar- 
ginal reading, then began men to call 
themselves by the name of the Lord ; 
that is. for the purpose of marking the 
distinction between men of God and the 
ungodly. 

E^-UO'GFJj, fuller sfoimtain, so named 
because here the fullers were wont to 
cleanse their cloths by treading them 
with their feet. This is believed to be 
the "well of Nehemiah," now called 
Bir Eyiib, Job's well. It is in the val- 
ley of the Kidron, just below its June- i 
138 




tion with the valley of the son of Hin- 
nom, on the south-east corner of Jerusa- 
lem, Josh. 15:7 ; 18:16. It is mentioned 
in the Bible in connection with the con- 
spiracy of Absalom, 2 Sam. 17 : 17, and 
afterwards ^Wth that of Adonijah, I Kin. 
1:9. This well is situated in what is 
now the prettiest and most fertile spot 
around Jerusalem. It is one hundred 
and twenty-five feet deep ; is walled up 
Avith large squared stones, which on one 
side rise and form an arch, and is appar- 
entlv of great antiquity. 

EPAPHFtAS, supposed to have found- 
ed the church at Colosse, and denomi- 
nated by Paul his ' ' dear fellow-servant, ' ' 
and ' ' a faithful minister of Jesus Christ, ' ' 
Col. 1:7; 4:12. He Avas for a time an 
inmate of Paul's house of imprisonment 
at Eome. 

EPAPHRODI'TUS, a member of the 
church at Philippi, charged with the 
supplies which that church contributed 
for the relief of Paul while imprisoned 



at Rome, Phil. 2: 



4:18. This labor 



of love brought on him a serious illness 
at Rome, on Avhich occasion Ave see how 
much he AA'as esteemed and beloved both 
by Paul and the Philippians, Phil. 2:25- 
30. On his return he Avas the bearer of 
the epistle to them. 

EPE'NETUS, saluted by Paul in his 
epistle to Rome, Rom. 16:5, and called 
"the first-fruits of Achaia," that is, one 
of his first converts there. Many manu- 
scripts and versions read Asia instead of 
Achaia. 

E'PHAH, I., a measure of capacity 



EPH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EPH 



used among the Hebrews, containing 
three pecks and three pints. The ephah 
was a dry measure, as of barley, liuth 
2 : 17 ; and meal, Num. 5 ; 15 ; Judg. 
6 : 1'J ; and was of the same capacity with 
the bath ni liquids. See Bath. 

II. The son of Midian, and grandson 
of Abraham, Gen. 25:4, Avho settled and 
gave his name to a region in Arabia sup- 
posed to have been near Midian, Isa. 
G0:6. 

E'PHER, a son of Midian, Gen. 25:4, 
located beyond the Jordan, 1 Kin. 4:10. 

EFHE'SIAXS, Epistle to the. This 
epistle was written by Paul, at Rome, 
probably a d. 62. The ablest modern 
critics are not agreed as to the church 
to whom it was addressed, whether to 
that in Ephesus, that in Laodicea, or to 
both of these in connection Avith the 
other churches in that region. It does 
not appear, however, that any impor- 
tant point of doctrine or instruction de- 
pends on the decision of this question. 
The epistle is now addressed to and is 
intelligible by every one who studies it. 
The first part of it is a grateful discourse 
upon the vast scheme of divine grace, 
and the blessings flowing from it. The 
latter part inculcates Christian consist- 
ency and steadfastness, and a faithful 
discharge of all relative duties. It is 
one of the richest and most valuable of 
the epistles, having a singular fulness of 
matter, depth of doctrine, sublimity of 
style, and warmth of emotion, which 
render it precious to the Christian of 
every land. 

EPIi'ESUS, the capital of Ionia, a cel- 
ebrated city of Asia Minor, situated near 
the mouth of the Cayster, about forty 
miles south-east of Smyrna. It was 
chiefly celebrated for the Avorship and 
temple of Diana, which last was account- 
ed one of the seven Avonders of the world. 
See Diana. Paul first visited Ephesus 
about A. D. 54, Acts 18 : 19, 21 This first 
brief visit was followed by a longer one 
towai'ds the close of the same year, and 
continuinsr through the two following 
years, Acfs 19 : 10 ; 20:31. The church 
thus early established, enjoyed the la- 
bors of Aquila and Priscilla, of Tychicus 
and Timothy. It was favored Avith one 
of the best of Paul's epistles ; its elders 
held an interview AAuth him at Miletus, 
on his Avay to Rome, and he is supposed 
to have visited them after his first im- 
prisonment. Here the apostle John is 



said to liaA'e spent the latter part of his 
life, and Avritten his gospel and epistles ; 
and having penned Christ's message to 
them in the isle of Patmos, to have re- 
turned and died among them. Christ 
gives the church at Ephesus a high de- 
gree of praise, coupled Avith a solemn 
Avarning, Rev. 2:1-5, which seems not 
j to have prevented its final extinction, 
though it remained in existence six hun- 
dred years. But noAv its candlestick is 
indeed remoA'cd out of its place. The 
site of that great and opulent city is des- 
olate. Its harbor has become a pestilen- 
tial marsh ; the lovely and fertile IcA'el 
ground south of the Cayster noAv lan- 
guishes under Turkish misrule ; and the 
heights upon its border bear only shape- 
less ruins. The outlines of the immense 
theatre. Acts 19:29, yet remain in the 
solid rock ; but no A'estige of the temple 
of Diana can be traced. 

EPH'OD, an ornamental part of the 
dress Avorn by the HebrcAv priests. It 
Avas Avorn above the tunic and the robe, 
{nicil ;) Avas Avithout sleeves, and open 
beloAv the arms on each side, consisting 
of two pieces, one of Avhich covered the 
front of the body and the other the back, 
joined together on the shoulders by gold- 
en buckles set Avith gems, and reaching 
doAvn to the middle of the thigh. A gir- 
dle Awas inAvoA'en Avith it, by Avhich it Avas 
fastened around the body, Ex. 28:6-12. 
There Avere two kinds of epliod : one 
plain, of linen, for the priests, 1 Sam. 
22 : 18 ; another embroidered, for the 
high-priest. Young Samuel Avore an 
eiDhod, thoiigh only a Levite and a 
child, 1 Sam. 2:18. David, in transfer- 
ring the ark to Jerusalem, was "girt 
with a linen ephod," 2 Sam. 6:14. The 
Jews had a peculiar superstitious regard 
for this garment, and employed it in 
connection AA^ith idolatrous Avorship. Gid- 
eon's ephod became a snare to Israel ; 
and Micah made one, that his idol might 



be duly Avorshipped, Judg. 



17:5 



18:17. 

EPH'PHATHA, he opened, a Syro-chal- 
daic Avord, Avhich our Saviour pronounc- 
ed AAdien he cured one deaf and dumb, 
Mark 7 • 34. 

E'PHRAIM, the second son of Joseph, 
bom in Egypt, Gen. 41 : 52. Although 
the youngest, he yet had the chief bless- 
ing of his grandfather Jacob, and the 
tribe Avas ahvays more distinguished 
than that of Manasseh, Gen. 48:8-20; 
139 



EPH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



EPI 



Num. 2 : 18-21. The portion of Ephraim 
was large and central, and embraced 
some of the most fertile land in all Ca- 
naan. It extended from the Mediterra- 
nean across to the Jordan, north of the 
portions of Dan and Benjamin, and in- 
cluded Shiloh, Shechem, etc. A range 
of mountainous country, Avhich runs 
through it, is called "the mountains of 
Ephraim," or " mount Ephraim." This 
extends also farther south into the por- 
tion of Judah, and is there called " the 
mountains of Judah." Samaria, the cap- 
ital of the ten tribes, being hi Ephraim, 
this latter name is often used for the 
kingdom of Israel, Isa. 11 : 13 ; Jer. 31 :6 ; 
50:19. 

The FOREST of Ephraim, where Absa- 
lom lost his life, was on the east side 
of the Jordan, near Mahanaim, 2 Sam. 
18:6-8. 

The TOWN called Ephraim, to which 
the Saviour withdrew from his enemies, 
John 11:5 J:, was probably the same place 
mentioned in 2 Chr. 13 : 19, and called 
Ophrah in Josh. 18 : 23 ; 1 Sam. 13 : 17. 
See also 2 Sam. 13:23. It is supposed 
to be the present Tai^ibeh, on a hill 
overlooking the Jordan valley, five miles 
north-east of Bethel. 

EPH'PiATH, or Eph'ratah, L, the sec- 
ond wife of Caleb, and mother of Hur, 
1 Chr. 2:19 ; supposed by some to have 
given her name to the city of Ephrath 
or Beth-lehem, 1 Chr. 2 : 50, 51 ; 4:4. 
Compare Gen. 35:1G, 19. Elimelech was 
an Ephrathite of Bethlehem, Ruth 1:2 ; 
4:11 ; so also was David, 1 Sam. 17:12. 

II. A name of Ephraim and Ephraim- 
ites, 1 Sam. 1 : 1 ; 1 Kin. 11 : 25 ; Psa. 
132:6. 

EPH'PtON, a Hittite, dwelling at He- 
bron in the time of Abraham, Gen. 23. 
The charming account of his transaction 
with Abraham, and the frequent subse- 
quent mention of his name, point him 
out as a prince in the land. i 

EPICURE' ANS, a celebrated sect of I 
ancient philosophers. They were mate- j 
rialists, and virtually atheists — believing 
that the atoms of nature existed from I 
eternity, and that from their incidental 
union all things are formed, both visi- \ 
ble and invisible. They denied a divine 
Providence and man's immortality, and 
believed there was no after-judgment, j 
and no soul but what was material, like [ 
the body, and perishable with it at death. 1 
Their rule of life was self-gratification — I 
140 



I the pursuit of pleasure, properly regu- 
. lated and governed. Vicious indulgences 
were condemned only inasmuch as they 
j on the whole lessen one's happiness. 
I The philosopher Epicurus, their founder, 
I was a learned and moral man, who lived 
! in exemplary harmony with his princi- 
! pies, and died at Athens, b. c. 271, at 
the age of seventy-three. His follow- 
ers, however, easily disregarded the lim- 
itations he imposed, and pursued pleas- 
ure without restraint. At Paul's time 
they had become exceedingly corrupt, 
and of course their philosophy and their 
life both led them to oppose with vio- 
lence his great truths concerning God, 
the resurrection, and the judgment ever- 
lasting, Acts 17:16-34. 

EPIS'TLE, a letter ; but the term is ap- 
plied particiilarly to the inspired letters 
in the New Testament, written by the 
apostles on various occasions, to approve, 
condemn, or direct the conduct ol Chris- 
tian churches. The Holy Spirit has thus 
provided that we should have the great 
doctrines of the true gospel not only his- 
torically stated by the evangelists, but 
applied familiarly to the various emer- 
gencies of daily life. It is not to be sup- 
posed that every note or memorandum 
written by the hands of the apostles, or 
by their direction, was divinely inspired, 
or proper for preservation to distant ages. 
Compare 1 Cor. 5:9; Col. 4:16. Those 
only have lieen preserved by the over- 
ruling hand of Providence which were 
so inspired, and from which useful di- 
rections had been drawn, and might in 
after-ages be draAvn, as from a perpetual 
directory, for faith and practice- — always 
supposing that similar circumstances re- 
quire similar directions. In reading an 
Epistle, we ought to consider the occa- 
sion of it, the circumstances of those to 
whom it was addressed, the time when 
written, the general scope and design 
of it, as well as the intention of par- 
ticular arguments and passages. We 
ought also to observe the style and man- 
ner of the writer, his mode of expres- 
sion, the peculiar effect he designed to 
produce on those to whom he wrote, to 
whose temper, manners, general princi- 
ples, and actual situation, he might ad- 
dress his arguments, etc. 

Of the books of the New Testament, 
twenty-one are epistles ; fourteen of them 
by Paul, one by James, two by Peter, 
three by John, and one by Jude. Being 



ERA 



UIBLE DICTION AUV. 



EST 



placed in our canon without reference to 
their chronological order, they are pe- 
rused under considerable disadvantages ; 
and it would be well to read them occa- 
sionally in connection with what the his- 
tory in the Acts of the Apostles relates 
respecting the several churches to which 
they are addressed. This would also give 
us nearly their order of time, which 
should also be considered, together with 
the situation of the w^riter ; as it may 
naturally be inferred that such composi- 
tions would partake of the writer's re- 
cent and present feelings. The epistles 
addressed to the dispersed Jews by John 
and James, by Peter and Jude, are very 
different in their style and application 
from those of Paul written to the Gen- 
tiles ; and those of Paul no doubt con- 
tain expressions and allude to facts much 
more familiar to their origmal readers 
than to later ages. 

ERAS'TUS, a Christian friend and fel- 
low-laborer of Paul, a Corinthian, and 
chamberlain — that-is, steward or treasur- 
er — of the city. He followed Paul to Eph- 
esus, and attended Timothy in a mission 
to Macedonia, Acts 19 : 22. He Avas again 
at Corinth when Paul wrote to the Ro- 
mans, ] 6 : 23 ; and remained there when 
Paul w^ent as a prisoner to Kome, 2 Tim. 
4:20. 

E'RECH, one of Mmrod's cities in the 
plain of Shinar, Gen. 10:10. A recent 
explorer finds its probable site in the 
mounds of primeval ruins now called 
Irka or Irak, a few miles east of the 
Euphrates, midway between Babylon and 
the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris. 

E'SAR-HAD'DON, son of Sennacherib, 
and his successor as king of Assyria, 
2 Kin. 19:37; Isa. 37:38, b. c. 896. It 
is only said of him in Scripture that he 
sent colonists to Samaria, Ezra 4:2. He 
is supposed to be the Sardanapalus of | 
profane historians, the last king of As- 
syria, infamous for his luxury and effem- 
inacy. The cit}^ being besieged and 
nearly taken, he collected his flivorites 
and treasures in his palace and set it on 
lire, so that all perished together in the 
flames. 

E'SAU, the son of Isaac, and twin 
brother of Jacob, Gen. 25. He was the 
elder of the two, and was therefore le- 
gally the hoir, but sold his birthright to 
Jacob. We have an account of his ill- 
advised marriages. Gen. 26:34; of his 
loss of his father's chief blessing, and 



his consequent anger against Jacob, Gen. 
27 ; of their subsequent reconciliation, 
Gen. 32 ; 33 ; and of his posterity. Gen. 
36. He is also called Edorn ; and settled 
in the mountains south of the Dead sea, 
extending to the gulf of Akaba, where 
he became very powerful. This country 
was called from him the land of Edom, 
and afterwards IdumiBa, -which see. 
ESDRAE'LON, Plain of. See Jezreel. 
ESH'BAAL, 1 Chr. 8:33, the fourth 
son of Saul, genei'ally called Ishbosheth. 
The word Baal, the name of an idol, 
was not pronounced by scrupulous Jews ; 
they substituted Bosiietii, confusion. For 
Meribbaal, they said Mephibosheth, etc. 
See Ishbosheth. 

ESH'COL, I., an Amorite prince near 
Hebron, who joined Abraham in pursu- 
ing the eastern host who had ravaged 
Sodom and taken Lot captive. Gen. 
14:13-14. 

II. The small and well-watered valley 
from which the Hebrew spies obtained 
the specimen of grapes, which they sus- 
pended from a staff' borne by two men 
for safe carriage to Moses, Num. 13:22- 
27; 32.9; Deut. 1:24. This valley is 
believed to be one which closely adjoins 
Hebron on the north, and still furnishes 
the finest grapes in the country, as well 
as pomegranates, figs, olives, etc. 

ESH'TAOL, a town on the western 
border of Judah, afterwards given to 
Dan, Josh. 15:33; 19:41. It is named 
in the history of Samson, Judg. 13:25; 
16:31. 

ESHTEM'OA, a citv of the priests in 
Judah, Josh. 15 : 50- 21:14; 1 Sam. 
30:28; traced by Robinson in the mod- 
ern village Semua, south of Hebron. 

ESPOU'SALS. See Betrothing, Mar- 
riage. 

ES'THER, a Persian name given to 
Hadassah, a daughter of Abihail, of the 
tribe of Benjamin. The family had not 
returned to Judea after the permission 
given by Cyrus, and she was born prob- 
ably beyond the Tigris, and nearly five 
hundred years before Christ. Her par- 
ents being dead, Mordecai, her father's 
brother, took care of her education. 
After Ahasuerus had divorced Vashti, 
search was made throughout Persia for 
the most beautiful women, and Esther 
was one selected. She found iavor in 
the eyes of the king, and he married her 
with royal magnificence, bestowing lar- 
gesses and remissions of tribute on his 
141 



ETA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



ETII 



people. She was thus in a position which 
enabled her to do a signal favor to her 
people, then very numerous in Persia. 
Their deliverance is still celebrated by 
the Jews in the yearly festival called Pu- 
rim, which was instituted at that time. 
The husband of Esther is supposed to 
have been the Xerxes of secular history. 

Esther, the book of, has always been 
esteemed canonical, both by Jews and 
Christians, though certain additions to 
it, found in some versions and manu- 
scripts, are apocryphal. Who was its 
writer is not certainly known. It has 
been ascribed to Ezra, to a high-priest 
named Jehoiakim, and to Mordecai. This 
last opinion is supported by the internal 
evidence ; the book haA'ing every ap- 
pearance of having been written in Per- 
sia, by an eye-\Yitness of the scenes it 
describes, b. c. 509. It presents a graph- 
ic picture of the Persian court and cus- 
toms, and is intensely Jewish in its spir- 
it. The chief value of the book is to 
illustrate the wonder-working providence 
of God, his control of human passions, 
his righteous judgment of sinners, and 
his care for his covenant people — whom, 
even Avhen captives in a strange land, 
he can exalt above all their foes. 

E'TAM, a town in Judali near Bethle- 
hem and Tckoa ; a favorite resort of Sol- 
omon, andfortilied by Echoboam, 1 Chr. 
4:3, 32; 2 Chr. 11:6. Its supposed site 
is now occupied by a ruined village call- 
ed Urtas, a mile and a half south-%vcst 
of Bethlehem, not far from Solomon's 
Pools. "The rock Etam" to Avhich 
Samson withdrew, Judg. 15:8-19, may 
have been in this vicinity, perhaps the 
Frank mountain two miles east. 

E'THAM, a station of the Israelites 
soon after leaving Egypt, Ex. 13:20; 
Num. 33:6. It lay near the head of the 
west gulf of the Pted sea, and the wilder- 
ness east of it was often called by the 
same name. 

E'THAN, I., one of four men renowned 
for wisdom, though excelled by Solomon, 
1 Kin. 4 : 31 ; 1 Chr. 2:6. He appears to 
have been a son of Zerah or Ezra, and 
grandson of the patriarch Judah. 

II. A Levite, son of Kishi, and one of 
the three masters of the temple music, 

1 Chr. 6 ; 44 ; 15 : 17-19. He would seem 
to be the same as Jeduthun, 1 Chr. 25: 1 ; 

2 Chr. 35:15. 

III. A person to whom Psa. 89 is in- 
scribed. 

142 



ETH'ANIM, constantly flowing ^ a month 
so named before the captivity, because 
the autumnal rains then begin to fill the 
dr)^ river channels. It was afterwards 
called Tishri, and answers nearly to our 
October. On this month Solomon's tem- 
ple was dedicated, 1 Kin. 8:2. 

ETHIO'PIA, one of the great king- 
doms in Africa, frequently mentioned in 
Scripture under the name of Cush, the 
various significations of which in the 
Old Testament have been mentioned 
under the article Cusn, which see. Ethi- 
opia proper lay south of Egypt, on the 
Nile ; and was bounded north by Egypt, 
at the cataracts near Syene ; east by the 
Picd sea, and perhaps a part of the Ind- 
ian ocean ; south by unknown regions of 
the interior of Africa ; and west by Libya 
and deserts. It comprehended of course 
the modern countries of Nubia or Sen- 
naar, and Abyssinia. The chief city in 
it was the ancient Meroe, situated on the 
island or tract of the same name, be- 
tween the Nile and the Astaboras, no%v 
the Tacazze, not far from the modern 
Shendi, Isa. 18; Zeph. 3:10. 

The name of Seba was given to the 
northern part of Ethiopia, afterwards 
Meroe, by the eldest son of Cush, Gen. 
10:7. This country was in some parts 
mountainous, and in others sandy ; but 
was to a great extent well-watered and 
fertile. Ebony, ivory, spices, gold, and 
precious stones were among its articles 
of traffic. Its history is much involved 
with that of Egypt, and the two coun- 
tries are often mentioned together in the 
Bible, Lsa. 20:3-0; 43:3; 45:14; Ezek. 
30; Dan. 11:43. 

Zerah "the Ethiopian" who invaded 
Judah in the reign of Asa, b. c. 944, 
2 Chr. 14:9-15, is thought by some to 
have been an Egyptian king of an Ethi- 
opian dynasty ; by others, to have been 
a king of Ethiopia on both sides of the 
Red sea ; that is, of the Arabian as well 
as African Cush. This would explain 
how he could obtain access to the land of 
Palestine without passing through Egypt. 
But the whole question is involved in un- 
certainty. The Ethiopian queen Candace, 
whose treasurer is mentioned in Acts 
8:27, was probably queen of Meroe, 
where a succession of females reigned 
who all bore this name. As this courtier 
is said to have gone up to Jerusalem ' ' to 
worship," he was probably a Jew by re- 
ligion, if not by birth. There appear to 



EUX 



BIBLE DJCTIONAliy. 



EUll 



have been many Jews in that country. 
The gospel gained adherents among 
them ; and early in the fourtli century 
the entire Bible was translated into the 
ancient Ethiopic language, from the 
Greek. 

EU'NICE, the mother of Timothy and 
daughter of Lois ; she was a Jewess, 
though her husband was a Greek, Acts 
16:1 ; 2 Tim. 1:5. She transmitted to 
her son the lessons of truth she herself 
had received from a pious mother ; and 
Paul, on his arrival at Lystra, found 
them rooted and grounded in the truth 
as it is in Christ. 

EU'NUCH. In the courts of oriental 
monarchs, the charge of the female and 
interior apartments is committed to eu- 
nuchs. Hence the word came to signify 
merely a court officer. Such were Poti- 
phar, Joseph's master, Gen. 39:17, and 
the treasurer of queen Candace, Acts 
8:27. Our Saviour speaks of some who 
"have made themselves eunuchs for the 
kingdom of heaven's sake ;" that is, who 
have voluntarily abstained from marriage, 
in order more effectually to labor for the 
kingdom of God, Matt. 19:12; and the 
apostle Paul commends the same absti- 
nence in certain exceptional cases in 
times of persecution, 1 Cor. 7:26, 27. 
See Gaza. 

EUO'DIAS. See SYNTvcnE. 

EUPHPtA'TES, a flmious river of Asia, 
which has its source in the mountains 
of Armenia, runs along the frontiers of 
Cappadocia, Syria, Arabia Deserta, Chal- 
dea, and Mesopotamia, and falls into the 
Persian gulf. Acc^ording to the recent 
researches of Chesney, it receives the 
Tigris at a place called Kurnah, the 
united stream being called Shat-el-Arab. 
Five miles below the junction of these 
two mighty rivers, the Shat-el-Arab re- 
ceives from the north-east the Kerkhah, 
which has a course of upwards of five 
hundred miles. Sixty-two miles below 
the moutli of the Kerkhah, another large 
river, the Kuran, comes in from the 
east. At present it enters the Shat-el- 
Arab forty miles above its mouth ; but 
formerly it flowed into the Persian gulf 
by a separate channel, east of the main 
stream. According to that view which 
places the garden of Eden near the junc- 
tion of the Tigris with the Euphrates, 
these might be regarded as the four riv- 
ers of Paradise. We might well sup- 
pose that the Kuran, in very ancient 



times, as now, entered the Shat-el-Arab ; 
and perhaps still farther from its mouth. 
Scripture often calls the Euphrates sim- 
ply "the river," Ex. 23:31; Isa. 7:20; 
8:7; Jer. 2 : 18 ; or "the great river," 
and assigns it for the eastern boundary 
of that land which God promised to the 
Hebrews, Deut. 1:7; Josh. 1:4. It over- 
flows in summer like the Nile, Avhen the 
snow on the mountains of Armenia be- 
gins to melt. The source of the Euphra- 
tes, as well as that of the Tigris, being 
in the mountains of Armenia, the near- 
est springs of both are but a few miles 
apart. 

The Euphrates is a river of conse- 
quence in Scripture geography, being 
the utmost limit, east, of the territory 
of the Israelites. It Avas indeed only 
occasionally that the dominion of the 
HebrcAvs extended so far ; but it would 
appear that even Egypt, imder Pharaoh 
Necho, made conquests to the Avestern 
bank of the Euphrates. The river is 
about eighteen hundred miles long. Its 
general direction is south-east ; but in 
a part of its course it runs Avesterly, 
and approaches the Mediterranean near 
Cilicia. It is accompanied in its general 
course by the Tigris. There are many 
towns on its banks, Avhich are in general 
rather level than mountainous. Ihe 
river does not appear to be of very 
great breadth, varying, hoAAxver, from 
sixty to six hundred yards. Its current, 
after reaching the plains of Mesopota- 
mia, is somcAvhat sluggish, and in this 
part of its course many canals, etc., 
Avere dug, to prevent injury and secure 
benefit from the yearly overfloAvs. At 
Scleucia, and Hilleli the ancient Baby- 
lon, it approaches near the Tigris, and 
some of its Avaters arc draAvn oil' by ca- 
nals to the latter river. Again, hoAv- 
CA^er, they diverge, and only unite in 
the same channel about one hundred 
and twenty miles from the Persian gulf. 
It is not AA'ell adapted for navigation, 
yet light A^essels go up about one thou- 
sand miles, and the modern steam-boat 
Avhich noAv ascends from the ocean, meets 
the same kind of goat-skin floats on 
which produce AA-as rafted doAvn the river 
thousands of A'ears ago. 

EUPiOC'LYDON, the u-ave-stirring easier, 
a tempestuous Avind Avhich came doAvn 
on Paul's ship on the south shore of 
Crete, and at length Avrecked her upon 
Malta, Acts 27. The small island Clau- 
14.3 



EUT 



BIBLE DICTION AKT 



EXO 



da, south of which she passed, and the 
"Syrtis" on the African coast, into 
which the seamen feared she would he 
driven, ver. 17, lay south-west of Crete. 
The result shows that the general course 
of the wind was east-north-east. It 
would now be called there a Levanter. 

EU'TYCHUS. a young man who was 
killed at Troas by falling from the win- 
dow of a room in the third story, where 
Paul was preaching. His life was mirac- 
ulously restored, Acts 20:6-12. 

EVAX'GELIST, one who proclaims 
good news, either by preaching or writ- 
ing. There were originally evangelists 
or preachers who, without being fixed 
to any church, preached wherever they 
were led by the Holy Spirit, like some 
missionaries in our own day, Eph. 4:11. 
Such was Philip, Acts 21:8. Timothy 
also is exhorted to "do the work of an 
evangelist," 2 Tim. 4:5. We commonly 
call Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, 
"the Evangelists," because they were 
the writers of the four gospels, which 
bring to all men the glad tidings of eter- 
nal salvation. 

EVE, the first mother of our race, and 
the cause of our fall. Her history is so 
closely connected with that of Adam, 
that the remarks made in the article 
Adam apply also to her. Her name Eve 
is from a word signifying life, Gen. 3:20. 
She was made, we are told in Gen. 2:18- 
22, both for man and of him ; subordi- 
nate and weaker, and yet to be loved as 
his own body. The history of woman 
in all ages has been a striking fulfil- 
ment of the distinct penalties pronounc- 
ed upon her. Gen. 3:16. 

EVENING. The Hebrews reckoned 
two evenings in each day; as in the 
phrase, ' ' between the two evenings. "Ex. 
12:6 ; Num. 9:3 ; 28:4, margin. In this 
interval the passover was to be killed, 
and the daily evening sacrifice offered, 
Ex. 29:39-4i, Hebrew. According to 
the Cara'ites, this time between the even- 
ings is the interval from sunset to com- 
plete darkness, that is, the evening twi- 
light. Compare Deut. 16:6. According 
to the Pharisees and the rabbins, the first 
evening began when the sun inclined to 
descend more rapidly, that is, at the 
ninth hour ; while the second or real 
evening commenced at sunset. See Day. 

E'VIL-MERO'DACH, the son and suc- 
cessor of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Baby- 
lon, B. c. 561. His friendlv treatment 
144 



of Jehoiachin the captive king of Judah, 
in releasing him from prison and vari- 
ously distinguishing him above other 
captives, is mentioned to his praise, 
2 Kin. 25 : 27 ; Jer. 52 : 31-34. His reign 
and life were cut short by a conspiracy, 
headed by Neriglissar his sister's hus- 
band, who succeeded him. 

EXCOMMUNICA'TION, an ecclesiasti- 
cal penalty, by which they who incur 
the guilt of any heinous sin, are separat- 
ed from the church, and deprived of its 
spiritual advantages. Thus the Jews 
' ' put out of the synagogue ' ' those they 
deemed unworthy, John 9:22; 12:42; 
16:2. There were two degrees of excom- 
munication among them: one a tem- 
porary and partial exclusion from eccle- 
siastical privileges, and from society ; the 
other a complete excision from the cov- 
enant people of God and their numerous 
privileges, and abandonment to eternal 
perdition. See Anathema. 

The right and duty of excommunica- 
tion when necessary were recognized in 
the Christian church by Christ and his 
apostles, Matt. 18:15-18; 1 Cor. 5:1-13; 
16:22; Gal. 5:12; 1 Tim. 1:20; Titus 
3:10. The offender, found guilty and 
incorrigible, was to be excluded from the 
Lord's supper and cut off from the body 
of believers. This excision from Chris- 
tian fellowship does not release one from 
any obligation to obey the law of God 
and the gospel of Christ ; nor exempt 
him from any relative duties, as a man 
or a citizen. The censure of the church, 
on the other hand, is not to be accom- 
panied, as among papists, with enmity, 
curses, and persecution. Our Saviour 
directs that such an offender be regarded 
"as a heathen man and a publican;" 
and the apostles charge the church to 
"withdraw from" those who trouble 
them, and "keep no company with 
them," "no, not to eat ;" but this is to 
be understood of those offices of civility 
and fraternity which a man is at liberty 
to pay or to withhold, and not of the 
indispensable duties of humanity, found- 
ed on nature, the law of nations, and 
the spirit of Christianity, 2 Thess. 3:6, 
15; 2 John 10, 11. 

EX'ODUS, going out, the name of the 
second book of Moses and of the Bible ; so 
called because it narrates the departure 
of the Israelites from Egypt. It com- 
prises a period of about one hundred and 
forty-five years, from the death of Jo- 



EXO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EXO 



seph to the erection of the tabernacle in 
the desert, a. m. 2jG9-2514. The vari- 
ous topics of the hook may he thus 
presented: (1.) Tlie oppression of the 
IsraeUtes, under the change of dynasty 
which sprung up after the death of Jo- 
seph : ' ' Tliere arose up another king, 
who knew not Joseph," chap. 1 : 8. 
The reference many believe is to the 
invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos, who 
are spoken of in secular history as hav- 
ing invaded Egypt probably about this 
period, and who held it in subjection 
for mmy years. They are termed shep- 
herd-kings, and represented as coming 
from the east. (2.) The youth, edu- 
cation, patriotism, and flight of Moses, 
chap. 2-6. (3.) The commission of Mo- 
ses, the perversity of Pharaoh, and the 
infliction of the ten plagues in succession, 
chap. 7-11. (4.) The institution of the 
Passover, the sudden departm-c of the 
Israelites, the passage of the Red sea, 
and the tiianlcsgiving of Moses and the 
people on the opposite shore, after the 
destruction of Pharaoh and his host, 
chap. 12-15. (5.) The narration of va- 
rious miracles wrought in behalf of the 
people during their journeyings towards 
Sinai, chap. 15-17. (6.) The promulga- 
tion of the law on mount Sinai. This 
includes the preparation of the people 
by Moses, and the promulgation, lirst of 
the moral law, then of the judicial law, 
and subsequently of the ceremonial law, 
including the instructions for the erec- 
tion of the tabernacle and the comple- 
tion of that house of God, chap. 19-40. 

The scope of the book is not only to 
preserve the memorial of the departure 
of the Israelites from Egypt, but to pre- 
sent to view the church of God in her 
afflictions and triumphs; to point out 
the providential care of God over her, 
and the judgments inflicted on her ene- 
mies. It clearly shows the accomplish- 
ment of the divine promises and prophe- 
cies delivered to Abraham : that his pos- 
terity would be numerous, Gen. 15:5: 
17:4-6; 46:27; Num. 1:1-3, 46; and 
that they should be afflicted in a land 
not their own, whence they should depart 
in the fourth generation with great sub- 
stance, Gen. 15:13-16 ; Exod. 12:40, 41. 
Their exodus in many particulars well 
illustrates the state of Christ's church in 
the wilderness of this world, until her 
arrival in the heavenly Canaan. See 
1 Cor. 10 ; and also the epistle to the 



Hebrews. The book of Exodus brings 
before us many and singular types of 
Christ : Moses, Deut. 18 : 15 ; Aaron, 
Heb. 4:14-16; ver. 4, 5: the paschal 
lamb, Ex. 12:46; John 19:36; 1 Cor. 
5:7, 8; the manna, Ex. 16:15; 1 Cor. 
10 : 3 ; the rock in Horeb, Ex. 17 : 6 ; 
1 Cor. 10:4; the mercy-seat, Ex. 37:6; 
Eom. 3:25; Heb. 4:16; the tabernacle, 
Ex. 40, "The Word tabernacled among 
us," John 1:14. 

This departure from Egypt, and the 
subsequent wanderings of the children 
of Israel in the desert, form one of the 
great epochs in their history. They 
were constantly led by Jehovah, and the 
whole series of events is a constant suc- 
cession of miracles. From their break- 
ing up at Rameses, to their arrival on 
the confines of the promised land, there 
was an interval of forty years, during 
which one whole generation passed away, 
and the whole Mosaic law was given, and 
sanctioned by the thunders and light- 
nings of Sinai. There is no portion of 
history extant which so displays the in- 
terposition of an overruling Providence 
in the affairs both of nations and of in- 
dividuals, as that which recounts these 
wanderings of Israel. 

The four hundred and thirty years re- 
ferred to in Ex. 12:40, date, according 
to the received chronology, from the 
time when the promise was made to 
Abraham, Gen. 15 : 13. From the ar- 
rival of Jacob in Egypt to the exodus of 
his posterity, was about two hundred and 
thirty years. Tlie threescore and fifteen 
souls had now become 600,000, besides 
children. They took with them great 
numbers of cattle, and much Egyptian 
spoil. It was only by the mighty hand 
of God that their deliverance was effect- 
ed ; and there seems to have been a spe- 
cial vindication of his glory in the fact 
that the Nile, the flies, the frogs, fishes, 
cattle, etc. , which were made the means 
or the subjects of the plagues of Egypt, 
were there regarded with idolatrous ven- 
eration. 

After the tenth and decisive plague 
had been sent, the Israelites were dis- 
missed from Egypt in haste. They are 
supposed to have been assembled at Ra- 
meses, or Heroopolis, in the land of Go- 
shen, about thirty-five miles north-west 
of Suez, on the ancient canal which unit- 
ed the Nile with the Red sea. Tliey set 
off on the fifteenth dav of the first month, 
' li.^. 



EXO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EXO 




the day after the Passover, that is, about 
the middle of April. Their course was 
south-east as far as Etham ; but then, 
instead of keeping on directly to Sinai, 
they turned to the south, Ex. 14 : 2, on 
the west side of the Red sea, which they 
reached three days after starting, prob- 
ably near Suez. Here, by means of a 
strong east wind, God miraculously di- 
vided the waters of the sea in such a 
way that the Israelites passed over the 
bed of it on dry groimd ; while the Egyp- 
tians, who attempted to follow them, were 
dro^^^led by the returning waters. The 
arm of the sea at Suez is now only three 
or four miles wide, and at low water may 
be forded. It is known to have been for- 
merly wider and deeper ; but the drift- 
ing sands of ages have greatly filled and 



altered it. The miracle here wTOugbt 
was an amazing one, and revealed the 
hand of God more signally than any of 
the ten plagues had done. According 
to the Bible, God caused a "strong east 
wind ' ' to blow ; the deep waters were 
sundered, and "gathered together;" 
"the floods stood upright as a heap;" 
"the children of Israel walked upon dry 
land in the midst of the sea, and the wa- 
ters were a wall unto them on their right 
hand and on their left." These eflects 
continued all night till the morning 
watch, and without obstructing the 
progress of the Hebrews ; whereas in 
the morning the pursuing Egyptians 
were covered by the sea, and ' ' sank like 
lead in the mighty waters. ' ' These were 
wonders towards the effecting of which 



EXO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



EXO 



any wind must have been as insuflicient 
as Naaman's mere washing in Jordan 
would have been to the heahng of his 
leprosy. It should here be stated also, 
that some geographers think this mir- 
acle took place below mount Atakah, 
ten or twelve miles south of Suez, where 
the sea is about twelve miles wide. This 
opinion is liable to several objections, 
though it cannot be proved to be false. 
At this late day the precise locality may 
be undiscoverable, like the point of a 
soul's transition from the bondage of 
Satan into the kingdom of God ; but in 
both cases the work is of God, and the 
glory of it is his alone. 

Having offered thanksgiving to God 
for their wonderful deliverance, the Is- 
raelites advanced along the eastern shore 
of the Red sea and through the valleys 
and desert to mount Sinai. Tliis part of 
their route may be readily traced, and 
Marah, Elim, and the desert of Sin have 
been with much probabilitj^ identified. 
They arrived at mount Sinai in the third 
month, or June, probably about the mid- 
dle of it, having been two months on 
their journey. Here the law was given, 
and here they abode during all the 
transactions recorded in the remainder 
of Exodus, in Leviticus, and in the first 
nine chapters of Numbers, that is. until 
the twentieth day of the second month 
(May) in the following year, a period of 
about eleven months. 

Breaking up at this time from Sinai, 
they marched northwards through the 
desert of Paran, or perhaps along the 
eastern arm of the Red sea and north 
through El-Arabah, to Kadesh-barnea, 
near the south-east border of Canaan. 
Repliidim near mount Sinai, and Tabe- 
rah, Kibroth-hattaaveh, and Hazeroth, 
on tlieir journey north, were the scenes 
of incidents which may be found de- 
scribed under tlieir several heads. From 
Kadesh-barnea, spies were sent out to 
view the promised land, and brought 
back an evil report, probably in August 
of tho same year. The people murmur- 
ed, an 1 were directed by Jehovali to turn 
back and wander in the desert, until the 
carcasses of that generation should all fall 
in the wilderness. Num. 14:25. This they 
did, wandering from one station to an- 
other in the great desert of Paran, lying 
south of Palestine, and also in the great 
sandy valley called El-Ghor and chiefly 
El-Arabah, which extends from the Dead 



sea to the gulf of Akaba, the eastern arm 
of the Red sea. See Jordan. Where and 
how these long years were spent we are 
not informed, nor by what routes they 
traversed the desert, nor how they were 
furnished with food except manna. Mo- 
ses says they ' ' compa.ssed mount Self 
many days," always under the guidance 
of the pillar of fire and cloud. Num. 9:22; 
he also gives a list of seventeen stations, 
mostly unknown, where they rested or 
dwelt before reaching Ezion-gaber, Num. 
33: 19-35; and then mentions their re- 
turn to Kadesh, ver. 36, 37, in the first 
month, Num. 20:1, after an interval of 
almost thirty-eight years. While thus a 
second time encamped at Kadesh, Moses 
sent to the king of Iduma^a, to ask lib- 
erty to pass through his dominions, that 
is, through the chain of mountains 
(mount Seir) lying along the eastern 
side of the great valley El-Arabah. See 
Idum^a. This was refused ; and Israel, 
feeling too weak to penetrate into Pal- 
estine from the south, in face of the 
powerful tribes of Canaanites dwelling 
there, was compelled to take the south- 
ern passage around Edom, Num. 21:4. 
Soon after turning, they came to mount 
Hor, where Aaron died and was buried. 
Num. 20:20-28. Proceeding southward 
along the valley El-Arabah to Ezion-ga- 
ber, at the head of the eastern gulf of 
the Red sea, they here passed through 
the eastern mountains, and then turned 
north along the eastern desert, by tlic 
route which the great Syrian caravan cf 
Mohammedan pilgrims now passes in 
going to Mecca. They arrived at the 
brook Zered, on the southern border of 
Moab, just forty years after their depart- 
ure from Egypt. 

See a tabular view of the various en- 
campments of the Israelites, under Wan- 
derings. 

EXOR'CISTS, from a Greek word sig- 
nifying to conjure, to use the name of 
God or certain magical ceremonies with 
design to expel devils from places or bod- 
ies which they possess. The apostles 
were enabled to cast out evil spirits in 
Christ's name. Matt. 10:1; Mark 10:17; 
Luke 10 : 17 ; and designing men, both 
before and after the Saviour's death, pro- 
tended to exercise the same ]x>wer. Matt. 
12:27 ; Mark 0:38 ; Luke 0:49, 50; Acts 
19 : 13-17. Exorcists were thought to 
have gained this power by secret studies 
respecting the nature of demons, and 
147 



EXP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



EYE 



the powers of certain herbs, drugs, and 
stones, and were accustomed to use va- 
rious forms of adjuration and incanta- 
tion in their unlawful art ; hut the whole 
was delusion and imposture, and strictly 
forbidden. See Divination. 

EXPLVTIOX, an act by which satis- 
faction is made for a crime, and the lia- 
bility to punishment for it is cancelled. 
It supposes penitence and faith on the 
sinner" s part. Among the Jews, expia- 
tion was effected by a divinely appointed 
and typical system of sacrifices, ail point- 
ing to Christ'. The New Testament shows 
Him to be the true sin-offering for man- 
kind, "the Lamb of God," "our Pass- 
over, ' ' offering ' ' his own blood, ' ' and 
putting awav ' ' sin by the sacrifice of 
himself," John 1:29; 1 Cor. 5:7; Eph. 
1:7; Heb. 9:26. 

The day of Expiation, or atont;ment, 
was a yearly solemnity, observed with 
rest and fasting on the tenth day of Tis- 
ri, five da}-s before the feast of taberna- 
cles. Lev. 23 : 7 ; 25 : 9. The ceremonies 
of this all-important day are minutely 
described in Lev. 10. On this day alone 
the high-priest entered the Most Holy 
Place. Heb. 9:7 ; but the various rites of 
the da}- required him to enter several 
times. First with the golden censer 
and a vessel filled with incense. Then 
with the blood of the bullock, which he 
had offered for his own sins and those of 
all the priests, in which he dipped his 
finger, and sprinkled it seven times be- 
low and once above the mercy-seat. This 
done, he left the basin of blood behmd, 
and withdrew again. Tlie third time he 
entered with the blood of the ram which 
he had ofiered for the sins of the nation, 
with which he sprinkled towards the veil 
of the tabernacle eight times ; and hav- 
ing mixed it with tiie blood of the bul- 
lock, he sprinkled again towards the 
horns of the altar of incense seven times, 
and once above it towards the east ; after 
which, having again left the sanctuary 
and taken with him the basins of blood, 
he poured out the whole on the floor of 
the altar of burnt-offering. The fourth 
time he entered to bring out the censer 
and vessel of incense ; and having re- 
turned, he washed his hands and per- 
formed the other services of the day. 
The ceremony of the scape-goat also took 
place on this chxy. Two goats were set 
apart, one of which was sacrificed to the 
Lord, while the other, called the azazel 
Jl§ 



' or scape-goat, which was determined by 

lot to 1 e set at liberty, was sent into the 

desert burdened with the sins of the pec 

pie. All these solemn rites pointed to 

Christ, and in every age there were many 

believers who had spiritual discernment 

of their sacred meaning, Heb. 9-11. 

They looked unto Him whom they had 

i pierced, and mourned. As this day of 

expiation was the great fast-day of the 

Jewish church, so godly sorrow for sin 

I characterizes the Christian's looking un- 

I to the Lamb of God, and "the rapture 

- of pardon ' ' is mingled wdth ' ' penitent 

tears." 

EYE. Tlie same Hebrew word means 
both eye and fountain. Besides its com- 
mon use, to denote the organ of sight, 
it is often used figuratively in the Bible. 
Most of these passages, however, require 
no explanation. The custom of sealing 
up the eyes of crinunals, still practised 
in the East, is thought to be alluded to 
in Isa. 6 : 10 ; 44 : 18. The expression, 
"As the eyes of servants look unto the 
hand of their masters," Psa. 123 : 2, is 
elucidated by a knowledge of the fact 
that many eastern servants are taught 
to stand always upon the watch, and arc 
in general directed by a nod, a wink, or 
some slight motion of the fingers imper- 
ceptible to strangers. Many Scripture 
phrases intimate the soul-like nature of 
the eye, quickly and truly expressing 
the thoughts of the heart : such as ' ■ the 
bountiful eye" and the "evil cj-e," 
Prov. 22:9; 23 :G: " haughty eyes " and 
"wanton eyes," Prov. 6:17; Isa. 3:16. 
' ' The lust of the eyes, ' ' 1 John 2 : 16, ex- 
presses a craving for any of the gay vani- 
ties of this life. Tlie threatening against 
' ' the eye that mocketh at his father, ' ' 
Prov. SO: 17, is explained by the habit of 
birds of prey, which attack the eyes of 
a living enemy, and quickly devour those 
of the dead. A ' ' single ' ' eye, ]\Iatt. G : 22, 
is one which is clear, and sees every object 
as it is. 

There are allusions in the Bible, and 
in many ancient and modern writers, to 
the practice of painting the e^-elids, to 
make the eyes appear large, lustrous, 
and languishing. Jezebel, 2 Kin. 9:30, 
is said to have "painted her face," lit- 
era,lly, "put her eyes in paint." This 
was sometimes done to excess. Jer. 4:30; 
and was practised by abandoned wom- 
en, Prov. 6 : 25. A small probe of wood, 
ivorv, or silver, is wet with rose-water, 



EZE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



EZR 



and dipped in an impalpable powder ; 
this is then drawn between the lids of 
the e\'e nearly closed, and leaves a nar- 
row black border which is thought a 




great ornament. The powder for this 
purpose, called kohol, is made by burn- 
ing a kind of aromatic resin, and some- 
times of lead ore and other substances, 
for the benefit of the eyes. In Persia 
this custom is as common among the 
men as among the "women ; so also in 
ancient Egypt, as the Theban monu- 
ments show. " The females of Arabia," 
Niebuhr says, "color their nails blood- 
red, and their hands and feet yellow, with 
the herb Al-henna. (See Camphire.) 
They also tinge the inside of their eye- 
lids coal-black with hochel, a coloring 
material prepared from lead ore. They 
not only enlarge their eyebrows, but 
also pamt other figures of black, as or- 
naments, upon the face and hands. 
Sometimes they even prick through the 
skin, in various figures, and then lay 
certain substances upon the wounds, 
which eat in so deeply, that the orna- 
ments thus impressed are rendered per- 
manent for life. All this the Arabian 
women esteem as beauty. ' ' 

EZE'KIEL, son of Buzi, a prophet of 
the sacerdotal race, was carried captive 
to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, with Je- 
hoiachin king of.Judah, b. c. 598, and 
placed by the river Chebar. See Nine- 
veh. He began his ministry in the thir- 



tieth year of his age, according to the 
general account ; but perhaps in the thir- 
tieth year after the covenant was renew- 
ed with God in the reign of Josiah, Ezek. 
1:1, which answers to the fifth year of 
Ezekiel's captivity. The elders of Israel 
resorted to him for direction, Ezra 8:1 ; 
14:1; 20:1; 33:31. He prophesied 
twenty years, b. c. 595-575, till the four- 
teenth year after the final captivity of 
Jerusalem. During the first eight years 
he was contemporary with Jeremiah. 
Daniel also lived at the same time, 
Ezek. 14:14, IG ; 28:3, though most of 
his predictions are of a later date. 

The BOOK OF EzEKiEL abounds with 
sublime visions of the divine glory, and 
awful denunciations against Israel for 
their rebellious spirit against God, and 
the abominations of their idolatry, chap. 
1-24. It contains also similar denuncia- 
tions against Tyre and other hostile na- 
tions, chap. 25-32. The latter part of 
the book contains oracles respecting the 
return and restoration of the people of 
God, chap. 33-48. 

EZ'ION-GE'BEPt, or Eziox-Gabek, a 
city at the northern extremity of the 
Elanitic or eastern gulf of the Red sea, 
and close by Elatli. The Israelites rest- 
ed here in the last year of their wander- 
ings from Egypt to Canaan, Num. 33:35 ; 
Dent. 2:8. \t this port Solomon equip- 
ped his fleets for the voyage to Ophir, 
1 Kin. 9:26. A similar enterprise of Je- 
hoshaphat failed, 1 Kin. 22:48; 2 Chr. 
20:36. See Elath and Exodls. 

EZ'RA, a celebrated priest and leader 
of the Jewish nation. He was "a ready 
scribe in the law," a learned, able, and 
faithful man, and appears to have en- 
joyed great consideration in the Persian 
court. During the eighty years em- 
braced in his narrative, most of the reign 
of Cyrus passed, and the whole reign of 
Cambyses, Smerdis, Darius H)'staspis, 
Xerxes, and eight years of Artaxer- 
xes Longimanus. From this last king 
he received letters, money, and every 
desirable help, and v>ent at the head of 
a large party of returning exiles to Je- 
rusalem, B. c. 457. Here he instituted 
many reforms in the conduct of the peo- 
ple, and in the public worship, Ezra 
8-10 ; Neh. 8. After this he is gener- 
ally believed to have collected and re- 
vised all the books of the Old Testament 
Scripture, which form the present canon. 

The BOOK OF Ezra contains a history 
149 



FAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



FAN 



of the return of the Jews from the time 
of Cyrus ; with an account of his own 
subsequent proceedings, b. c. 450. There 
are two apocryphal books ascribed to 
him under the name of Esdras, which is 
only the Greek form of the name Ezra. 

F. 

FA'BLE, an idle, groundless, and 
worthless story, like the mythological 
legends of the heathen and the vain 
traditions of the Jews. These were often 
not only false and weak, but pernicious, 
1 Tim. 4:7; Tit. 1:14; 2 Pet. 1:16. 

FACE, and presence, expressed by the 
same word in Hebrew, are often put for 
the person himself. Gen. 48:11; Exod. 
33:14 ; Isa. 63:9. No man has seen the 
face of God, that is, had a full revelation 
of his glory, Exod. 33:20; John 1:18; 
1 Tim. 6 : 16. To see him ' ' face to face, ' ' 
is to enjoy his presence, Gen. 32 : 30 ; 
Num. 14 : 14 ; Deut. 5 : 4, and have a 
clear manifestation of his nature and 
grace, 1 Cor. 13:12. 

FAIR-HA'VENS, a roadstead or small 
bay, near the town of Lasea, midway on 
the southern coast of Crete, where Paul 
wished to winter when on the voyage to 
Rome, Acts 27:8. The sailors preferred 
Phenice as safer, and were wrecked in 
consequence. It still retains nearly its 
old name. 

FAITH is the assent of the under- 
standing to any truth. Religious faith 
is assent to the truth of divine revela- 
tion and of the events and doctrines con- 
tained in it. This may be merely his- 
torical, without producing any effect on 
our lives and conversation ; and it is then 
a dead faith, such as even the devils have. 
But a living or saving faith not only 
believes the great doctrines of religion as 
true, but embraces them with the heart 
and affections ; and is thus the source of 
sincere obedience to the divine will, ex- 
hibited in the life and conversation. Faith 
in Christ is a grace wrought in the heart 
by the Holy Spirit, whereby we receive 
Christ as our Saviour, our Prophet, 
Priest, and King, and love and obey him 
as such. This living faith in Christ is 
the means of salvation — not meritorious- 
ly, but instrumentally. Without it there 
can be no forgiveness of sins, and no ho- 
liness of life ; and they who sire justified 
by faith, live and walk by faith, Mark 
150 



16 : 16 ; John 3 : 15, 16 ; Acts 16 : 31 ; 

1 John 5:10. 

True faith is an essential grace, and a 
main-spring of Christian life. By it the 
Christian overcomes the Avorld, the flesh, 
and the devil, and receives the crown of 
righteousness, 1 Tim. 4:7, 8. In virtue 
of it, worthy men of old wrought great 
wonders, Heb. 11; Acts 14:9; 1 Cor. 
13:2, being sustained by Omnipotence 
in doing A\diatever God enjoined. Matt. 
17:20; Mark 9:23; 11:23,24. In Rom. 
1:8, faith is put for the exhibition of 
faith, in the practice of all the duties 
implied in a profession of faith. 

FAITH' FUL, in many passages in the 
Bible, means ' ' believing. ' ' Thus in Gal. 
3 : 9, believers are said to be blessed with 
Abraham, because of his preeminent dis- 
tinction above all men for steadfast faith 
in God. This appellation is given in 
Scripture to true Christians, to indicate 
not only their saving faith in Christ, but 
their trustworthy and consistent Chris- 
tian character. Acts 16:15; 1 Cor. 4:17; 
Eph. 6:21; Col. 4:9; 1 Pet. 5:12. "A 
faithful saying ' ' is one that cannot prove 
false, ITim. 1:15; 2 Tim. 2:11. 

FAITH'FULNESS is an infinite attri- 
bute of Jehovah ; adapted to make per- 
fect both the confidence of those who 
believe his word and rely on his prom- 
ises, and the despair of those who doubt 
his word and defy his threatenmgs, Deut. 
28 : 26 ; Num. 23 : 19 ; Psa. 89 : 33, 34 ; 
Heb. 10:23. 

FAMTNE. Scripture records several 
famines in Palestine, and the neighbor- 
ing countries, Gen. 12:10; 26:1; Ruth 
1 : 1 ; 2 Kin. 6 : 25 ; Acts 11 : 27. The 
most remarkable one was that of seven 
years in Egypt, while Joseph was gov- 
ernor. Gen. 41. It was distmguished 
for its duration, extent, and severity; 
particularly as Egypt is one of the coun- 
tries least subject to such a calamity, by 
reason of its general fertility. Famine 
is sometimes a natural effect, as when 
the Nile does not overflow in Egypt, or 
rains do not fall in Judea, at the custom- 
ary season ; or when caterpillars, locusts, 
or other insects, destroy the fruits. But 
all natural causes are under the control 
of God ; and he often so directs them as 
to chastise the rebellious with want, 

2 Kin. 8:1, 2; Ezek. 6:11; Matt. 24:7. 
The worst fiimine is a spiritual one, 
Amos 8:11. 

FAN, an instrument used for winnow- 



FAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FEA 



ing grain. In the East, fans are of two 
kinds: one a sort of fork, having three 
or four prongs, and a handle four feet 
long ; with this they throw up the grain 
to the wind, that the chaff may be blown 
away: the other sort of fan is formed to 
produce wind when the air is calm, Isa. 
30 : 24. This process illustrates the com- 
plete separation which Christ the Judge 
will effect between the righteous and the 
wicked, Jer. 15 : 7 ; Matt. 3 : 12. See 

TURESUIXG. 

FAR'THING. Two different Roman 
brass coins are translated by this word : 
one of these, the assarion, Matt. 10:29, 
Luke 12:6, was worth less than a cent ; 
the other, the kodrantes, Matt. 5 : 26, was 
probably nearly four mills. 

FASTTNG has, in all ages, and among 
all nations, been practised in times of 
sorrow, and affliction, Jonah 3:5. It 
may be regarded as a dictate of nature, 
which under these circumstances refuses 
nourishment, and suspends the crav- 
ings of hunger. In the Bible no ex- 
ample is mentioned of fasting, proper- 
ly so called, before Moses. His forty 
days' fast, like that of Elijah and of our 
Lord, was miraculous, Deut. 9:9 ; I Kin. 
19:8; Matt. 4:2. The Jews often had 
recourse to this practice, when they had 
occasion to humble themselves before 
God, to confess their sins and deprecate 
his displeasure, Judg. 20 : 26 ; 1 Sam. 
7 : 6 ; 2 Sam. 12 : 16 ; Neh. 9:1; Jer. 
36 : 9. Especially in times of public 
calamity, they appomted extraordinary 
fasts, and made even the children at the 
breast fast, Joel 2:16; but see Dan. 
10:2, 3. Tliey began the observance of 
their fasts at sunset, and remained with- 
out eating until the same hour the next 
day. The great day of expiation was 
probably the only annual and national 
fast-day among them. 

It does not appear by his own practice 
or by his commands, that our Lord insti- 
tuted any particular fast. On one occa- 
sion, he intimated that his disciples 
would fast after his death, Luke 5:34, 
35. Accordingly, the life of the apos- 
tles and lirst believers was a life of self- 
denials, sufferings, and fastings, 2 Cor. 
5:7; 11:27. Our Saviour recognized the 
custom, and the apostles practised it as 
occasion required, Matt. 6:16-18; Acts 
13:3; 1 Cor. 7:5. 

FAT. The fat portions of animals 
offered in sacrifice Avere always to be 



consumed, as being the choice part and 
especially sacred to the Lord. The blood 
was also sacred, as containing the life of 
the annual. The Jews were forbidden 
to eat either. Lev. 3:16, 17; 7:23-27. 

FA'THER, is often synonymous with 
ancestor, founder, or originator, as Gen. 
4:20, 21; John 8:56; Rom. 4:16. Jo- 
seph was a father to Pharaoh, Gen. 
45 : 8, as his counsellor and provider. 
God is the Father of men, as their Crea- 
tor, Deut. 32:6; Isa. 63:16; 64:8; Luke 
3:38. But as we have forfeited the 
rights of children by our sins, it is only 
through Christ that we can call God by 
that endearing name, "our Father," 
John 20: 17; Rom. 8:15-17. 

In patriarchal times, a father was mas- 
ter and judge in his own household, and 
exercised an authority almost unlimited 
over his family. Filial disobedience or 
disrespect was a high offence. Under 
the law, certain acts of children were 
capital crimes, Ex. 21:15, 17 ; Lev. 20:9; 
and the father was required to bring his 
son to the public tribunal, Deut. 21 : 18- 
21. See Mother. 

FEASTS. God appomted several fes- 
tivals, or days of rest and worship, 
among the Jews, to perpetuate the mem- 
ory of great events wrought in favor of 
them: the Sabbath commemorated the 
creation of the world ; the Passover, the 
departure out of Egypt ; the Pentecost, 
the law given at Sinai, etc. At the three 
great feasts of the year, the Passover, 
Pentecost, and that of Tabernacles, all 
the males of the nation were required to 
visit the temple, Ex. 23:14-17; Deut. 
16:16, 17 ; and to protect their borders 
from invasion during their absence, the 
shield of a special providence was always 
interposed, Ex. 34:23, 24. The other 
festivals were the Feast of Trumpets, or 
New Moon, Purim, Dedication, the Sab- 
bath year, and the j'^ear of Jubilee. These 
are described elsewhere. The observance 
of these sacred festivals was adapted not 
merely to freshen the remembrance of 
their early history as a nation, but to 
keep alive the influence of religion and 
the expectation of the Messiah, to deep- 
en their joy in God, to dispel animosi- 
ties and jealousies, and to form new asso- 
ciations between the different tribes and 
families. See also Day of Expiation. 

In the Christian church, we have no 
festival that clearly appears to have 
been instituted by our Saviour, or his 
151 



FEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FEL 



apostles ; but as we commemorate bis 
death as often as we celebrate his supper, 
he has hereby seemed to institute a per- 
petual feast. Christians have always 
celebrated the memory of his resurrec- 
tion by regarding the Sabbath, which we 
see, from Rev. 1:10, was in John's time 
commonly called "the Lord's day." 

Feasts of love, Jude 12, Avere public 
banquets of a frugal kind, instituted by 
the primitive Christians, and connected 
by them Avith the celebration of the 
Lord's supper. The provisions were 
contributed by the more wealthy, and 
were common to all Christians, whether 
rich or poor, who chose to partake. Por- 
tions Avcre also sent to the sick and ab- 
sent members. These love-feasts were 
intended as an exhibition of mutual 
Christian affection; but they became 
subject to abuses, and were afterwards 
generally discontinued, 1 Cor. 11:17-34. 

The Hebrews were a hospitable people, 
and were wont to welcome their guests 
with a feast, and dismiss them with an- 
other, Gen. 19:3; 31:27; Judg. 6:19; 
2 Sam. 3 : 20 ; 2 Kin. 6 : 23. The return- 
ing prodigal was thus welcomed, Luke 
15:23. Many joyful domestic events 
were observed with feasting: birthdays, 
etc., Gen. 21:8; 40:20; Job 1:4; Matt. 
14 : 6 ; marriages. Gen. 29 : 22 ; Judg. 
14 : 10 ; John 2 : 1-10 ; sheep-shearing 
and harvesting, Judg. 9 : 27 ; 1 Sam. 
25:2, 36; 2 Sam. 13:23. A feast was 
also provided at funerals, 2 Sam. 3:35; 
Jer. 16:7. Those who brought sacrifices 
and offerings to the temple were wont to 
feast upon them there, with joy and 
praise to God, Deut. 12:6, 7; 1 Sam. 
16:5; 2 Sam. 6:19. They Avere taught 
to invite all the needy to partake with 
them, Deut. 16:11 ; and even to make 
special feasts for the poor, Deut. 12:17- 
19; 14:28, 29; 26:12-15; a custom 
which the Saviour specially commended, 
Luke 14:12-14. 

The manner of holding a feast was 
anciently marked with great simplicity. 
But at the time of Christ many Roman 
customs had been introduced. The feast 
or "supper" usually took place at five 
or six in the afternoon, and often con- 
tinued to a late hour. The guests were 
invited some time in advance ; and those 
who accepted the invitation were again 
notified by servants when the hour ar- 
rived, Matt. 22:4-8; Luke 14:16-24. 
The door was guarded against uninvited 
152 



persons ; and was at length closed for 
the day by the hand of the master of the 
house, Matt. 25 : 10 ; Luke 13 : 24. Some- 
times very large numbers were present, 
Esth. 1:3, 5; Luke 14:16-24; and on 
such occasions a ' ' governor of the feast ' ' 
was appointed, whose social qualities, 
tact, firmness, and temperance fitted him 
to preside, John 2:8. The guests Avere 
arranged with a careful regard to tlieir 
claims to honor, Gen. 43 : 33 ; 1 Sam. 
9:22; Prov. 25:6, 7 ; Matt. 23:6; Luke 
14:7 ; in which matter the laws of eti- 
quette are still jealously enforced in the 
East. Sometimes the host provided light, 
rich, loose robes for the company ; and if 
so, the refusing to Avear one was a gross 
insult, Ecc. 9:8; Matt. 22:11; Rev. 3:4, 
5. The guests reclined around the ta- 
bles ; Avater and perfumes Avere served to 
them, Mark 7:2; Luke 7:44-46; and 
after eating, the hands were again Avash- 
ed, a servant pouring Avater over them. 
See illustration in Bed. During the re- 
past and after it various entertainments 
Avere provided ; enigmas Avere proposed, 
Judg. 14:12; eastern tales Avere told; 
music and hired dancers, and often ex- 
cessive drinking, etc. , occupied the time, 
Isa. 5:12 ; 24:7-9 ; Amos 6:5. See Eat- 
ing, Food. 

FE'LIX, a Roman governor of Judea ; 
originally a slave, but manumitted and 
promoted by Claudius Caesar, from Avhom 
he received the name of Claudius. He 
is described by the historian Tacitus as 
cruel, licentious, and base. In Judea he 
married Drusilla, sister of the younger 
Agrippa, having enticed her from her 
second husband Azizus. Paul having 
been sent by Lysias to Ciissarea, then the 
seat of government, Felix gave him an 
audience, and was convinced of his inno- 
cence. Nevertheless he kept him a pris- 
oner, though Avith many alleviations, in 
hopes that his friends Avould purchase his 
liberty by a heavy bribe. MeanAvhile 
his Avife Drusilla, Avho Avas a JcAvess, de- 
sired to hear Paul explain the ncAv relig- 
ion; and the apostle being summoned 
befoie them, discoursed Avith his usual 
boldness on justice, chastity, and the 
final judgment. Felix trembled, but 
hastily remanded Paul to confinement, 
and stifled his convictions — a melan- 
choly instance of the poAver of lust and 
the danger of delay. Taa^o years after, 
A. D. 60, he AA-as recalled to Rome ; and 
left Paul in prison, in order to appease 



FER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FIG 



the Jews. He was brought to trial, 
however, for maladministration, found 
guilty, and barely escaped death through 
the intercession of his brother Pallas, an- 
other royal favorite. Acts 23:26; 24. 

FER'RET, a sort of weasel. Lev. 11:30. 
The Hebrew word means rather a spe- 
cies of lizard, the gecko, which Moses for- 
bi Is as unclean. 

FES'TUS, Fortius, succeeded Felix in 
the government of Judea, a. d. 60. To 
oblige the Jews, Felix, when he resign- 
ed his government, left Paul in bonds at 
Cicsarea in Palestine, Acts 24:27; and 
when Festus arrived, he was entreated 
by the principal Jews to condemn the 
apostle, or to order him up to Jerusa- 
lem — they having conspired to assassi- 
nate him in the way. Festus, however, 
answered that it was not customary with 
the Romans to condemn any man with- 
out hearing him ; and promised to hear 
their accusations at Ctesarea. Five days 
after, on hearing Pa il and learning the 
nature of the charges against him, he 
jjroposed to him to abide the issue of a 
trial before the Jewish Sanhedrim. But 
Paul appealed to C;Bsar; and so secured 
himself from the prosecution of the Jews, 
and the intentions of Festus. The gov- 
ernor gave him another hearing during 
a congratulatory visit of king Agrippa, 
in order to make out a statement to be 
forwarded with him to Rome. Finding 
how greatly robberies abounded in Ju- 
dea, Festus very diligently pursued the 
thieves ; and he also suppressed a magi- 
cian, who drew the people after him into 
the desert. Josephus speaks well of his 
brief administration. He died iti Judea, 
A. D. 62, and was succeeded by Albinus. 
FIGr. The fig-tree is common in Pal- 
estine and the East, and flourishes with 
the greatest luxuriance in those barren 
and stony situations where little else 
will grow. Its large size, and its abun- 
dance of five-lobed leaves, render it a 
pleasant shade-tree ; and its fruit fur- 
nished a wholesome food, very much 
U5cd in all the lands of the Bible. Thus 
it was a symbol of peace and plentv, 
1 Kin. 4:25 ; Mic. 4:4 ; Zech. 3:10 ; John 
1 : 49-51. Figs are of two sorts, the 
"boccore," and the "kermouse." The 
black and wdiite boccore, or early fig, is 
produced in June ; though the kermouse, 
the fig properly so called, which is pre- 
served, and made up into cakes, is rarely 
ripe before August. There is also a long 




dark-colored kermouse, that sometimes 
hangs upon the trees all winter. 

The fruit of the fig-tree is one of the 
delicacies of the East, and is very often 
spoken of in Scripture. The early fig 
was especially prized, Isa. 28 : 4 ; Jer. 
24 : 2 ; Nah. 3 : 12, though the summer 
fig is most abundant, 2 Kin. 20:7 ; Isa. 
38:21. It is a peculiarity of tlie fig-tree 
that its fruit begins to appear before 
the leaves, and without any show of 
blossoms. It has, indeed, small and hid- 
den blossoms, but the passage in Ilab. 
3:17, should read, according to the orig- 
inal Hebrew, "Although the fig-tree 
should not hear," instead of "blossom." 
Its leaves come so late in the spring as 
to justify the words of Christ, "Ye know 
that summer is nigh," Matt. 24:32 ; Song 
2:13. The fresh fruit is shaped like a 
pear. The dried figs of Palestine were 
probably like those which are brought 
to our own country ; sometimes, how- 
ever, they are dried on a string. "We 
likewise read of " cakes of figs," 1 Sam. 
25 : 18 ; 2 Kin. 20 : 7 ; 1 Chr. 1 2 : 40. These 
Avere probably formed by pressing the 
fruit forcibly into baskets or other ves- 
sels, so as to reduce them to a solid calie 
or lump. In this way dates are still pre- 
pared in Arabia. 

The barren fig-tree wdiich was withered 
at our Saviour's word, as an awful warn- 
ing to unfruitful professors of religion, 
seems to have spent itself in leaves. It 
stood by the way-side, free to all ; and 
as the time for stripping the trees of their 
fruit had not come, Mark 11:14, it was 
reasonable to expect to find it covered 
with figs in various stages of growth. 
1-.3 



FIR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FIR 



Yet there was "nothing thereon, but 
leaves only," Matt. 21:19. 

FlPt, an evergreen tree, of beautiful 
appearance, whose lofty height and 
dense foliage afford a spacious shelter 
and shade. The Hebrew word often 
seems to mean the Cypress, which see. 
It was used for ship-building, Ezek. 27 : 5 ; 
for musical instruments, 2 Sam. 6:5 ; for 
beams and rafters of houses, 1 Kin. 5 : 8, 
10: 9:11; Song 1:17. 

FIRE, in Scripture, is often connected 
with the presence of Jehovah ; as in the 
burning bush, and on mount Sinai, Ex. 
3:2 ; 19:18 ; in Psalm 18, and the ode of 
Ilabakkuk. The second coming of Christ 
will be "in flaming lire," 2 Thess. 1:8. 
In the New Testament it illustrates the 
enlightening, cheering, and purifying 
agency of the Holy Spirit, Matt. 3 : 11 ; 
Acts 2:3. By sending fire from heaven 
to consume sacrifices, God often signified 
his acceptance of them : as in the case of 
Abel, Gen. 4:4:; Abraham, Gen. 15:17; 
Manoah, Judg. 13:19,20; Elijah, 1 Kin. 
18 : 38 ; and at the dedication of the tab- 
ernacle and the temple, Lev. 9:24: ; 2Chr. 
7:1. This sacred fire was preserved by 
the priests with the utmost care, Isa. 
31:9. In many ancient religions fire was 
worshipped ; and children were made to 
pass through the fire to IMoloch, 2 Kin. 
17:17; Jer. 7:31; Ezek. 16:21; 23:37. 
The Jews had occasion for fires, except 
for cooking, only during a small part of 
the year. Besides their ordinary hearths 
and ovens, they warmed their apart- 
ments with ' ' a fire of coals " in a bra- 
zier, Jer. 36:22, 23; Luke 22:30. They 
were forbidden to kindle a fire on the 
Sabbath, Ex. 35 : 3 — a prohibition per- 
haps only of cooking on that day, but im- 
dcrstood by many Jews even now in the 
fullest extent ; it is avoided by employ- 
ing gentile servants. Another provision 
of the Mosaic law was designed to pro- 
tect the standing corn, etc., in the dry 
summer season, Ex. 22:0. The earth is 
to be destroyed by fire, 2 Pet. 3:7; of 
which the destruction of Sodom, and the 
volcanoes and earthquakes which so often 
indicate the internal commotions of the 
globe, may serve as warnings. 

FIR'KIN, John 2:6, a Greek measure, 
equivalent to the Hebrew hath, and con- 
taining seven and a half gallons. The 
quantity of wine produced by the mir- 
acle at Cana was large : but the assem- 
blage was also large ; the festivities con- 
154 



tinned, it may be, a whole week, Judg. 
14: 12 ; and many would be draAvn to the 
scene hy hearing of the miracle. 

FIR'MAI\IEXT, Gen. 1 : 17, the ex- 
panse of the heavens immediately above 
the earth. The Hebrews seem to have 
vicAved this as an immense crystalline 
dome, studded with stars, resting on the 
far distant horizon all around the spec- 
tator, and separating the waters above 
us from those on the earth. Through its 
windows the rain descended. It is not 
necessary to suppose they thought it Avas 
solid, Psa. 19:1 ; Isa. 40:22. It is not the 
aim of Scripture to give scientific state- 
ments of natural phenomena. Teach- 
ing religion, not astronomy or physics, 
it does not anticipate modern discoveries, 
but speaks of natural objects and occur- 
rences in the common language of men 
everywhere. Hence, in part, its attrac- 
tiveness in all ages as a book for the 
people. 

FIRST-BORN. This phrase is not al. 
ways to be imderstood literally ; it is 
sometimes taken for the prime, most 
excellent, most distinguished of things, 
Psa. 89 : 27 ; Rom. 8 : 29 ; Hob. 1 : 4-6. 
Thus Jesus Christ is "the first-born of 
every creature," Col. 1:15, inasmuch as 
he was the ' ' Only-begotten ' ' of the Fa- 
ther before any creature was produced. 
He is "the first-born from the dead," 
Col. 1:18, because he is the beginning, 
and the author of the resurrection of all 
who die in faith. 

After the destroying angel had slain 
the first-born of the Egyptians, God or- 
dained that all the Jewish first-born, 
both of men and of beasts for service, 
should be consecrated to him ; but the 
male children only were subject to this 
law. If a man had several wives, he was 
obliged to offer the first-born son by each 
one of them to the Lord. The first-born 
were offered at the temple, and redeem- 
ed for five shekels. Tlie firstling of a 
clean beast was offered at the temple, 
not to be redeemed, but to be killed ; an 
unclean beast, a horse, an ass, or a cam- 
el, was either redeemed or exchanged ; 
an ass was redeemed by a lamb or five 
shekels ; if not redeemed, it Avas killed, 
Ex. 13 : 2, 11, etc. The first-born son 
among the Hebrews, as among all other 
nations, enjoyed particular privileges. 
See Birthright. 

FIRST-FRUITS ,were presents made 
to God of part of the fruits of the har- 



FIS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FLA 



vest, to express the submission, depend- 
ence, and thankfulness of the oft'erers. 
Tlie portion given was instead of tlic 
whole, in acknowledgment that all was 
due to God. They were offered in the 
temple before the crop was gatliered, 
and when the harvest was over, before 
the people began to use their corn. The 
first of these first-fruits, offered in the 
name of the nation, was a sheaf of bar- 
ley, gathered on the fifteenth of Msan, 
in the evening, and threshed in a court 
of the temple. After it was well clean- 
ed, about three pints of it Avere roasted, 
and pounded in a mortar. Over this 
was thrown a measure of olive-oil and a 
handful of incense ; and the priest, tak- 
ing the offering, waved it before the 
Lord towards the four cardinal points, 
throwing a handful of it into the fire on 
the altar, and keeping the rest. After 
this, all were at liberty to get in the 
harvest. AVhen the wheat harvest was 
over, on the day of Pentecost they of- 
fered as first-fruits of another kind, in 
the name of the nation, two loaves, of 
about three joints of flour each, made of 
leavened dough. Lev. 23 : 10, 17. In 
addition to these first-fruits, every pri- 
vate person Avas obliged to bring his first- 
fruits to the temple, but Scripture pre- 
scribes neither the time nor the qantity. 

There was, besides this, another sort 
of first-fruits paid to God, Num. 15:19, 
21 ; Neh. 10 : 37 : when the bread in 
the family was kneaded, a portion of it 
was set apart, and given to the priest or j 
Levite of the place ; if there were no 
priest or Levite, it was cast into the oven 
and there consumed. 

lliose offerings are also often called 
first-fruits, which were brought by the 
Israelites from devotion, to the temple, 
for the feast of thanksgiving, to which 
they invited their relations and friends, 
and the Levites of their cities. The 
first-fruits and tenths were the most con- 
siderable revenue of the priests and Le- 
vites. 

Christians have "the first-fruits of the 
Holy Spirit," Rom. 8:23 ; that is, more 
abundant and more excellent gifts than 
the Jews ; these were also a foretaste of 
the full harvest. ' ' Christ is risen from 
the dead, and become the first-fruits of 
them that slept," 1 Cor. 15:20, the fore- 
runner of all tliose who, because he lives, 
shall live also, John 14:19. 

FISH, FISHER. The Hebrews have 



very few names of particular species of 
fish. Moses says in general, that all 
sorts of river, lake, or sea fish, which 
have scales and fins, may be eaten ; all 
others shall be to the Hebrews an abom- 
ination, Lev. 11 : 9-12; Deut. 14:9, 10. 
The Nile had an early celebrity, which 
it still retains, for the abundance and 
excellence of its fish, Ex. 7 : 18-21 ; 
Num. 11:5. The sea of Tiberias also 
still abounds in fish, Luke 5:5; John 
21:6-11. They were a common article 
of food among the Jews, Matt. 7 : 10, and 
were obtained froni the Mediterranean, 
Neh. 13:16, and from the Jordan. They 
were caught with hooks, Amos 4 : 2, 
spears, Job 41:7, and nets, Isa. 19:8-10. 
The "great fish," Jon. 1 : 17, which swal- 
lowed Jonah, may have been of the shark 
genus, as this animal is common in the 
Mediterranean. The original word, both 
in Hebrew and Greek, Matt. 12 : 40, 
means a fish, and not specifically a 
"whale." See Whale. Fishermen are 
often spoken of in the Bible, and a large 
proportion of the twelve apostles of our 
Lord were of that occupation. Christ 
made them "fishers of men," Matt. 
4:18-22. 

The early Christians, in times of per- 
secution, used to engrave the form of a 
fish on their medals, seals, and tombs, 
as a tacit confession of their faith ; as 
the five letters of the Greek word for 
fish, Ix^i^C, are the initial letters of five 
words, signifying ' ' Jesus Christ, the Son 
of God, the Saviour." This symbol has 
thus become the subject of a supersti- 
tious regard. 

FITCH'ES, or Vetch'es, a species of 
wild pea. Two Hebrew words are trans- 
lated "fitches," one of which probably 
means spelt, Ezek. 4 : 9, and the other 
gith, a plant resembling fennel, and very 
pungent, Isa. 28:25. The seed is black, 
and aromatic. 

FLAG'ON. The Hebrew word every- 
where rendered in the English version 
flagon, 2 Sam. 6:19 ; 1 Chr. 16:3 ; Song 
2:5; Hos. 3:1, means rather a cake, espe- 
cially of dried grapes or raisins, pressed 
into a particular form. These are men- 
tioned as delicacies, by which the wear}- 
and languid are refreshed ; they were 
also offered to idols, Hos. 3:1. They 
diftered from the dried clusters of grai^es 
not pressed into any form, 1 Sam. 25:18, 
and also from the ' ' cakes of figs. ' ' We 
may refer, in illustration, to the mau- 
155 



FLA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FLY 




uer ill which with us cheeses are pressed 
in various forms, as of pme-apples, etc. , 
and also the manner in which dates are 
l)repared at the present day by the Arabs. 
See Figs. 

FLAX, a well-known plant, upon 
which the industry of 
mankind has been ex- 
ercised with the great- 
est success and utili- 
ty, Josh. 2:6; Pro v. 
31:13. Moses speaks 
of the flax in Egypt, 
Ex. 9 : 31, which coun- 
try has been celebrat- 
ed, from time imme- 
morial, for its produc- 
tion and manufacture. 
The " tine linen of 
Egypt," which was 
manufactured from 
this article, is spoken 
of for its superior ex- 
cellence, in Scripture, 
Prov. 7 : 16 ; Ezek. 
27 : 7. It is, however, 
]irobable that fine cot- 
ton is sometimes to be 
understood when the Byssus is spoken of. 
i\Iost of the linen found wrapped around 
Egyptian mummies will hardly compare 
with our common sheetings. But some 
specimens are found of most remarkable 
fineness; one containing 152 threads in 
the warp, and 71 in the woof, to each 
square inch ; and anotlier. 270 double 
threads in the warp, and 110 in the woof, 
per inch. See Cotton and Linen. 

The prophet Isaiah, in speaking of the 
gentleness of the Messiah, makes use of 
a proverbial expression, which is also 
quoted by Matthew and applied to Je- 
sus : ' ' The bruised reed he shall not 
break, and the smoking flax he shall not 
quench," Isa. 42:3; Matt. 12:20. Here 
' ' flax ' ' is used for the wick of a lamp or 
taper, which was usually made of flax. 
He will not break a reed already bruised 
and ready to be broken, nor extinguish 
a flickering, dying lamp, just ready to 
expire ; that is, he will not oppress his 
humble and penitent followers, but cher- 
ish the feeblest beginnings of true grace. 

FLESH, the substance of which the 
bodies of men and animals are com- 
posed. In the Bible, besides the ordi- 
narv sense. Job 33:25, it denotes man- 
kind as a race. Gen. 6:12 ; Psa. 145:21 ; 
Isa. 40:5, 6 ; and all living creatures on 



the earth, Gen. 6 : 17, 19. It is often 
used in opposition to "spirit," as we 
use body and soul. Job 14:22 ; and some- 
times means the body as animated and 
sensitive, Matt. 26:41, and the seat of 
bodily appetites, Prov. 5:11 ; 2 Cor. 7:1. 
In the New Testament, ' ' flesh ' ' is very 
often used to designate the bodily appe- 
tites, propensities, and passions, which 
draw men away from yielding them- 
selves to the Lord and to the things of 
the Spirit. The flesh, or carnal princi- 
ple, is opposed to the spirit, or spiritual 
principle, Rom. 8; Gal. 5:17. 
FLOCKS. See Sheep. 
FLOOD. See Deluge. 
FLUTF], a soft, sweet-toned -wdnd in- 
strument of music. The word flute is 
used only in Dan. 3, and is supposed to 
mean a pipe with two reeds, such as are 
still to be found in the East. It is blown 
at the end. See Music, Pipe. 

FLY, a genus of insects, of which 
there are a great many species. Moses 
declares them and most other insects to 
be unclean. Lev. 11 : 42. They abound 
in Egypt, and are annojdng and vexa- 
tious in the extreme, attacking the eye- 
I lids, etc., in swarms and with the ut- 
most pertinacity. How intolerable a 
I plague of flies may be, is evident from 
I the fact that whole districts in the Le- 
j vant have been for a time depopulated 
by them, the inhabitants being unaljle 
to stand against their incessant attacks, 
! Ex. 8:24. The Philistines and Canaan- 
i ites adored Beelzebub, the fly-god, prob- 
ably as a patron to protect them against 
these tormenting insects. 

In Isa. 7 : 18, the prophet describing 

the armies of Egypt and Assyria, each 

under the sj'mbol of one of the prevalent 

I insects in those countries, says, "And it 

I shall come to pass in that day that the 

I Lord shall hiss for the fly that is in the 

j uttermost part of the rivers of Egypt ;" 

j (or rather, as the same Hebrew word is 

rendered in Ex. 16 : 35, the fly that is in 

the borders of the streams of Egypt,) 

" and for the bee that is in the land of 

Assyria." It is thought by some that 

the fly here spoken of is the zimb, or 

Ethiopian fly, of which Mr. Bruce says, 

I "It is, in size, very little larger than a 

j bee, of a thicker proportion, and has 

j wings which are broader than those of 

I a bee, placed separate, like those of a 

I fly ; they are of pure gauze, without 

color or spot upon them ; the head is 



FOO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FOO 




large. As soon as this plague appears, 
and their buzzing is heard, all the cat- 
tle forsake their food, and run wildly 
about the plain till they die, worn out 
with fatigue, fright, and hunger. No 
remedy remains but to leave the black 
earth, and hasten down to the sands of 
the desert ; and there they remain while 
the rains last, this cruel enemy never 
daring to pursue them farther." The 
camel also is obliged to fly before these 
insects ; and the elephant and rhinoceros 
coat themselves with a thick armor of 
mud. 

FOOD. In ancient times the food of 
a people was more entirely the product 
of their own country than in our day. 
Palestine was favored with an abun- 
dance of animal food, grain, and vegeta- 
bles. But throughout the East, vegetable 
food is more used than animal. Bread 
was the principal food. Grain of various 
kinds, beans, lentils, onions, grapes, to- 
gether with olive oil, honey, and the 
milk of goats and cows were the ordi- 
nary fare. Tlie wandering Arabs live 
much upon a coarse black bread. A 
very common dish in Syria is rice, with 
shreds of meat, vegetables, olive oil, 
etc., intermixed. A similar dish, made 
with beans, lentils, and various kinds of 
pulse, was in frequent use at an earlier 
age. Gen. 25 : 29-34 ; 2 Kin. 4 : 38-41. 
Fish was a common article of food, when 
accessible, and was very much used in 
Egypt. This country was also famous 
for cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, 
and garlics, Num. 11:5. Such is the food 
of the Egyptians still. See Eating. 

Animal food was always used on fes- 
tive occasions ; and the hospitable pa- 
triarchs lost little time in preparing for 
their guests a smoking dish from their 



flocks of sheep and goats, their heids 
of cattle, or their dove-cotes, Gen. 
18 : 7 ; Luke 15 : 23. The rich had ani- 
mal food more frequently, and their 
cattle were stalled and fattened for the 
) table, 1 Sam. 16 : 20 ; Isa. 1:11; 11:0; 
Mai. 4:2. Among the poor, locusts 
v\-ere a common means of sustenance, 
being dried in the sun, or roasted over 
the tire on iron plates. 

Water was the earliest and common 
drink. Wine of an intoxicating quality 
was early known. Gen. 9:20; 14:18; 
40 :J.. Date- wine and similar bever- 
ages were common ; and the common 
people used a kind of sour wine, called 
vinegar in Ruth 2:14 ; Matt. 27:48. 

FOOL, any person who does not act 
wisely, that is, does not follow the warn- 
ings and requirements of God, which are 
founded in infinite wisdom. Hence "a 
fool " is put for a wicked man, an enemy 
or neglecter of God, Psa. 14:1; Prov. 
19:1. So folly is put for wickedness, 
2 Sam. 13:12, 13 ; Psa. 38:5, foolish lusts 
for wicked lusts, etc. Foolish talking, 
foolish questions, are vain, empty, un- 
profitable conversation, 2 Tim. 2:23. 

FOOT. The expressions in Deut. 32 : 35, 
"their foot shall slide in due time," and 
in the traveller's song, Psa. 121:3, "he 
will not suffer thy foot to be moved," 
Psa. 66:9, Jer. 13:16, have reference to 
the dangerous character of the narrow 
roads or paths of the East, over rocks 
and beside precipices where a sliding 
foot was often fatal. See also Isa. 8:14; 
Luke 2 : 34. Nakedness of feet was a 
sign of mourning. God says to Ezekiel, 
"Make no mourning for the dead, and 
put on thy shoes upon thy feet," Ezek. 
24:17. It was likewise a mark of re- 
spect. Moses put ofl" his shoes to ap- 
proach the burning bush ; and most 
commentators are of opinion that the 
priests served in the tabernacle with 
their feet naked, as they did afterwards 
in the temple. The Turks never enter 
their mosques till after they have washed 
their feet and their hands, and have put 
off the outward covering of their legs. 
The Christians of Ethiopia enter their 
churches with their shoes off, and the 
Indian Brahmins and others have the 
same respect for their pagodas and tem- 
ples. Eastern conquerors used to set 
their feet on the necks of conquered 
princes, Josh. 10 : 22, an action often 
figured in ancient sculptures, Psa. 8:6; 
1.57 



FOO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FOX 



Isa. 49:23 ; 1 Cor. 15:25 ; Heb. 2:8. See 
Nineveh. 

The orientals used to wash the feet of 
strangers who came off a journey, be- 
cause they commonly walked with their 
legs bare, and their feet defended only 
by sandals. Gen. 24:32; 43:24. So 
Abraham washed the feet of the three 
angels. Gen. 18:4. This ofl&ce was usu- 
ally performed by servants and slaves; 
and hence Abigail answers David, who 
sought her in marriage, that she should 
think it an honor to wash the feet of the 
king's servants, 1 Sam. 25:41. Paul 
would have a widow assisted by the 
church, to be one who had hospitably 
washed the feet of saints, 1 Tim. 5:10. 
The practice is still met with in Pales- 
tine. Says Dr. Robinson, at Ramleh, 
"Our youthful host now proposed, in 
the genuine style of ancient oriental hos- 
pitality, that a servant should wash our 
feet. This took me by surprise ; for I 
was not aware that the custom still ex- 
isted here. Nor does it indeed towards 
foreigners, though it is quite common 
among the natives. We gladly accepted 
the proposal, both for the sake of the 
refreshment and of the scriptural illus- 
tration. A female Nubian slave accord- 
ingly brought water, which she poured 
upon our feet over a large shallow basin 
of tinned copper, kneeling before us and 
rubbing our feet with her hands, and 
wiping them with a napkin. It was one 
of the most gratifying minor incidents 
of our whole journey." Our Saviour, 
after his last supper, gave a striking les- 
son of humility, by washing his disci- 
ples' feet, John 13 : 5, 6, though the 
eighth verse shows that he had also a 
deeper meaning. See Sandals. 

FOOT'MEN, or runners, were attend- 
ants on Eastern princes, trained to run 
before their chariots, 1 Sam. 8:11. So 
Elijah ran before Ahab, 1 Kin. 18:46. 
The speed and endurance of some of 
these couriers is almost beyond belief, 
Jer. 42:5. 

FORE-HEAD, Ezek. 9; Rev. 7:3. 
The devotees of different idols in India 
receive at this day different marks on 
the forehead, distinguishing them one 
from another. By a similar method the 
slaves claimed by different 0"\vners were 
sometimes designated. 

FORNICATION. This word is used 
in Scripture not only for the sin of im- 
purity between unmarried persons, but 
158 



for idolatry, and for all kinds of infidel- 
ity to God. In Ezek. IG, the Jewish 
church is symbolized as a female infant, 
growing up to womanhood, and then 
wedded to Jehovah by covenant. When 
she breaks her covenant by going after 
idols, she is justly reproached as an adul- 
teress and a harlot, Jer. 2:20; 3:8, 9; 
Hos. 3:1. Adultery and fornication are 
frequently confounded. Both the Old 
and New Testaments condemn all impu- 
rity and fornication, corporeal and spirit- 
ual — idolatry, apostasy, heresy, and in- 
fidelity. See Adultery. 

FORTUNATUS, 1 Cor. 16:17, came 
from Corinth to Ephesus, to visit Paul. 
Paul speaks of Stephanus, Fortunatus, 
and Achaicus as the first-fruits of Achaia, 
and as set for the service of the church 
and saints. They carried Paul's first 
epistle to Corinth. 

FOUN'TAINS, or perennial springs of 
good water, were of inestimable value 
in Palestine, and numerous places took 
their name from some fountain in their 
vicinity. They have furnished to the 
sacred writers some of their finest illus- 
trations of spiritual things. Thus, God 
is "the Fountain of living waters," Jer. 
2 : 13. The atonement is a precious foun- 
tain of cleansing, healing, life-giving 
power, Joel 3:18; Zech. 13:1. The con- 
solations of the gospel and the felicity of 
heaven are also described by this simili- 
tude, Psa. 36 : 7-9 ; Rev. 7 : 17. See Wells. 

FOWL. See Birds. 

FOX. Two words in Hebrew are 
translated ' ' fox ' ' in the Bible ; and it is 
not easy in every case to determine 
what animal is referred to. There were 
several varieties of fox in Palestine, all 
like the common fox in form and habits. 
The fox is cunning, voracious, and mis- 
chievous, Ezek. 13:4; Luke 13:32. He 
is fond of grapes, and does much harm 
in vineyards. Song 2:15. The fable of 
the fox and the sour grapes is well 
known. He is solitary in his habits, 
and burrows a home for himself in the 
ground, Luke 9:58. The Jackal, at the 
present day, is much more numerous in 
Palestine, and is probably referred to in 
many texts where the word ' ' foxes ' ' oc- 
curs. It is like a medium-sized dog, with 
ahead like the wolf's, and a tail like the 
fox's ; of a bright yellow color. To the 
fierceness of the wolf it joins the impudent 
familiarity of the dog. It differs from 
the fox in its habit of hunting its prey 



FRA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FRO 




in large packs, and in its cry — a mourn- 
ful howl, mixed with barking, which 
they keep up all night, to the annoy- 
ance of all within hearing. They live 
in holes ; prowl around villages ; rav- 
age poultry-yards ; feed upon game, liz- 
ards, insects, grapes, garbage ; and when 
they can find nothing else, old leather 
and any thing that has once had animal 
life. They follow after caravans and 
armies, and devour the bodies of the 
dead, and even dig them up from their 
graves, Psa. 63:10; Lam. 5:18. The 
incident in the life of Samson, where 
foxes, or perhaps jackals, are referred to, 
Judg. 15: -4, 5, has a parallel in the an- 
cient Roman feast of Ceres, goddess of 
corn ; when torches were bound to the 
tails of numbers of foxes, and they ran 
round the circus till the fire stopped 
and consumed them. This was in re- 
venge for their once burning up some 
fields of corn. 

FRAXK'IXCE^SE. See Incense. 

FRIEND. Abriiham is signally hon- 
ored in being called " the friend of Cod," 
Isa. 41:8; James 2:23. Christ granted 
a similar honor and blessing to his disci- 
ples, John 15:15. It is a different word, 
however, in Greek, b}'- which he address- 
ed Judas, Matt. 26:50; the word there 
translated friend, means simply compan- 
ion, and appears to have been used as a 
conversational term not implying friend- 
ship. The same word occurs in Matt. 
20:13; 22:12. 

FROC, a well-known amphibious ani- 
mal, famous in connection with the 
plagues in Egypt, Ex. 8:1-14. The ma- 
gicians are said to have brought up frogs 
upon the land by their enchantments ; 



but as they could not remove them, it is 
clear that they did not actually produce 
them. They penetrated everywhere — 
to the beds of the Egyptians, which were 
near the ground; and to their ovens, 
which were cavities in the ground. 

FRONT'LETS are thus described by 
Leo of Modena : the Jews take four 
pieces of parchment, and write with an 
ink made on purpose, and in square let- 
ters, these four passages, one on each 
piece: (1.) "Sanctify unto me all the 
first-born," etc., Ex. 13:2-10. (2.) 'And 
when the Lord shall bring thee into the 
land of the Canaanites," etc., ver. 11-16. 
(3.) " Hear, Israel ; the Lord our God 
is one Lord," etc., Deut. 6:4-9. (4.) "If 
you shall hearken diligently unto my 
commandments," etc., ver. 13-21. This 
they do in obedience to the words of 
Moses: " These commandments shall be 
for a sign unto thee upon thy hand, and 
for a memorial between thine eyes." 

These four pieces are fastened togeth- 
er, and a square formed of them, on 
which the Hebrew letter li: Shm is writ- 




ten ; then a little square of hard calf- 
skin is put at the top, out of which come 




two leathern strings. This square is put 
on the middle of the forehead, and the 
159 



FUL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GAB 



strings being girt about the head, are 
then brought before, and fall on the 
breast. It is called the Tephila of the 
head. The most devout Jews put it on 
both at morning and noon-day j^rayer ; 
but it is generally worn only at morning 
prayer. See Phylacteries. 

FULFILLED'. The ordinary mean- 
ing of this Avord is sufficiently obvious. 
It will ultimately be recorded over 
against all the predictions and promises 
of Jehovah, every one having been fully 
accomplished at the proper time and 
place, Josh. 23:14; Matt. 2:17; 8:17; 
12:17. There are in the New Testament 
many instances of such an accomplish- 
ment, where the purposes of men were 
very different, and those who figured in 
the transaction did not dream of any 
thing but some evil project of their own. 
Thus in John 19:24, 28, 36, the actual 
agents in Christ's crucifixion had no 
thought that they were fulfilling the 
purposes of God. Sometimes also the 
phrase, "that it might be fulfilled," sig- 
nifies that the occurrence to which it is 
applied is a secondary fulfilment, a veri- 
fication, or simply an illustration of the 
original prophetic passage — yet fore- 
known and foreordained of God. Thus 
the words of Hosea 11:1, "I called my 
son out of Egypt," refer directly to 
the exodus of Israel from that land of 
bondage ; but, as we learn from Matt. 
2:15, they were not suggested by the 
Holy Spirit to the prophet without a 
regard to their foreseen application to 
the case of Christ. Compare also Matt. 
13 : 14, with Isa. 6:9; Luke 4 : 18-21, with 
Isa. 61 : 1-3 ; Acts 1 : 16, 20, with Psa. 
109:8. 

FUL'LER, a cleanser of cloth. His 
process is unknown. Christ's robes at 
the transfiguration were white "so as 
no fuller on earth can white them," 
Mark 9 : 3. We read also of fullers' 
soap, Mai. 3:2, and of the fullers' foun- 
tain. See En-rogkl. 

FU'NERAL. See Burial and Sepul- 
chre. 

FUR'LONG is put, in the New Testa- 
ment, for the Greek, or rather, Roman 
stadium, which contained about 201 
45-100 yards. The English furlong, 
one-eighth of a mile, contains 220 yards ; 
and is thus one-twelfth longer than the 
Roman stadium, Luke 24:13. 

FUR'NACES were often portable. Gen. 
15:17. Thev were used for melting the 
IfiO 



precious metals, Prov. 17:3. The furnace 
into which Daniel's three friends were 
cast was large, and remained open after 
they were cast in, Dan. 3. The fearful 
punishment spoken of in Jer. 29:22 is 
still used in the East. The word furnace 
is used to illustrate a state of oppression, 
Deut. 4:20, and of affliction, Isa. 48:10. 
FU'RY is attributed to God metaphor- 
ically, or speaking after the manner of 
men ; that is, God's providential actions 
are such as would be performed by a 
man in a state of anger ; so that, w4ien 
he is said to pour out his fury on a per- 
son, or on a people, it is a figurative ex- 
pression for dispensing afflictive provi- 
dences. But we must be cautious not to 
attribute human infirmities, passions, or 
malevolence to the Deity. 



G. 



GAAL, Judg. 9:26-41, son of Ebcd, 
perhaps a descendant of Hamor, the fa- 
ther of Shechem, Gen. 34:2-6. lie joined 
the Shechemites when revolting against 
Abimelech, son of Gideon, inflamed their 
passions, and led them to battle, but was 
defeated, and excluded from the city. 

GA'ASH, a hill of Ephraim, north of 
which stood Timnath-seres, celebrated 
for Joshua's tomb, Josh. 24:30. The 
brooks, or valleys of Gaash, 2 Sam. 
23:30; 1 Chr. 11:32, were probably at 
the foot of the hill. 

GAB'BATHA, mi elevated place, the 
name of a place in front of Pilate's pal- 
ace, whence he pronounced sentence 
against our Saviour, John 19 : 13. In 
Greek it was called the pavement. It 
was not the usual judgment-hall, which 
the Jews could not then enter, but some 
place in the vicinity of the crowd with- 
out, John 18:28; 19:4, 9, 13. It ap- 
pears to have been a checkered marble 
pavement, or mosaic floor, on which his 
seat of judgment was erected. Such 
ornamented pavements had become com- 
mon at that day among the wealthy Ro- 
mans. 

GABRIEL, a principal angel. He was 
sent to the prophet Daniel to explain his 
visions ; also to Zacharias, to announce 
to him the future birth of John the Bap- 
tist, Dan. 8:16; 9:21; Luke 1:11, 19. 
Six months afterwards, he was sent to 
Nazareth, to the Virgin Mary, Luke 
1:26-38. 



GAD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GAL 



GAD, prosperity , fortune, I., son of Ja- 
cob and Zilpah, Leah's servant, Gen. 
80:11. Leah called him Gad, and said, 
"A troop cometh." Compare Gen. 
49:10; but many Hebrew scholars pre- 
fer the rendering, good fortune or pros- 
perity cometh. The tribe of Gad came 
out of Egypt in number forty-live thou- 
sand six hundred and fifty. Gen. 4G:16 ; 
Num. 1 : 24. After the defeat of the 
kings Og and Sihon, Gad and Eeuben 
desired to have their allotment east of 
Jordan, alleging their great number of 
cattle. Moses granted their request, on 
condition that they should accompany 
their brethren, and assist in conquer- 
ing the land west of Jordan, Num. 32. 
The inheritance of the tribe of Gad lay 
between ^Manasseh on the north, Eeuben 
on the south, the Jordan on the Avest, 
and the Ammonites on the east. The 
north-west point stretched to the sea of 
Galilee. It was a fine pastoral region, 
though its cxposiu-e to tJie incursions of 
eastern Arabians compelled the Gadites 
to be well armed and on the alert. Gen. 
40:19; Deut. 33:20; 1 Chr. 5:18-22, 25, 
2G ; 12:8. The principal cities of Gad 
are called cities of Gilead, Josh. 13:25. 

II. David's friend, who followed him 
when persecuted by Saul, and was often 
sent with a divine message to David, 
1 Sam. 22:5; 2 Sam. 24:11-19; 1 Chr. 
21:9-19 ; 2 Chr. 29:25. Scripture styles 
him a prophet, and David's seer. He 
appears to have written a history of Da- 
vid's life ; which is cited in 1 Chr. 29:29. 

III. Rendered "troop" in Isa. G5:ll, 
but generally supposed to be the name 
of a heathen god of Fortune ; and per- 
haps of the planet Jupiter, the star of 
good fortune. Compare Josh. 11:17; 
15:37. Mexi in the same verse, trans- 
lated ' ' number, ' ' is supposed by some 
to mean destiny ; by others, the planet 
Venus, the goddess of good fortune. 

GAD'ARA, now Um-keis, a fortified 
chief city of Decapolis, of considerable 
importance in the time of Christ, and 
having many Greek inhabitants. It lay 
south of the river Hieromax, seven miles 
south-east of the sea of Galilee, upon the 
level summit of a steep limestone hill. 
A few ruins are found on the top of the , 
hill ; many excavated tombs on its sides, ; 
still partly occupied as residences; and ! 
warm-springs at its base. The coimtry ! 
of the Gadarenes extended to the Jordan ! 
and the sea of Galilee ; and in the part \ 



of it bordering on the lake occurred the 
miracle recorded in Matt. 8:28; 9:1; 
Mark 5:1-20; Luke 8: '^6-39. A legion 
of demons were cast out of two men, and 
entered a herd of swine, causing their 
destruction. Sec Gergesekes. 

GATUS, or Caius, I., a Macedonian, 
who accompanied Paul in his travels, 
and whose life was in danger at Ephesus, 
Acts 19:29. 

II. A Corinthian convert of Paul, who 
hospitably entertained the apcstle while 
laboring at Corinth, Eom. 10:23 ; 1 Cor. 
1:14. 

III. Of Derbe ; an attendant of Paul 
from Corinth, in his last journey to Je- 
rusalem, Acts 20:4. 

The third epistle of John is addressed 
"to the well-beloved Gaius ;" whose 
character for hospitality comports well 
with that of 11. above. The name v/as 
a common one wherever the Romans 
lived ; and yet it is not certain that more 
than one or two different individuals of 
this name are spoken of in Scripture. 

GALA'TIA, a province of Asia Minor, 
lying south and south-east of Bithynia 
and Paphlagonia, west of Pontus, north 
and north-west of Cappadocia, and north 
and north-east of Lycaonia and Phrygia. 
Its name was derived from the Gauls ; 
of Avhom two tribes, (Trocmi and Tolis- 
toboii,) with a tribe of the Celts, (Tecto- 
sages,) migrated thither alter the sack- 
ing of Rome by Brcnnus ; and mingling 
with the former inhabitants, the whole 
were called Gallograci, b. c. 280. The 
Celtic language continued to be spoken 
by their descendants at least until the 
time of Jerome, six hundred years after 
the migration ; and these Gauls of Asia 
also retained much of the mercurial 
and impulsive disposition of the Gallic 
race. Compare Gal. 1 : G ; 4 : 15 ; 5:7. 
Lnder xVugustus, about b. c. 26, this 
country was reduced to the form of a 
Roman province, and Avas governed by a 
propraetor. Galatia was distinguished 
for the fertility of its soil and the flour- 
ishing state of its trade. It was also the 
seat of colonies from various nations, 
among whom were many Jews ; and from 
all of these Paul appears to have made 
many converts to Christianity, 1 Cor. 
16:1. His first visit, Acts 16:6, proba- 
bly took place about a. d. 51-2 ; and the 
second, Acts 18:28, after Avhich his epis- 
tle to the Galatians appears to have been 
written, was several years later. At his 
'161 



GAL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GAL 



first visit he was sick ; yet they received 
him "as an angel of God," and most 
heartily embraced the gospel. Four or 
live years afterwards Jewish teachers, 
professing Christianity, came among 
them ; they denied Paul's apostolic au- 
thority, exalted the works of tlie law, 
and perverted the true gospel by inter- 
mixing with it the rites of Judaism. 
Paul, learning their state, probably at 
Corinth, a. d. 57-8, wrote his epistle to 
the Galatians. He indignantly rebukes 
his children in Christ for their sudden 
alienation from him and from the truth ; 
vindicates his authority and his teach- 
ings as an apostle, by showing that he 
received them from Christ himself ; and 
forcibly presents the great doctrine of 
Christianity — justification by faith — with 
its relations to the law on the one hand, 
and to holy living on the other. The 
general subject of the epistle is the same 
as of the epistle to the Romans, and it 
appears to have been written at about 
the same time with that. The churches 
of Galatia are mentioned in ecclesiastical 
history for about nine hundred years. 

GAL'BANUM, an ingredient in the 
incense burned at the golden altar, in 
the Holy Place, Ex. 30:34. It is the 
gum of a plant growing in Abyssinia, 
Arabia, and Syria, called by Pliny stago- 
nitis, but supposed to be the same as the 
Bubon Galbanum of Linnceus. The gum 
is unctuous and adhesive, of a strong 
and somewhat astringent smell. 

GALILEE, in the time of Christ, in- 
cluded all the northern part of Palestine 
lying west of the Jordan and north of Sa- 
maria. Before the exile the name seems 
to have been applied only to a small tract 
bordering on the northern limits, I Kin. 
9:11. Galilee, in the time of Christ, 
Wiis divided into Upper and Lower, the 
former lying north of the territory of 
the tribe of Zebulun, and abounding in 
mountains ; the latter being more level 
and fertile, and very populous ; the 
whole comprehending the four tribes of 
Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali, and Asher. 
Lower Galilee is said to have contained 
four hundred and four towns and villa- 
ges, of which Josephus mentions Tibe- 
rias, Sepphoris, and Gabara, as the prin- 
cipal ; though Capernaum and Nazareth 
are the most frequently mentioned in the 
New Testament, Mark 1:9 ; Liike 2:39 ; 
John 7 : 52, etc. ' ' Galilee of the Gen- 
tiles" is supposed to be Upper Galilee, 
162 



either because it bordered on Tyre and 
Zidon, or because Phenicians, Syrians, 
Arabs, and other heathen were numer- 
ous among its inhabitants. The Galile- 
ans were accounted brave and industri- 
ous ; though other Jews aftected to con- 
sider them as not only stupid and un- 
polished, but also se(Utious, and there- 
{ fore proper oljjects of contempt, Luke 
13:1; 23:6; John 1:47; 7:52. They 
appear to have iised a peculiar dialect, 
by which they were easily distinguished 
from the Jews of Jerusalem, Mark 14:70. 
Many of the apostles and first converts 
to Christianity were men of Galilee, 
Acts 1:11; 2:7, as well as Christ him- 
self; and the name Galilean was often 
given as an insult, both to him and his 
followers. The apostate emperor Juhan 
constantly used it, and in his dying ago- 
ny and rage cried out, "O Galilean, 
thou hast conquered!" Our Saviour 
resided here from infancy till he was 
thirty years of age, and during much of 
his public ministry; and the cities of 
Nazareth, Nain, Cana, Capernaum, with 
the whole region of the sea of Galilee, 
are sacredly endeared to all his people 
by the words he there spoke, and the 
wonders he wrought. For the yea of 
Galilee, see Sea III. 

GALL, a general name for any thing 
very bitter. In Job 16:13 ; 20 : 14. 25, 
it means the animal secretion usually 
called the bile. In many other places, 
where a difi"erent word is used in the 
original, it refers to some bitter and nox- 
ious plant, according to some, the poppy. 
See Deut. 29:18; Jer. 9:15; 23:15. In 
Hos. 10:4 ; Amos 6: 12, the Hebrew word 
is translated ' ' hemlock . " In Matt. 27 : 34, 
it is said they gave Jesus to drink, vin- 
egar mixed with gall, which in Mark 
15:23, is called wine mingled with myrrh. 
It was probably the sour wine which the 
Roman soldiers used to drink, mingled 
with myrrh and other bitter substances, 
very much like the " bitters " of modern 
times, Psa. 69 : 21. The word gall is often 
used figuratively for great troubles, wick- 
edness, depravity, ete. , Jer. 8 : 14 ; Amos 
6:12; Acts 8:23. 

GALLEY, Isa. 33:21. See Ship. 

GAL'LIO, a proconsul of Achaia, un- 
der the emperor Claudius, in the time of 
Paul, Acts 18:12-17. He was the elder 
brother of the philosopher Seneca, who 
describes him as uncommonly amiable 
and upright. His residence was at Cor- 



GAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GAR 



inth; and when the Jews of that city 
made an insurrection aguinst Paid, and 
dragged him before tlie judgment-seat, 
Gallio refused to entertain their clamor- 
ous and unjust demands. The Greeks 
who were present, pleased with the re- 
buif the persecuting Jews had received, 
fell upon Sosthenes their leader, and beat 
him upon the spot, a mode of retribution 
which Gallio ought not to have allowed. 
Like his brother Seneca, he suffered death 
by order of the tyrant Nero. 

GAMA'LIEL, a celebrated Pharisee in 
the generation after Christ, a doctor of 
the law, and member of the Sanhedrim. 
He possessed great influence among the 
Jews, and is said by some to have pre- 
sided over the Sanhedrim during the 
reigns of '^i'iberius, Cains, and Claudius. 
The Talmudists say that he was the son 
of rabbi Simeon, and grandson of Hillel, 
the celebrated teacher of the law, and 
that upon his death the glory of the law 
departed. His nol)le intervention before 
the Sanhedrim saved the apostles from 
an ignominious death, and shows that 
he was gifted with great wisdom and tid- 
erance, if not strongly inclined towards 
the gospel. Acts 5;o;>-40. The apostle 
Paul tliought it a high honor to have 
been one of his pupils. Acts 22: 3, and no 
doubt received from him not only a zeal- 
ous enthusiasm for the Jewish law, but 
many less(jns of candor, impartiality, 
and liberality. His high renown, how- 
ever, auiong the Jewish rabbins of later 
ages, seems inconsistent with the tradi- 
tion that he eml)raced Christianity. 

GAM'MADIM is used in the English 
Bible, Ezek. 27 : 11, as the name of a 
people ; but it rather means simply the 
brave, the warlike. 

GAR' DENS are often mentioned in 
Scripture, though in a sense somewhat 
peculiar ; for in the language of the He- 
brews, every place where plants and trees 
were cultivated with greater care than 
in the open field, was called a garden. 
Fruit and shade trees, with aromatic 
shrubs, sometimes constituted the gar- 
den ; though roses, lilies, and various 
flowers were often cultivated, and some 
gardens were used only for tal)le vegeta- 
bles, Gen. 2:8-10, 15; 1 Kin. 21:2; Est. 
1:5; 7:7, 8 ; Eccl. 2 : 5, 6. They were 
located, if possil)le, beside a river or foun- 
tain. Gen. l:J:10; Num. 24:6. In other 
l)laces reservoirs were provided, from 
which the water was distributed in va- 



rious ways, as occasion required, ProY. 
21:1; Song 4:12-10; Isa. 58:11. Gar- 
dens were inclosed by walls, or by hedges 
of rose-bushes, wild pomegranate-trees, 
or other shrubs, many of which in Pales- 
tine have long and sharp thorns, 2 Sam. 
23:6, 7 ; Job 1 : 10 ; Prov. 15 : 11) ; Hos. 
2:6. Often, however, they were left un- 
inclosed, and were watched when their 
fruits began to rii)en, Isa. 1:8 ; Jer. 4: 10, 
17. It is still customary in Egypt, Ara- 
bia, and Hindostan, to i)lant a large level 
tract with melons, cucumbers, etc., and 
place a small hut or booth on a mound 
in the centre. In this a solitary keeper 
is stationed, who remains day and night 
until the fruits are gathered. Job 27 : 18 ; 
Isa. 1:8. Gardens and groves were often 
furnished with pavilions, seats, etc., and 
were resorted to for ban(iueting and 
mirth, Isa. 51 : 3 ; for retirement and 
meditation, John 18 : 1 ; fen- devotiontd 
purposes. Matt. 20:30 ; John 1:48 ; 18:1, 
2 ; and for idolatrous abominations, 
1 Kin. 14:23; Isa. 1:29; 65:3; 00:17; 
Jer. 2 : 20 ; 3 : 6. A family tomb was 
often prepared in a garden, John 19:41. 
GAll'LlC, a bulbous vegetable, of pun- 
gent smell and taste, and highly prized 
in the East. The Jews acquired a liking 
for it in Egypt, Num. 11:5. One varie- 
ty, called the eschalot, or shallot, was 
introduced into Europe from Ascalon. 




^^^i^r- 



GAR'MENTS. The chief garments of 
the Hebrews were the tunic or inner 
garment, and the mantle or outer gar- 
ment. These seem to have constituted 
a "change of raiment," Judg. 14:13; 
19 ; Acts 9:39. The tunic was of linen, 
and was worn next to the skin, fitting 
1G3 



GAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GAR 



close to the body ; it liad armholes, and 
sometimes M'ide and open sleeves, and 
reached below the knees ; that worn by 
females reached to the ankles. The tu- 
nic was sometimes woven without seam, 
like that of Jesus, John 19 : 23. The up- 
per garment or mantle was a piece of 
cloth nearly square, and two or three 
yards in length and breadth, which was 
wrapped round tlie body, or tied over 
the shoulders. A man without this robe 
on was sometimes said to be "naked," 
Isa. 20:2-4; John 21:7. This could be 
so arranged as to form a large hosom for 
carrying things ; and the mantle also 
served the poor as a bed by night, Ex. 
22 : 26, 27 ; Job 22 : G. See Bosom and 
Bed. 




Between these two garments, the He- 
brews sometimes wore a third, called 
me-il, a long and wide robe or tunic of 
cotton or linen, Avithout sleeves. 

The head was usually bare, or covered 
from too fierce a sunshine, or from rain, 
by a fold of the outer mantle, 2 Sam. 
la:30; 1 Kin. 19:13; Esth. 6:12. The 
priests, however, wore a mitre, bonnet, 
or sacred turban ; and after tlie captivity, 
the Jews adopted to some extent the 
turban, now so universal in the East. 
"Women wore a variety of plain and or- 
namented headdresses. Veils Avere also 
an article of female dress, Isa. 3 : 19. 
They were of various kinds, and were 
used alike by married and unmarried 
women ; generally as a token of modesty, 
or of subjection to the authority of the 
husband, Gen. 24 : 65 ; 1 Cor. 11 : 3-10 ; 
but sometimes for tbe purpose of con- 
cealment, Gen. 38 : 14. 
164 



As the Hebrews did not change the 
fashion of their clothes, as we do, it was 
common to lay up stores of raiment be- 
forehand, in proportion to their wealth, 
Isa. 3:6. To this Christ alludes when 
he speaks of treasures which the moth 
devours. Matt. 6:19; James 5:1, 2. 
But though there was a general uniform- 
ity in dress from age to age, no doubt 
various changes took place in the long 
course of Bible history ; and at all times 
numerous and increasing varieties exist- 
ed among the different classes, especially 
in materials and ornaments. In early 
ages, and Avhere society was wild and 
rude, the skins of animals were made 
into clothing, Gen. 3 : 21 ; Heb. 11 : 37. 
Spinning, weaving, and needlework soon 
began to be practised, Ex. 35:25 ; Judg. 
5 : 30. A coarse cloth was made of goats' 
or camels' hair, and finer cloths of wool- 
en, linen, and probably cotton. Their 
manufacture was a branch of domestic 
industry, Prov. 31:13-24. 

The great and wealthy delighted in 
white raiment ; and hence this is also a 
mark of opulence and prosperity, Eccl. 
9:8. Angels are described as clothed in 
pure and cheerful white ; and such was 
the appearance of our Saviour's raiment 
during his transfiguration, Matt. 17:2. 
The saints, in like manner, are described 
as clothed in white robes. Rev. 7 : 9, 13, 
14 ; the righteousness of Christ in which 
they are clothed is more glorious than 
that of the angels. 

The garments of mourning among the 
Hebrews were sackcloth and haircloth, 
and their color dark brown or black, 
Isa. 50:3; Rev. 6:12. As the prophets 
were penitents by profession, their com- 
mon clothing Avas mourning. Widows 
also dressed themselves much the same. 
The Hebrews, in common Avith their 
neighbors, sometimes used a variety of 
colors for their gayer and more costly 
dresses, Judg. 5:30. So also according 
to our version. Gen. 37 : 3, 23 ; 2 Sam. 
13 : 18 ; though in these passages some 
understand a tunic Avith long sleeves. 
Blue, scarlet, and purple are most fre- 
quently referred to, the first being a sa- 
cred color. Embroidery and fine needle- 
Avork Avere highly valued among them, 
Judg. 5:30; Psa. 45:14. 

The dress of females differed from that 
of males less than is customary among 
us. Yet there was a distinction ; and 
Moses expressly forbade any exchange 



GAT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



GAZ 



of apparel between the sexes, Deut. 22:5, 
a custom associated with immodesty, 
and with the worship of certain idols. 
It is not clear for what reason clothing 
in which linen and woolen were woven 
together was prohibited, Deut. 22:11; but 
probably it had reference to some super- 
stitious usige of heathenism. In Isa. 
3:16-23, mention is made of the decora- 
tions common among the Hebrew women 
of that diy ; auDng which seem to be 
included tunics, embroidered vests, wide 
tlowiag mxntles, girdles, veils, caps of 
network, anl metallic ornaments for the 
ears and n)se, for the neck, arms, fin- 
gers, and ankles ; also smelling-bottles 
and metillic mirrors. In Acts 19:12, 
mention is mide of handkerchiefs and 
aprons. Drawers were used, Ex. 28:42, 
but p3rhaps not generally. See Girdles, 
Ri.vas, anl San'd.vls. 

Presents of dreises are alluded to very 
frequently in the historical books of 
Scripture, and in the earliest times. 
Joseph gave to each of his brethren a 
change of raiment, and to Benjamin five 
chmges, Gen. 45:22. Naamxn gave to 
Gehizi two changes of raiment; and 
even Solomon received raiment as pres- 
ents, 2 Chr. 9:24. This custom is still 
miintained in the Eist, and is mention- 
el by most travellers. In Turkey, the 
appointm3nt to any important office is 
acjjmp inied with the gift of a suitable 
official robe. In the parable of the wed- 
ding garment, the king expected to have 
foun 1 all his guests clad in robes of hon- 
or of his own providing, Matt. 22:11. 

GAFE. The gates of eastern walled 
towns were usually of wood, Judg. 16:3, 
often covered with thick plates of iron 
or cvpper, Psa. 107:16; Isa. 45:2; Acts 
12:10, seeured by bolts and bars, Deut. 
3:5; 1 Kin. 4:13, and flanked by tow- 
ers, 2 Sim. 18:24, 33. A city was usu- 
ally regirded as taken when its gates 
were wjn, Deut. 28 : 52 ; Judg. 5 : 8. 
Hence ''gite" sometimes signifies pow- 
er, dominion ; almost in the same sense 
as the Turkish sultan's palace is called 
the Porte, or Gate. God promises Abra- 
ham that his posterity shall possess the 
gate 7 of their enemies — their towns, 
their fortresses. Gen. 22 : 17. So too, 
"the gates of hell," that is, the power 
of hell, or hell itself. 

In oriental cities there was always an 
open space or place adjacent to each 
g ite, and these were at the same time I 



I the market-places and the place of jus- 
! tice. Gen. 23:10-18 ; Kuth 4:1-12; Deut. 
j 16 : 18 ; 21 : 19 ; 25 : 6, 7 ; Prov. 22 : 22 ; 
I Amos 5 : 10, 12, 15. There too people 
I assembled to spend their leisure hours, 
{ Gen. 19:1. Hence " they that sit in the 
j gate" is put for idlers, loungers, who 
\ are coupled with drunkards, Psa. 69:12. 
I The woes of a city were disclosed in the 
■ mourning or loneliness of these places of 
j resort, Isa. 14:31 ; Jer. 14:2. H^re too 
the public proclamations were made, and 
, the messages of prophets delivered, Prov. 
1:21; 8:3; Isa 29:21; Jer. 17:19; 26:10. 
Near the gate of a city, but without it, 
executions took place, 1 Kin. 21 : 13 ; 
Acts 7:58; Heb. 13:12. To exalt the 
gate of a house through pride, increased 
one's exposure to robbery, Prov. 17:19. 
To open it wide and high was significant 
of joy and welcome, as when the Saviour 
ascended to heaven, Psa. 24:7, 9; and 
the open gates of the new Jerusalem, in 
contrast with those of earthly cities care- 
fully closed and guarded at nightfall, 
indicate the happv security of that world 
of light. Rev. 21:25. 

GATH, a city of the Philistines, and 
one of their five principalities, 1 Sam. 
5:8 ; 6:17. It was a notable city, in the 
border of the Philistines nearest to Jeru- 
salem ; but its site has long been lost. 
It was the home of Goliath, ISam. 17:4. 
Compare Josh. 11:22; 2 Sam. 21:19-22. 
Here David sought a refuge from Saul, 
1 Sam. 21 : 10 ; 27 : 2-7. It came under 
his power in the beginning of his reign 
over all Israel, 1 Chr. 18:1, and contin- 
ued subject to his successors till the de- 
clension of the kingdom of Judah. Re- 
hoboam rebuilt or fortified it, 2 Chr. 
11:8. It was afterwards recovered by 
the Philistines, but Uzziah reconquered 
it, 2 Chr. 26 : 6. Its inhabitants were 
called Gittites. Josh. 13 : 3 ; and David 
had two of them in his service, who 
faithfully adhered to him during the re- 
bellion of Absalom. 2 Sam. 15:18-22. 

GATH-HE'PHER, in Zebulun, was the 
birthplace of Jonah, 1 Kin. 4:10; 2 Kin. 
14:25. It lay near Sepphoris, on a road 
leading to Tiberias. 

GAU'LAX, or Go'lan. a Levitical town 
of Bashan, in Manasseh beyond Jordan. 
From it was named the small province 
of Gaulonitis, Deut. 4:43; Josh. 20:8; 
21:27; 1 Chr. 6:71. 

GAZA, or Azz.\H, now Ghuzzeh. an 
ancient city in the south-west corner of 
165 



GAZ 



BIBLE DICTIONARY, 



GEH 



Canaan, Gen. 10 : 19, belonging to the 
Avim, Deut. 2:23, and afterwards to the 
Philistines. Joshua assigned it to the 
tribe of Jiidah, but did not conquer it. 
Josh. 10 : 41 ; 11 : 21, 22 ; 13 : 3 ; 15 : 47. 
Judah seems to have held possession of 
it for a while ; but in the time of the 
judges it was independent, and one of 
the five chief cities of the Philistines, 
Judg. 1 : 18 ; 3:3; 13 : 1 ; 16. Samson 
carried away its gates, and afterwards 
perished under the ruins of its vast tem- 
ple. The ark of God was there in the 
days of Eli, 1 Sam. 6. It yielded alle- 
giance to David and Solomon, recovered 
its liberty in the reigns of Jotham and 
Ahaz, but was reconquered by Hezekiah, 
2 Kin. 18 : 8. At subsequent periods it 
was occupied by Chaldeans, Persians, and 
Egyptians, Jer. 47:1. About 96 b. c. the 
Jewish king Alexander Janmeus captured 
and destroyed it. The Roman general 
Gabinius rebuilt it ; and not long after 
the ascension of the Saviour, a Christian 
church was planted there to struggle 
with the prevailing idolatry. In a. d. 
634 it came under the JNlohammedan 
yoke ; and in the era of the Crusades had 
fallen into ruins. It was partially rebuilt 
and fortified, and is now a city of some 
15,000 inhabitants. The few remains of 
the old city cover a large but low hill, 
two or three miles from the sea, once so 
strongly fortified as to withstand Alexan- 
der the Great for five months. The mod- 
ern city lies more in the plain, which is 
exceedingly fertile, and abounds in gar- 
dens, date-trees, and olive-trees. There 
was a landing-place and ' ' port ' ' for an- 
cient Gaza, but no harl)or Avorthy of the 
name. It was often referred to by the 
prophets, Jer. 25: 20 ; 47 : 5 ; Amos 1:6,7; 
Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9:5. Tlie southern route 
from Jerusalem to Gaza, memorable in the 
history of the Ethiopian eunuch, is called 
' 'desert' ' in Acts 8 : 26, as passing through 
a region then destitute of villages. 

GAZELLE'. See Roe. 

GE'BA, a Levitical town of Benjamin, 
Josh. 18 : 24 ; 21 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 8 : 6, near 
Ramah, Neh. 7:30; Isa. 10:29, and not 
far from the northern border of the king- 
dom of Judah, 2 Kin. 23:8; Zech. 14:10. 
Near Geba David defeated the Philis- 
tines, 2 Sam. 5:25. Asa renewed it from 
the ruins of Ramah. 1 Kin. 15 : 22. It 
was six or seven iniles from Jerusalem, 
and was separated from Michmash on the 
north by a deep valley. See Gibeaii. 
16G 



GE'BAL, I., the Gebalene of the Ro- 
mans, was a district of Idumtea, called 
also at the present day Djebal, signify- 
ing mountains. It is the northern part 
of the range of mountains skirting the 
eastern side of the great valley El-Ara- 
bah, which runs from the Dead sea to 
the Elanitic gulf of the Red sea, Psa. 
83:7. 

II. A seaport and district of Phoenicia, 
north of Beyroot, called Byblos by the 
Greeks, now Jebail ; population, 2,000. 
The inhabitants were called Giblites, 
and are denoted in the Hebrew Avord 
rendered " stone-squarers " in 1 Kings 
5:18. Their land and all Lebanon were 
assigned to the Israelites, but never fully 
possessed. Josh. 13:5. It was an impor- 
tant place, Ezek. 27:9, and the seat of 
the worship of Thammuz. 

GEDALl'AH, son of Ahikam, appoint- 
ed by Nebuchadnezzar to govern Judaea 
after the destruction of Jerusalem. Like 
his father, he honored and befriended 
Jeremiah, Jer. 40:5. He began the ad- 
ministration of his government at Miz- 
peh with wisdom, but in two months 
was treacherously murdered by one Ish- 
mael, 2 Kin. 25:22-26 ; Jer. 39:14 ; 40:5- 
41:18. 

GE'DER. Tliis word signifies a wall, 
indosure, fortified place ; as do also the two 
names following, which are derived from 
it. Geder itself was an ancient Canaan- 
itish place, in the plain of Judah, Josh. 
12:13, and was probably the same with 
the following Gederah. 

Gede'raii, a city in the plain of Judah, 
Josh. 15:36, probably the same with the 
preceding Geder, and with Beth-Gader, 

1 Chr. 2:51. It would thence seem to 
have pertained to the family of Caleb. 

Ge'dor, a city in the mountains of Ju- 
dah, surrounded by fat pastures, and for- 
merly occupied by the Amalekites, 1 Chr. 
4 : 39 ; 12:7; Josh. 15 : 58. It is now call- 
ed Jedur, and lies about eight miles 
south-west of Bethlehem. Gedor is also 
the name of a man, 1 Chr. 8:31 ; 9:37. 

GEHA'ZI, a confidential attendant of 
Elislia. He appears in the story of the 
Shunammite woman, 2 Kin. 4 : 14-37, 
and in that of Naaman the Syrian, from 
whom he fraudulently obtained a por- 
tion of the present his master had re- 
fused. His covetousness and falsehoods 
were punished by a perpetual leprosv, 

2 Kin. 5 : 20-27, b. c. 894. We after- 
wards find him recounting to king Je. 



GEH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY, 



GEN 



horam the wonderful deeds of Elisha, at 
the moment when the providence of 
God brought the woman of Shunem be- 
fore the king, to claim the restoration of 
her lands, 2 Kin. 8:1-6. 

GEHEN'NA. See Hinxom. 

GEMAPJ'AH, I., the son of Shaphan, 
a scribe of the temple in the time of Je- 
hoiakim. In his apartment Baruch read 
aloud the prophecies of Jeremiah; and 
he, witli others, secured a second and 
more public reading, and brought the 
roll to be read to the king, who caused 
it to be burned, Jer. 36. 

II. Tlie son of Hilkiah, sent to Baby- 
lon by king Hezekiah with tribute-mon- 
ey for Nebuchadnezzar. He was also 
the bearer of a letter in which Jeremiah 
warned the captive Jews against false 
prophets who promised them a speedy 
return, Jer. 29:3, 4, 

GENEAL'OGY, a record of one's an- 
cestors, either the line of natural descent 
from father to son, or the line in which, 
by the laws, the inheritance descended, 
or that preserved in the public records. 
Never was a nation more careful to pre- 
serve their genealogies than the He- 
brews, for on them rested the distinc- 
tion of tribes, the ownership of lands, 
and the right to the highest offices and 
privileges, IChr. 5:1, ll; 9:1; 2 Chr. 
12:15 ; Ezra 2 : 62. Hence their public 
tables of genealogies were kept secure 
amid all vicis.situdes. We find in the 
Bible a record carried on for more than 
3,500 years, 1 Chr. 1 ; 3 ; 6 ; and thus 
were guarded the proofs that Christ was 
born according to prophecy of the seed 
of Abraham, and heir to the throne of 
his father David, Luke I : 32 ; 2 Tim. 
2:8; Heb. 7:14. In the evangelists we 
have the genealogy of Christ for 4,000 
years. Tlie two accounts in Matthew 1 
and Luke 3, differ from each other ; one 
giving probably the genealogy of Christ's 
reputed father Joseph, and the other 
that of his mother Mary. The two lines 
descend from Solomon and Nathan, Da- 
vid's sons; they unite in Salathiel. and 
again in Christ. Joseph was the legal 
fiither of Christ, and of the same family 
connections with Mary ; so that the Mes- 
siah was a descendant of David both by 
law and "according to the flesh." The 
discrepances between the various gene- 
alogies may be reconciled in accordance 
with peculiar Jewish laws. The public 
records, which Josephus says were scru- 



pulously kept down to his day, perished 
with the ruin of the Jews as a nation. 
It is now, therefore, impossible for any 
pretended Messiah to prove his descent 
from David. 

Melchizedek was "without descent," 
Heb. 7 : 3, as regards the Jewish race. 
No sacred records proved his right to 
be numbered among that people of God. 
His priesthood was of a diff'erent kind 
from that of Aaron and his sons. Com- 
pare Ezra 2 : 62. 

GENERA'TION. Besides the common 
acceptation of this word, as signifying 
race, descent, lineage, it is used for the 
history and genealogy of a person, as in 
Gen. 5:1, "The book of the generations 
of Adam," that is, the history of Ad- 
am's creation and of his posterity. So 
in Gen. 2 : 4, "The generations of the 
heavens and of the earth," that is, their 
genealogy, so to speak, the history of 
the creation of heaven and earth ; also 
in Matt. 1:1, "The book of the genera- 
tion of Jesus Christ," that is, the gene- 
alogy of Jesus Christ, the history of his 
descent and life. " The present genera- 
tion" comprises all those who are now 
alive; "This generation shall not pass 
till all be fulfilled," some now living 
shall witness the event foretold. Matt. 
24 : 34. " Save yourselves from this un- 
toward generation," from the punish- 
ment which awaits these perverse men, 
Acts 2:40. 

The Hebrews, like other ancient na- 
tions, sometimes computed loosely by 
generations. Thus in Gen. 15:16, "In 
the fourth generation thy descendants 
shall come hither again." The duration 
of a generation is of course very uncer- 
tain ; indeed, it is impossible to estab- 
lish any precise limits. It is, hoAvever, 
generally admitted that a generation in 
the earliest periods is to be reckoned 
longer than one in later times. The 
Greeks regarded a generation as one- 
third of a century. It is now currently 
reckoned as thirty vears. 

GEN'ESIS, the first of the sacred books 
in the Old Testament, so called from the 
title given to it in the Septuagint, sig- 
nifying "the book of the generation," 
or production, of all things. Moses is 
generally admitted to have been the 
writer of this book ; and it is supposed 
that he penned it after the promulgation 
of the law. Its authenticity is attested 
by the most indisputable evidence, and 
1G7 



GEN 



BIBLE DIGTIONAUY. 



GEJi 



it is cited as an inspired record thirty- 
three times in the course of the Scrip- 
tures. The history related in it com- 
prises a period of about 2,369 years, ac- 
cording to the lowest computation, but 
according to Dr. Hales, a much larger 
period. It contains an account of the 
creation; the primeval state and fall of 
man ; the history of Adam and his de- 
scendants, with the progress of religion 
and the origin of the arts ; the genealo- 
gies, age, and death of the patriarchs 
until Noah ; the general defection and 
corruption of mankind, the general del- 
uge, and the preservation of Noah and 
his family in the ark ; the history of 
Noah and his family subsequent to the 
time of the deluge ; the repeopling and 
division of the earth among the sons of 
Noah ; the building of Babel, the confu- 
sion of tongues, and the dispersion of 
nimkind; the lives of Abraham, Isaac, 
Jacob, and Joseph. The book of Gene- 
sis was written, like the rest of Scrip- 
ture, "by inspiration of God." Yet 
many of the facts it records must have 
been well known among the Jews ; the 
account given by Adam himself may 
have bjen verbally transmitted through 
seven of the patriarchs to Moses, and he 
miy als3 have had ancient historical 
writings to consult. The book of Gen- 
esis lays the foundation for all the sub- 
sequent books of the Bible ; and its value 
in the history of the earth, of man, and 
of religion, is inestimable. 

GEN"NESAIIET, supposed to be a cor- 
ruption of Chinnereth, which see. "The 
land of Gennesaret," Matt. 14:34, Mark 
6:53, was a tract of land some three or 
four miles long on the western border 
of the sea of Galilee. It was a lovely 
and exceedingly fertile region; in it 
probably lay Capernaum and Bethsaida 
of Galilee, places often visited by our 
Lord. See Sea IV. 

GEN'TILES, a name given by the He- 
brews to all those that had not received 
the law of Moses. Foreigners Avho em- 
braced Judaism, they called proselytes. 
Since the promulgation of the gospel, 
the true religion has been extended to 
all nations ; God, who had promised by 
his prophets to call the Gentiles to the 
f lith, with a superabundance of grace, 
having fulfilled his promise ; so that the 
Christian church is composed principally 
of Gentile converts, the Jews being too 
proud of their privileges to acknowledge 
168 



Jesus Christ as their Messiah and Re- 
deemer. In the writings of Paul, the 
Gentiles are generally called Greeks, 
Rom. 1 : 14, 16 ; 1 Cor. 1 : 22, 24 ; Gal. 
3:28. So also in those of Luke, in the 
Acts 6:1; II : 20 ; 18 : 4. Paul is com- 
monly called the apostle of the Gen- 
tiles, Gal. 2:8; I Tim. 2:7, because ho 
preached Christ principally to them ; 
whereas Peter, etc., preached generally 
to the Jews, and are called apostles of 
the circumcision, Gal. 2:8. 

Gentiles, Court of the. Josephus 
says there was in the court of the tem- 
ple a wall or balustrade, breast high, 
having pillars at regular distances, with 
inscriptions on them in Greek and Latin, 
importing that strangers were forbidden 
to approach nearer to the altar, Eph. 
2:14. See Temple. 

Gentiles, Isles of the. Gen. 10:5, Asia 
Minor and the whole of Europe, peopled 
by the descendants of Japheth. 

GE'EAH, the smallest weight or coin 
among the Jews, the twentieth part of a 
shekel, and worth about tv.o and a half 
cents, Ex. 30:13. 

GE'PtAR, an ancient town or place of 
the Philistines in the times of Abraham 
and Isaac, Gen. 10 : 19 ; 20 : 1 ; 26 : 1, 0, 
17. It lay not far from Gaza, in the 
south of Judah, but its exact site is now 
unknown. See 2 Chr. 14:13, 14. 

GERGESENES', Matt. 8 : 28 ; in the par- 
allel passages in Mark and Luke, Gada- 
renes. See Gadara. Some manuscripts 
have Gadarenes in Matt. 8:28, and others 
Gerasenes; but Gerasa lay forty miles 
south-east of the scene of the miracle. 
Some have thought that the remnant of 
the ancient Girgashites gave their name 
to this district. A recent explorer finds 
ruins called Cherza or Gersa, midway on 
the eastern side of the sea of Galilee ; 
and this may be the ancient Gergesa. 

GERTZIM, a mountain in Ephraim, 
between which and Ebal lay the city of 
Shechcm, Judg. 9:7. The world has 
beheld few scenes more awful and sug- 
gestive than when, having conquered 
Canaan, all the Israelites were summon- 
ed to this place, and six tribes were sta- 
tioned on mount Gerizim to pronoimcc 
blessings on those wdio should obey God's 
law, and the otlier six on mount Eba^ to 
denounce curses on those who should 
break it ; while all the people solemnlv 
said. Amen, Dent. 11:23; 27:12-26; 28. 
See view in Siiechem. 



r;EU 



BIBLE DICTION AEY. 



GET 



After the captivity, Manasseh, a seced- 
ing priest, by permission of Alexander 
the Great, built a temple on Gerizim, and 
the Samaritans joined the worship of the 
true God to that of their idols: "They 
feared the Lord, and served their own 
gods, after the manner of the nations 
whom they carried away from thence," 
2 Kin. 17 : 33. See Samakitaxs and San- 

BALLAT. 

This temple was destroyed by John 
Hyrcanus ; yet its site has always retain- 
ed its ancient sacredness. In our Sav- j 
iour's time the true God was worshipped : 
by the Samaritans, though ignorantly, j 
John 4. Herod the Great, having rebuilt | 
Samaria, and called it Sebaste, in honor of | 
Augustus, would have compelled the Sa- I 
maritans to worship in the temple which j 
he had erected ; but they constantly re- 
fused, and have continued to this day to 
guard their sacred Scriptures, to keep the \ 
law, to pray towards their holy place on j 



the summit of Gerizim, and to worship 
God there four times in the year. 

GER'SHOM, a stranger there, one of the 
two sons of Moses and Zipporah, in the 
land of Midian, Ex. 2:22; 18:3. Moses 
appears to have given them no rank or 
emoluments but those of simple Levites, 
IChr. 23:15. 

GER'SHON, the eldest son of Levi, 
and head of one of the three branches of 
the Levitical tribe, Gen. 46 : 11 ; Ex. 
G:16. The Gershonites encamped west 
of the tabernacle in the vvilderness, and 
carried its curtains and other parts from 
station to station, Num. 3:17, 25; 4:24- 
28, 38-41 ; 10:17. Thirteen cities were 
assigned to them in northern Canaan, 
Josh. 21:6; IChr. 6:62, 71. 

GE'SHEM, or Gash'jiu, an Arabian, 
who opposed the work of the Lord in the 
time of Nehemiah, by ridicule and plots, 
Neh. 2:19 ; 6:1-9 ; about 445 b. c. 

GE'SHUR. See next page. 



SSJ-fa-'^-: 




GARDEN OF GETHSEMANE, AND MOUNT OF OLIVES. 



GETHSEM'ANE, oil-press, a garden or 
grove in the valley at the foot of the 
mount of Olives, over against Jerusalem, 
to which our Saviour sometimes retired, 
and in which he endured his agonv, and 
was betrayed by Judas, Matt. 26:36-57. 
Early tradition locates Gethsemane near 
the base of mount Olivet, beyond the 
8 



brook Kidron. The place now enclosed 
by a low stone wall may be but a part of 
the original "garden."" It is about fifty- 
two yards square, and contains eight 
aged olive-trees, whose roots in many 
places project above the ground, and are 
protected by heaps of stones. Here, or 
at most not far off, the Saviour endured 
169 



GEZ 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GIB 



that unspeakaljle "agony and bloody 
Hweat" so nearly connected with his ex- 
piatory death ; and here in deep submis- 
sion he mingled and closed his prayers 
for relief with the cry, "Nevertheless, 
not my will, but thine, be done." From 
this garden he could readily see the 
crowd of men ' ' Avith lanterns and torch- 
es" emerging from the city gate, and 
hastening, under the guidance of Judas, 
to seize him. It is the spot which the 
Christian visitor at Jerusalem first seeks 
out, and where he lingers longest and 
last ere he turns homeward. A recent 
traveller. Professor Hackett, passing by 
Gethsemane one day, saw a shepherd in 
the act of shearing a sheep. The animal 
lay on the ground, with its feet tied, the 
man's knee pressed rudely against its 
side, while it seemed as if every move- 
ment of the shears would lacerate its 
flesh ; yet during the Avhole, it struggled 
not and opened not its mouth — a touch- 
ing memento, upon that sacred spot, of 
the Lamb of God, Isa. 53:7. 

GE'SHUR, Gesii'uri, Gesiiurites, the 
name of a district and people in Syria. 
Geshur lay upon the eastern side of the 
Jordan between Bashan, Maachah, and 
mount Hermon, and Avithin the limits 
of the Hebrew territory ; but the Israel- 
ites did not expel its inhabitants. Josh. 
12:5; 13 : 13. They appear to have been 
brought under tribute, 1 Chr. 2:23, but 
to have retained their own kings. One 
of David's wives, Maachah the mother of 
Absalom, was daughter of Talmai king 
of Geshur ; and it was here that Absa- 
lom found refuge after the murder of 
Amuon, and remained three years with 
his grandfather, 2 Sam. 3:3; 13 : 37 ; 
15 : 8. The word Geshur signifies bridge ; 
and in the border of the region, where, 
according to the above data, we must 
place Geshur, between mount Hermon 
and the lake of Tiberias, there still exists 
an ancient stone bridge of four arches 
over the Jordan, called Jisr-Beni-Jakub, 
that is, the bridge of the children of Ja- 
cob. There seems to have been here an 
important pass on the route to Damas- 
cus and the East. 

There Avas also a people of the same 
name in the south of Palestine, near the 
Philistines, Josh. 13:2; 1 Sam. 27:8. 

GE'ZER, a royal city of the Canaan- 

ites. Josh. 10:33 ; 12:12; between Beth- 

horon and the Mediterranean, Josh. 

16 : 3 ; afterwards on the western border 

170 



of Ephraim, and assigned to the Levites, 
Josh. 16:3; 21:21. The Canaanites long 
retained a foothold in it. Josh. 16:10; 
Judg. 1 : 29 ; but were dispossessed by a 
king of Egypt, and the place given to 
his daughter, the wife of Solomon, 1 Kin. 
9:16, Avho fortified it. 

GHOST, the spirit, or principle of life 
in man. To " give up the ghost," is to 
die, to yield the soul to God who gave 
it. Gen. 25:8 ; Luke 23:46. See Spirit. 

GIANTS, earth-born. It is STipposed 
by many that the first men Avere of a 
size and strength superior to these of 
mankind at present, since a long life is 
usually associated Avith a Avell-developed 
and vigorous frame. We know also that 
there Avere giants and families of giants, 
even after the average length of human 
life was greatly abridged. These, hoAv- 
CA'er, appear to have been exceptions; 
and if Ave judge from the mummies of 
Egypt, and from the armor and imple- 
ments of the earliest antiquity, found in 
ancient tombs, in bogs, and in buried 
cities, Ave should conclude that mankind 
never exceeded, in the average, their 
present stature. There Averc, hoAvever, 
giants before the flood. Gen. 6:4; fruits 
of the union of different families, and 
extraordinary in stature, poAver, and 
crime. After the flood, mention is made 
of a race called Eephaim, Gen. 14:5; 
Josh. 17 : 15 ; kindred Avith Avhom were 
the Emim, early occupants of the land 
of Moab, and the Zamzummim in Am- 
mon, Deut. 2:10, 20. Og Avas one cf the 
last of this race, Deut. 3:11, 13. West 
of the Dead sea, around Hebron and 
Philistia, lived the Anakim, whose as- 
pect so terrified the HebreAv spies, Num. 
13:33; Josh. 11:21, 22. Of this race 
Avere Goliath and his kindred, 1 Sam. 
17:4; 1 Chr. 20:4-8. See Anakim, Go- 
liath, and IiEPHAiM. 

Giants, Valley of the. See Eephaim. 

GIB'BETHON, a city of the Philistines, 
within the bounds of the tribe of Dan, 
and assigned to the Levites, Josh. 19:44 ; 
21:23. The Philistines, hoAvever, Avere 
not excluded ; and in the time of Nadab 
they Avere its masters, and he Avas slain 
by 'Baasha Avhile besieging it, 1 Kin. 
15:27; 16:15. Its after-history, audits 
site are unknown. 

GIB'EAH, a hill, I., a city of Benja- 
min, 1 Sam. 13:15, and the birthplace 
and residence of Saul king of Israel; 
whence It is frequently called ' ' Gibeah 



GIB 



BIBLE DICTIONARV. 



GUI 



of Saul," 1 Sam. 11:4; 15:34; 23:19; 
26:1 ; 2 Sam. 21:6 ; Isa. 10:29. Gibeah 
was also tamous for its sins; particu- 
larly for that committed by forcing the 
young Levite's wife, who went to lodge 
there ; and for the war which succeeded 
it, to the almost entire e.Ktermination 
of the tribe of Benjamin, Judg. 19. 
Scripture remarks, that this occurred at 
a time when there was no king in Israel, 
and when every one did what was right 
in his own eyes. Dr. Kobinson found 
traces of Gibeah in the small and ruin- 
ous village of Jeba, near Ramah, separat- 
ed from Michmash on the north by a 
deep valley, and about six miles north 
by east from Jerusalem. 

II. A town of Judah, Josh. 15 : 57, 
which lay about ten miles south-west of 
Jerusalem. The prophet Habakkuk is 
said to have been buried here. 

III. In mount Ephraim, called Gibeah 
of Phinehas, where Eleazar the son of 
Aaron was buried, Josh. 24:33. It is 
found in the narrow valley El-Jib, mid- 
way between Jerusalem and Shechem. 

GIB'EON, a considerable city of the 
Hivites, afterwards a Levitical city in 
the tribe of Benjamin, Josh. 18 : 25 ; 
21:17. It lay near Gel3a and Gibeah, 
and is sometimes wrongly taken for Ge- I 
ba. Its Canaanite inhabitants secured a i 
treaty with Joshua and the elders of | 
Israel by stratagem, and were made j 
hewers of wood for the sanctuary. Five 
neighboring kings unitedly fell upon 
them ; but were defeated by the Jews in | 
a great battle, during which "the sun 
stood still upon Gibeon," Josh. 9; 10. 
Here the tabernacle was set up for many 
years, 1 Chr. 16:39; 21:29; 2 Chr. 1:3, 
4 ; and here God communed by night 
with young king Solomon, 1 Kin 3:4- 
15. It is also memorable for two scenes 
in the life of Joab, 2 Sam. 2 : 12-32 ; 
20:8-12; Jer. 41:12. It stood on an 
eminence, six miles north of Jerusalem. 

GiBLiTEs, Josh. 13:5. See Gebal. 

GID'EOX, or Jerub'baal, of the tribe 
of Manasseh, a valiant and prudent judge 
of Israel, particularly the eastern and 
northern tribes, b. c. 1249 to 1209. He 
resided in Ophrah, east of the Jordan, a 
cegion often ravaged in harvest-time by 
the wandering tribes on its eastern bor- 
der. Being called of God to deliver his 
people, and encouraged by signs from 
heaven, he defeated the Midianites, and 
caused Israel to dwell in safety for many 



[ years. In punishing the refractory cities 
Succoth and Penuel, and the fratricides 
Zeba and Zalmunna — in sootliing the 
jealousy of the Ephraimites, and in de- 
clining the crown offered him by the 
Jews, he evinced those qualities which 
made him a successful judge. In the 
matter of the golden ephod, however, he 
fell into a sin and a snare ; for this me- 
morial of the wonders God had wrought 
became erelong an object of idolatrous 
veneration, Judg. 6-8; 1 Sam. 12:11; 
Heb. 11:32. 

GI'ER-EAGLE, probably an Egyptian 
vulture, horrid and lilthy, but very use- 
ful as a carrion-bird, Lev. 11:18. See 

A^ULTURE. 

GIFTS have been common from the 
earliest times as tokens of affection, 
honor, or respect. The dues to a kmg 
were often rendered in this f«)rm, 1 Sam. 
10 : 27 ; Isa. 36 : 16 ; and men of high 
position were approached with presents. 
Gen. 43 : 11 ; Judg. 6 : 18 ; 1 Sam. 9:7; 

1 Kin. 14:3. Kings made gifts of gar- 
ments to those they wished to honor, 
Gen. 45 : 22, 23 ; 1 Sam. 18:4; and of 
treasures to other princes, out of esteem 
or of fear, 2 Kin. 16:8; 18:14; 2 Chr. 
9:9, 12. Conquerors scattered gifts from 
their triumphal cars, and special privi- 
leges in token of generous jov, Psa. 
68:18; Acts 1:2, 4. Prophets received 
gifts, or declined them, as duty required, 

2 Kin. 5:15; 8:9; Dan. 2 : 48 ; 5 : 17. 
The word gifts often denotes bribes, Ex. 
23:8; Psa. 15:5; Isa. 5:23. The same 
word is also applied to the offerings re- 
quired by the law, Deut. 16 : 17 ; Matt. 
5:23, 24 ; to the blessings of the gospel 
an^J eternal life, which are preeminently 
gifts, Acts 8:20 ; to the Christian graces, 
for the same reason, Eph. 4 : 8, 11 ; iind 
to the miraculous endowments of the 
apostles, 1 Cor. 12-14. See Tongues. 

GI'HON, I., one of the four rivers of 
Paradis3 ; as some suppose, the Araxes, 
Gen. 2:13. See Eden, and Euphrates. 

II. A fountain near Jerusalem on the 
west, beside which Solomon was anoint- 
ed king, 1 Kin. 1 : 33, 38. Hezekiah 
covered it over, and brought its waters 
by a subterranean channel into the citv, 
2 Chr. 32 : 3, 30 ; 33 : 14. A pool still 
exists in the spot referred to, three hun- 
dred feet long, two hundred wide, and 
twenty deep, with steps at two corners ; 
and recently, in digging to lay the foun- 
dations of the Anglican church, an im- 
171 



GIL 



JJ1J3LE DlCTlONAUr 



(.UK 



meiise conduit was discovered running 
east and west, tiiirty feet under ground, 
built of stone and coated with cement, 
and partly cut out of solid rock. Proba- 
bly this was connected with the fountain 
of Gihon. 

GrILBO'A, a mountainous ridge south- 
east of the plain of Esdraelon, having on 
each side a valley connecting the great 
plain with the Jordan valley. The val- 
ley north-east of Gilboa is the proper 
Jezreei ; that on the south-west side sep- 
arates Gilboa from the hills of Samaria. 
On the eastern part of Gilboa was the 
town from which it was named, now 
Jelbon. In this vicinity Saul and Jon- 
athan were defeated by the Philistines, 
and died, 1 Sam. 28:4 ; 31. It is now a 
dry and barren mountain, 2 Sam. 1:6, 
21. Endor lay north from Gilboa, and 
Beth-shean north-east. 

GIL'EAD, or Galeed', Gen. 31:45-48, 
the mound of ivitness, lay east of the Jor- 
dan, in the mountainous tract which 
runs from mount Hermon southward, 
between the Jordan and Arabia Deserta. 
The scenery among these mountains is 
described as very tine. The plains are 
covered with a fertile soil, the hills are 
clothed with forests, and at every new 
turn beautiful landscapes are presented. 
The Scripture references to the stately 
oaks and herds of cattle in this region 
are well known, Gen. 37 : 25 ; Num. 
32:1. 

The name Gilead is sometimes put for 
the whole country east of the Jordan. 
Thus, in Deut. 34:1, God is said to have 
showed Moses, from mount Nebo, "all 
the land of Gilead unto Dan. ' ' Compare 
Num. 32 : 26, 29 ; Deut. 3 : 12. The prop- 
er region of Gilead, however, lay south 
of Bashan, but probably without any 
very definite line of separation. Bashan 
and Gilead are often mentioned togeth- 
er. Josh. 12:5; 13:11; 17:1, 5; 2 Kin. 
10: 33. A part of Gilead was the district 
now called Belka, one of the most fertile 
in Palestine. See Balm and Bashan. 

Mount Gilead, in the strictest sense; 
was doubtless the mountain now called 
Jebel Jelad or Jelud, mentioned by 
Burckhardt, the foot of which lies about 
two hours' distance, or six miles, south 
of the Wady Zerka, or Jabbok. The 
mountain itself runs from east to west, 
and is about two hours and a half (eight 
or ten miles) in length. Upon it are the 
ruined towns of Jeliid and Jelud ; proba- 
172 



bly the site of the ancient city Gilead of 
Hos. 6:8, elsewhere called Ilamoth Gil- 
ead. Southward of this mountain stands 
the modern city of Szalt. It was prob- 
ably in this mountain that Jacob and 
Laban set up their monument, Gen. 
31:45-48. See also Judg. 7:3. 

GIL'GAL, a rolling, 1., a celebrated 
place between the Jordan and Jericho, 
where the Israelites first encamped, after 
the passage of that river ; where also 
they were circumcised, and kept their 
first Passover in Canaan, Josh. 4:19; 
5 : 9, 10. It continued to be the head- 
quarters of the Israelites for several years, 
while Joshua was occupied in subduing 
the land. Josh. 9 : 6 ; 10 : 6, 15, 43. A con- 
siderable city was afterwards built there, 
Josh. 15 : 7, which became famous for 
many events. Here the tabernacle rest- 
ed, until its removal to Shiloh; here 
also, according to the prevalent opinion, 
Samuel offered sacrifices, and held his 
court as a judge of Israel ; and here Saul 
was crowned, 1 Sam. 7:16 ; 10:8; 11:15; 
13:7-9; 15:33. A school of the proph- 
ets was here established, 2 Kin. 4:38; 
and yet it afterwards appears to have 
become a seat of idolatry, Hos. 4:15; 
9:15; 12:11; Amos 4:4; 5:5. At this 
day, no traces of it are found. Accord- 
ing to Josephus, it lay within two miles 
of Jericho. 

II. Another Gilgal lay near Antipa- 
tris. Josh. 12:23; Neh. 12:29. And per- 
haps a third in the mountains of Ephra- 
im, north of Bethel, Deut. 11:30; 2 Kin. 
2:1-6. There are not wanting those 
who would make the Gilgal near Anti- 
patris the seat of Samuel's judgeship, and 
of one of the schools of the prophets. 

GI'LOH, a city of Judah, Josh. 15:50; 
where Ahithophel, David's counsellor, 
dwelt ; and where, after his treason 
against David, and the rejection of his 
counsel by Absalom, he hung himself, 
2 Sam. 15:12; 17:23. 

GIRD, GIR'DLE. The orientals com- 
monly dress in loose robes, flowing down 
around the feet ; so that when they wish 
to run, or fight, or apply themselves to 
any business, they are obliged to bind 
their garments close around them with a 
sash or girdle. Hence, "to have the 
loins girded," is to be prepared for action 
or service, 2 Kin. 4:29; Acts 12:8; to 
be waiting for the call or coming of one's 
master or Lord, Luke 12 : 35. A tight- 
ened girdle was also thought to increase 



GIR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GOA 



the power of endurance, and the simile 
is used in exhortations to Christian cour- 
age and fortitude, Job 38:3; Jer. 1:17 ; 
Eph. 6:14; 1 Pet. 1:13. To have the 
girdle loosed, is to be unnerved and un- 
prepared for fiction, Isa. 5:27. Girdles 
of leather were worn by the common 
people ; and also by prophets, 2 Kin. 
1:8; Matt. 3 : 4. They were likewise 
made of cotton or linen, Jer. 13:1 ; also 
of silk, sometimes embroidered. They 
were often wide and long ; and were 
folded lengthwise, and passed several 
times around the body. The girdle, 
moreover, answered the purpose of a 
purse or pouch, to carry money and 
other things; see Matt. 10:9; Mark 6:8, 
where the word purse in the English is 
put for girdle according to the original 
Greek. The Arabs and other orientals 
wear girdles in the same manner at the 
present day ; they also carry a knife or 
dagger stuck in them ; as was also the 
custom of the Hebrews, 1 Sam. 25:13; 
2 Sam. 20:8. Clerks carried their ink- 
horns, carpenters their rules, etc., in the 
same way, Ezek. 9 : 2. See cuts in Gar- 
ments. 

GIR'GASHITES. See Canaanites. 

GIT'TITES. See Gatii. 

GIT'TITH. The word Gittith signi- 
fies belonging to Gath. It probably denotes 
either a musical instrument or a kind of 
music derived from Gath, where David 
sojourned for a time during the persecu- 
tion of Saul, 1 Sam. 27:1-7. The word 
Gath also signifies in Hebrew a loine-press. 
Hence not a few have supposed that it 
denotes either an instrument or a melo- 
dy used in the vintage. It is prefixed 
to Psalms 8, 81, 84, all of which require 
an animated strain of music. 

GLASS was well known to the ancients, 
and no doubt to the Jews ; its invention 
is traced to an incident on the coast of 
PlvDcnicia, and the arts of blowing, col- 
oring, and cutting it were familiar to 
the ancient Egyptians. The "looking- 
glasses" of the Jews, however, were of 
highly polished metal, usually small and 
round, Ex. 88:8; Job 37:18; Jas. 1:23. 
Glass does not appear to have been used 
at that time for mirrors, nor for win- 
dows; but for cups, bottles, vases, or- 
naments, sacred emblems, etc. It is al- 
luded to in 1 Cor. 13:12; Rev. 4:6; 
15:2; 21:18, 21; probably also in Job 
28:17, where our English version has 
tlie word crystal. 



GLEDE, a kind of hawk or kite, Deut. 
14:13. The same Hebrew word is trans- 
lated vulture in Lev. 11:14. 

GLO'RY, GLO'PJFY, words of gi-eat 
and manifold significance in the Bible, 
used with reference to God and his 
works, the Saviour and his gospel, the 
heavenly state, etc. "The glory of 
God" was often visibly revealed in the 
old dispensation— some dazzling appear- 
ance indicative cf his special presence, 
Ex. 16:7-10 ; 24 : 9, 10, 16, 17 ; 33:18- 
23; 1 Kin. 8:11; Psa. 80:1; Zech. 2:5. 
God's glory is shown in his works, 
Psa. 19 : 1 ; Ptom. 1 : 19, 20. But it i« 
most fully and illustriously displayed in 
the work of redemption, "in the face of 
Jesus Christ." "Here the whole Deity 
is known," John 1:14; 2 Cor. 4:6 ; Heb. 
1:3. The chief end of the Christian is 
to live "to the glory of God," so that 
God may be seen to be most glorious, 
1 Cor. 6 : 20 ; 1 Pet. 2 : 9. The adjura- 
tion, "give God the glory," means, con- 
fess the truth in view of his omniscience, 
Josh. 7:19; John 9:24. The expression, 
"my glory," Psa. 16:9; 30:12; 57:8; 
108:1, is equivalent to my soul, or my- 
self, as the parallelism shows. 

GNAT, a small winged stinging in- 
sect, a mosquito, spoken of in the pro- 
verbial expression. Matt. 23:24, "Ye 
strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel," 
which should read, as it did in the first 
English translations, " Ye strain out a 
gnat," etc. The expression alludes to 
the Jewish custom of filtering wine, for 
fear of swallowing any insect forbidden 
by the law as unclean. Lev. 11:23 ; and 
is applied to those who are superstitious- 
ly anxious in avoiding small faults, yet 
do not scruple to commit great sins. 

GOAT, a well-known animal, resem- 
bling the sheep, but covered with hair 
instead of wool. Large flocks of them 
were kept by the Jews, Gen. 27 : 9 ; 
1 Sam. 25:2 ; 2 Chr. 17:11. They were 
regarded as clean for sacrifice, Ex. 12:5 ; 
Lev. 3:12 ; Num. 15:27 ; and their milk 
and the voung kids were much used for 
food, Deut. 14 : 4 ; Judg. 6 : 19 ; Prov. 
27 : 27 ; Luke 15 : 29. The common leath- 
er bottles were made of their skins. Sev- 
eral kinds of goats were kept in Pales- 
tine : one kind having long hair, like 
the Angora, and another, long and 
broad ears. This kind is probably re- 
ferred to in Amos 3:12, and is still the 
common goat of Palestine. 
17a 



GOA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GOD 




HEAD OF THE SYRIAN GOAT. 

Herodotus says, that at Mendes, in 
Lawer Egypt, both the male and female 
goat were worshipped. The heathen god 
Pan was represented with the face and 
thighs of a goat. The heathen paid di- 
vine honors also to real goats, as appears 
in the table of Isis. The abominations 
committed during the feasts of these in- 
famous deities cannot be told. 

Wild goats are mentioned in 1 Sam. 
24:2 ; Job 39 : 1 ; Psa. 104 : 18. This is 




^^d^K^. 



donbtless the Ihet, or mountain-goat, a 
large and vigorous animal still found in 
174 



the mountains in the peninsula of Sinai, 
and east and south of the Dead sea. 

These goats are very similar to the 
bouquetin or chamois of the Alps. They 
feed in flocks of a score or two, with one 
of their number acting as a sentinel. At 
the slightest alarm, they are gone in an 
instant, darting fearlessly over the rocks, 
and falling on their horns from a great 
height without mjury. Their horns are 
two or three feet long, and are sold by 
the Arabs for knife-handles, etc. For 
ScAPE-GOAT, see Expiation. 

GOATS' HAIR was used by Moses in 
making the curtains of the tabernacle, 
Ex. 25:4 ; 26:7 ; 35:6. The hair of the 
goats of Asia, Phrygia, and Cilicia, is 
very bright and fine, and hangs to the 
groimd ; in beauty it almost equals silk, 
and is never sheared, but combed off. 
The shepherds carefully and frequently 
wash these goats in rivers. The women 
of the country spin the hair, which is 
carried to Angora, where it is worked 
and dyed, and a considerable trade in 
the article carried on. The natives at- 
tribute the quality of the hair to the soil 
of the country. The ordinary goats- 
hair cloth of the Arabs, used for the cov- 
erings of tents, etc. , is coarse and black ; 
and this is the kind of which the gar- 
ments of the Hebrew prophets and of the 
poor were made. 

GOD. This name, the derivation of 
which is uncertain, we give to that eter- 
nal, infinite, perfect, and incomprehen- 
sible Being, the Creator of all things, 
who preserves and governs all by his 
almighty power and wisdom, and is the 
only proper object of worship. The prop- 
er Hebrew name for God is JEHOVAH, 
which signifies He is. But the Jews, from 
a feeling of reverence, avoid pronouncing 
this name, substituting for it, wherever 
it occurs in the sacred text, the word 
Adonai, Lord ; except in the expression, 
Adonai Jehovah, Lard Jehovah, for which 
they put, Adonai Elohim, Lord God. This 
usage, which is not without an element 
of superstition, is very ancient, dating 
its origin some centuries before Christ ; 
but th'ere is no good ground for assum- 
ing its existence in the days of the in- 
spired Old Testament writers. The prop- 
er word for God is Elohim, which is 
plural in its form, being thus used to 
signify the manifold perfections of God, 
or, -as some think, the Tiinity in the 
godhead. In Ex. 3:14, God replies to 



GOD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GOL 



Moses, when he asks Him His name, I am 
THAT I AM ; wliich means either, I am he 
who I am, or, I am what I am. In 
eitlier case the expression implies the 
eternal self-existence of Jehovah, and his 
incomprehensible nature. The name I 
AM means the same as Jehovah, the tirst 
person being used instead of the third. 

The Bible assumes and asserts the ex- 
istence of God, "In the beginning God 
cTcated the heavens and the earth ;" and 
is itself the most illustrious proof of his 
existence, as well as our chief instructor 
as to his nature and will. It puts a 
voice into the mute lips of creation ; and 
not only reveals God in his works, but 
illustrates his ways in providence, dis- 
plays the glories of his character, his 
law, and his grace, and brings man into 
true and saving communion with him. 
It reveals him to us as a Spirit, the only 
being from everlasting and to everlast- 
ing by nature, underived, intinite, per- 
fect, and vmchangeable in power, wis- 
dom, omniscience, omnipresence, justice, 
holiness, truth, goodness, and mercy. 
He is but one God, and yet exists in 
three persons, the Father, the Son, and 
the Holy Spirit ; and this distinction of 
the Three in One is, like his other attri- 
butes, from everlasting. He is the 
source, owner, and ruler of all beings, 
foreknows and predetermines all events, 
and is the eternal judge and arbiter of 
the destiny of all. True religion has its 
foundation in the right knowledge of 
God, and consists in supremely loving 
and faithfully obeying him. See Jesus 
Christ, and Holy Spirit. 

GODS. The words god and gods, He- 
brew Elohim, are several times used in 
Scripture to express the power, office, or 
excellence of some created beings, as an- 
gels, magistrates, Ex. 22:20, 28; Psa. 
86 : 8 ; 97 : 7 ; often also for the false gods 
of the heathen. These were exceedingly 
numerous, and are denoted by various 
terras, signifying vanity, falsehood, etc. 
Among the first objects to be deified 
were the sun, the moon, and the chief 
powers of nature. Innumerable animals, 
deceased men, all ages, passions, and con- 
ditions of man, and every thing which 
fear, lust, malice, pride, or caprice could 
suggest, were made objects of worship. 
The gods of modern India are numbered 
by millions. 

GOD'LY, that which proceeds from 
God, and is pleasing to him. It also 



signifies conformity to his will, and an 
assimilation to his character, Psa. 12:1; 
Mai. 2:15 ; 2 Cor. 1:2 ; Tit. 2:12. God- 
liness is the substance of revealed relig- 
ion, ITim. 3:16; 4:8; 2 Pet. 1:6. 

GOG and MA'GOG are usually spoken 
of together in Scripture. In Gen. 10:2, 
Magog, which seems to denote a country 
with its people, is reckoned among the 
descendants of Japheth. In Ezek. 38, 
39, Magog apparently signifies a coun- 
try with its people, and Gog the king 
of that people ; but critics are much 
divided as to the people and country 
intended under these names. The Scyth- 
ians, the Goths, the Persians, and sever- 
al other nations, have been specified by 
interpreters as the Magog of the Scrip- 
tures ; but most probably it is a name 
given generally to the northern nations 
of Europe and Asia, or the districts north 
of the Caucasus. The names reappear in 
the later predictions of John as enemies 
of the people of God, who are to be sig- 
nally overthrown in Armageddon, Ilev. 
16:14-16; 20:7-9. 

GOLAN, a Levitical city of refuge, in 
the north-west portion of Bashan. It 
lay east or north-east of the sea of Gali- 
lee, but its site is now lost. See Gau- 

LAN. 

GOLD, a well-known valuable metal, 
found in many parts of the world, and 
obtained anciently in Ophir, Job 28 : 16 ; 
Parvaim, 2 Chr. 3:6; Sheba, and Kaa- 
mah, Ezek. 27:22. Job alludes to gold 
in various forms, Job 22:24; 28:15-19. 
Abraham was rich in it, and female or- 
naments were early made of it, Gen. 
13:2 ; 24:22, 35. It is spoken of through- 
out Scripture ; and the use of it among 
the ancient Hebrews, in its native and 
mixed state, and for the same purposes 
as at present, was very common. The 
ark of the covenant was overlaid with 
pure gold ; the mercy-seat, the vessels 
and utensils belonging to the tabernacle, 
and those also of the house of the Lord, 
as well as the drinking-vessels of Solo- 
mon, were of gold. 

GOL'GOTHA, the Hebrew name for 
Calvary, which see. 

GOLPATH, a celebrated giant of Gath, 
who challenged the armies of Israel, and 
was encountered and slain by David. 
The history is contained in 1 Sam. 17. 
His height was nine feet and a half; or, 
if we reckon the cubit at twenty-one 
inches, over eleven feet. See Giants. 
175 



GOM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GOS 



GO'MER, I., Gen. 10:2, 3; IChr. 1:5; 
Ezek. 38:6, a son of Japheth, and father 
of Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah. 
He is believed to have settled the north- 
ern shores of the Blaclc sea, and given 
name to the ancient Cimmerians and to 
the Crimea. About 700 b. o. a part of 
his posterity diffused themselves in Asia 
Minor. Traces of his name and parent- 
age are also found in the Cymbri, Um- 
bri, and Cambri of historians, in Ku- 
niero and Kumeraeg, the names of the 
Welsh people and language, and among 
various nations of Europe. 

II. A harlot Avhom the prophet Hosea 
appears to have married in prophetic 
vision, as directed by God, that the Jews 
might be led to reHect on the guilt of 
their spiritual uncleanness or idolatry, 
Hos. 1. 

GOMOPt'RAH, one of the cities in the 
fruitful vale of Siddim, near the south- 
ern part of the ancient Dead sea, mirac- 
ulously blasted by God. See Sodom. 

GO'PHER, the name of the wood of 
which the ark was built. Many sup- 
pose it to be the cypress ; others, the 
pine. Gopher may probably be a gen- 
eral name for such trees as abound with 
resinous inflammable juices, as the ce- 
dar, cypress, tir-tree, pine, etc., Gen. 
6:14. 

GO'SHEN, L, the name of thxat tract 
of country in Egypt which was inhabited 
by the Israelites from the time of Jacob 
to that of Moses. It was probably the 
tract lying east of the Pelusiau arm of 
the Nile, towards Arabia. See Egypt. 
It appears to have reached to the Nile, 
Ex. 1:22 ; 2:3, since the Jews ate fish in 
abundance. Num. II : 5, and practised 
artificial irrigation, Deut. 11:10. It was 
near Heliopolis and Rameses, and not far 
from the capital of Egypt, Gen. 45:10; 
47 : 1 1 ; Ex. 8-12. It was a part of ' ' the 
best of the land." at least for the pasto- 
ral Hebrews, Gen. 46:34, and was evi- 
dently better watered and more fertile 
than at present. Here they greatly mul- 
tiplied and prospered. Gen. 47:27, and 
here they were sorely aftlicted, and yet 
not forgotten of God', Ex. 8 : 22 ; 9 : 26. 
]Many Egyptians dwelt among and around 
them. 

II. A city and the adjacent territory 
In the mountains of Judah, Josh. 10:41 ; 
11:16; 15:51. 

GOS'PEL signifies good news, and is 
that revelation and dispensation which 
176 



God has made known to guilty man 
through Jesus Christ our Saviour and 
Redeemer. Scripture speaks of ' ' the 
gospel of the kingdom," Matt. 24:14, 
the gospel "of the grace of God," Acts 
20:24, "of Christ," and "of peace," 
Rom. 1:16; 10 : 15. It is the ' ' glorious ' ' 
and the "everlasting" gospel, I Tim. 
I : II, Rev. 14 : 6, and well merits the 
noblest epithets that can be given it. 
The declaration of this gospel was made 
through the life and teaching, the death, 
resurrection, and ascension of our Lord. 

The Avritings Avhich contain the recital 
of our Saviour's life, miracles, death, res- 
urrection, and doctrine, are called gos- 
pels, because they include the best news 
that could be published to mankind. 
We have four canonical gospels — those 
of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. 
These have not only been generally re- 
ceived, but they were received very early 
as the standards of evangelical history, 
as the depositories of the doctrines and 
actions of Jesus. They are appealed to 
under that character both by friends and 
enemies ; and no writer impugning or 
defending Christianity acknowledges any 
other gospel as of ecjual or concurrent 
authority, although there were many 
others which purported to be authentic 
memoirs of the life and actions of Christ. 
Some of these apocryphal gospels are 
still extant. They contain many errors 
and legends, but have some indirect 
value. 

There appears to be valid objection to 
the idea entertained by many, that the 
evangelists copied from each other or 
from an earlier and fuller gospel. Wheth- 
er Mark Avrote with the gospel by Mat- 
thew before him, and Luke with Mat- 
thew and Mark both, or not, we know 
that they "spake as they were moved 
by the Holy Ghost" while recormting 
the works and sayings of Christ which 
they had seen or knew to be true, using 
no doubt the most authentic written 
and oral accounts of the same, current 
among the disciples. They have not at 
all confined themselves to the strict 
order of time and place. 

Gospel of Mattuew. The time when 
this gospel was written is very uncer- 
tain. All ancient testimony, however, 
goes to show that it was published be- 
fore the others. It is believed by many 
to have been written about a. d. 38. It 
has been, much disputed whether this 



GOU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GOU 



gospel was originally written in Hebrew 
or Greek. The unanimous testimony of 
ancient writers is in favor of a Hebrew 
original, that is, that it was written in 
the language of Palestine and for the 
use of the Hebrew Christians. But, on 
the other hand, the definiteness and ac- 
curacy of this testimony is drawn into 
question ; there is no liistorical notice of 
a translation into Greek ; and the present 
Greek gospel bears many marks of being 
an original ; the circumstances of the 
age, too, and the prevalence of the Greek 
language in Palestine, seem to give 
weight to the opposite hypothesis. Crit- 
ics of the greatest name are arranged on 
both sides of the question ; and some 
who believe it to have been first written 
in Hebrew, think that the author him- 
self afterwards made a Greek version. 
Matthew writes as "an Israelite in- 
deed," a guileless converted Jew in- 
structing his brethren. He often quotes 
from the Old Testament. He represents 
the Saviour as the fulfilment of the hopes 
of Israel, the promised Messiah, King of 
the kingdom of God. 

Gospel of Mark. Ancient writers agree 
in the statement that Mark, not himself 
an apostle, wrote his gospel under the 
influence and direction of the apostle 
Peter. The same traditionary authori- 
ty, though with less unanimity and evi- 
dence, makes it to have been written at 
Rome, and published after the death of 
Peter and Paul. Mark wrote primarily 
for the Gentiles, as appears from his fre- 
quent explanations of Jewish customs, 
etc. He exhibits Christ as the divine 
Prophet, mighty in deed and word. He 
is a true evangelical historian, relating 
facts more than discourses, in a concise, 
simple, rapid style, with occasional mi- 
nute and graphic details. 

Gospel of Luke. Luke is said to have 
written his gospel under the direction of 
Paul, whose companion he was on many 
journeys. His expanded views and cath- 
olic spirit resemble those of the great 
apostle to the Gentiles ; and his gospel 
represents Christ as the compassionate 
Friend of sinners, the Saviour of the 
world. It appears to have been written 
primarily for Theophilus, some noble 
Greek or Roman, and its date is gener- 
ally supposed to be about a. d. 63. 

Gospel of John. The ancient writers 
all make this gospel the latest. Some 
place its publication! in the first year of 
8* 



the emperor Nerva, a. d. 96, sixty-seven 
years after our Saviour's death, and 
when John was now more than eighty 
years of age. The gospel of John re- 
veals Christ as the divine and divinely 
appointed Redeemer, the Son of God 
manifested in flesh. It is a spiritual, rath- 
er than historical gospel, omitting many 
things chronicled by the other evange- 
lists, and containing much more than 
they do as to the new life in the soul 
through Christ, union with him, regen- 
eration, the resurrection, and the work 
of the Holy Spirit. The spirit of the 
' ' disciple whom Jesus loved ' ' pervades 
this precious gospel. It had a special 
adaptation to refute the Gnostic heresies 
of that time, but is equally fitted to 
build up the church of Christ in all gen- 
erations. 

GOURD. It has been supposed that 
Jonah's gourd was the Ricinus Commu- 
nis, or castor-oil plant. It grows in the 
East to the height of eight to twelve feet, 
and one species much higher. Its leaves 
are large, and have six or seven divis- 



-*;^ 




THE CASTOR-OIL PLANT. 

ions, whence its name of Palma Christi. 
Since, however, it is now known that 
in the vicinity of the ancient Nine- 
veh, a plant of the gourd kind is com- 
177 



GOZ 



BIBLE DICTIONARY, 



GRA 



monly trained to run over structures of 
mud and brush, to form booths in which 
the gardeners may protect themselves 
from the terrible beams of the Asiatic 
sun, this goes far to show that this vine, 
called in the Arabic kera, is the true 
gourd of Jonah. If the expression, 
"which came up in a night," Jonah 
4:10, is to be understood literally, it in- 
dicates that God " prepared " the gourd, 
ver. 6, by miraculously quickening its 
natural growth. 

The WILD GOUKD is a poisonous plant, 
conjectured to mean the colocynth, which 
has a cucumber-like vine, with several 
branches, and bears a fruit of the size 
and color of an orange, Avith a hard, 
Avoody shell, within which is the white 
meat or pulp, exceedingly bitter, and 
a drastic purgative, 2 Kin. 4 : 39. It 
was very inviting to the eye, and fur- 
nished a model for the carved ' ' knops ' ' 
of cedar in Solomon's temple, 1 Kin. 
C:18; 7:24. 

GO'ZAN, now the Ozan, a river of 
Media and the adjacent district, Isa. 
37 : 12, to which Tiglath-pileser and 
afterwards Shalmanezer sent the captive 
Israelites, 2 Kin. 17 : 6 ; 1 Chr. 5 : 26. 
The Kizzil-ozan, or Golden river, is in 
the north-west part of Persia, and flows 
north-east, with lai'ge curves, into the 
Caspian sea. 

GRACE, favor, mercy. Divine grace is 
the free and undeserved love and favor 
of God towards man as a sinner, especial- 
ly as exhibited in the plan of redemption 
through Jesus Christ, John 1:17 ; 3:16 ; 
Rom. 3 : 24-26. It is only by the free 
grace of God that we embrace the offers 
of mercy, and appropriate to ourselves 
the blessings graciously purchased by 
redeeming blood. 

The "GRACE OF God," spontaneous, 
immerited, self-directed, and almighty, 
is the source of the whole scheme of re- 
demption, Rom. 11:6; 2 Tim. 1:9. With 
it are united "the grace of our Lord 
Jesus Christ," who gave himself for sin- 
ners ; and that of "the Spirit of grace," 
by whom alone the grace offered by the 
Father and purchased by the Son is effec- 
tually applied. Thus grace in man, or 
all true holiness, 2 Pet. 3 : 18, is traced 
up to the grace of God as its only source ; 
and the gospel of Christ and the work of 
the Spirit — both pure grace — ai'e its only 
channels of communication. Hence also 
all the fruits and blessings of the gospel 
178 



are termed graces, 2 Cor. 8:7 ; Phil, 1:7 ; 
not only regeneration, pardon, enlight- 
enment, sanctihcation, etc., but miracu- 
lous, official, and prophetic gifts, the 
peculiar traits of Christian character, 
and everlasting salvation, 1 Pet. 1:13. 
In Gal. 5:4, "grace" means, God's plan 
of salvation by his mercy, not by om- 
works. 

GRAIN. See Corn. 

GRAPES, the fruit of the vine. The 
grapes of Palestine were very fine, of 
great size and high flavor, Num. 13:24. 
At present, and probably the same has 
always been true, the wine that is made 
requires but a small part of the annual 
yield of the vines. Dr. Robinson says, 
" No wine is made from the very exten- 
sive vineyards of Hebron, except a little 
by the Jews." While yet green, grapes 
are used for food in various ways ; and 
are dried in the sun, or their juice pre- 
served in bottles, to secure a pleasant 
vegetable tart all the year round. Num. 
6:4. Ripe grapes may be had in Syria 
four or five months, Lev. 26 : 5 ; and 
when the season closes many are hung 
up in clusters, suitably protected, and 
remain without drying up all through 
the winter. Grapes are exceedingly 
cheap, and form no small part of the 
ordinary food. Ripe grapes are also 
dried into raisins ; and after the hang- 
ing grapes are gone, the raisins are used 
until the return of new grapes. 

Besides the law which protected the 
first three years' growth of the vine, (see 
Fruits,) there was another law requiring 
the Jews to leave the gleanings of their 
vineyards for the poor. Lev. 19 : 10, 23. 
The law also allowed one who was pass- 
ing a vineyard to pick a few grapes to eat 
on the spot, but not to carry any away, 
Deut. 23 : 24. Everywhere we encounter 
proofs of the admirable humanity that 
characterized the Mosaic legislation. A 
vineyard nearly stripped of its clustered 
treasures was a frequent image of deso- 
lation, Isa. 17:6; 24:13; Obad. 5. See 
Vine. 

"Wild grapes" were the fruit of a 
wild vine, probably the Vitis Labrusca 
of Linnaeus, the wild claret-grape. The 
fruit of the wild vine is called cenanthes, 
or the flower of wine. They never ripen, 
and are good only for verjuice. In Isa. 
5:2, 4, God complains of his people 
whom he had planted as a choice vine, 
an excellent plant, that he had a right to 



GRA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



GRE 



require of them good fruit, but they had 
brought forth only wild grapes — fruit of 
a bad smell, and a bad taste. 

GRASS sometunes means any green 
herbage, Isa. 15:6, and sometimes the 
usual food of cattle, Psa. 10^:14. The 
quick growth of grass, its tenderness, 
and its rapid combustion when dry, have 
furnished the sacred writers with some 
of their most appropriate illustrations. 



Psa. 90 : 5, 6 ; 9:^ 



103:15, 16; Isa. 



40:6-8; 51:12; James 1:10; 1 Pet. 1:24. 
A-ll sorts of grass and small shrubs are 
still used in Syria for fuel, on account of 
the scarcity of wood, Matt. 6 : 28-30. 
Travellers in that country often see grass 
growing on the housetops, the roofs 
being llat and coated with earth trodden 
hard. Such grass quickly withers when 
the rainy season is over, Psa. 129 : 6, 7 ; 
Isa. 37:27. 

GRASS'HOPPER, a kind of locust, and 
so called in 2 Chr. 7:13. It was some- 
times used for food, Lev. 11 ; 22. Indi- 
vidually they are insignificant and timid 
creatures, Num. 13:33, and their worth- 
lessness furnishes a striking comparison 
m Isa. 40:22 ; Avhile the feebleness of age 
is expi-essed by inability to endure them, 
Eccl. 12 : 5. Yet coming in great num- 
bers, they are destructive to all herb- 
age, Amos 7:1. See Locust. 

GJIEECE, in the Old Testament, is put 
for the Hebrew word Javan, which is 
equivalent to Ionia, and seems to include 
not only Greece but western Asia Minor, 
and the intervening isles, all settled by 
the Ionian race. Gen. 10:2. Greece prop- 
er, however, is chietiy intended. It is 
not often mentioned in the Old Testa- 
ment, Dan. 8 : 21 ; 10 : 20 ; 11:2; Joel 
3:6; Zech. 9:13. See Javan. 

In the New Testament, Greece is call- 
ed Hellas, a name supposed to have be- 
longed first to a single city, but at length 
applied to the whole country south of 
Macedonia. About b c. 146, the Ro- 
mans conquered Greece, and afterwards 
organized two great provinces, namely, 
Macedonia, including Macedonia proper, 
Thessaly, Epirus, and Illyricum ; and 
Achaia, including all the country which 
lies south of the former province. (See 
Achaia.) In Acts 20:2, Greece is prob- 
ably to be taken in its widest accepta- 
tion, as including the whole of Greece 
proper and the Peloponnesus. This 
country was bounded north by Macedo- 
Qia and Illyricum, from which it was 



separated by mountains, south by tho 
Mediterranean sea, east by the iEgean 
sea, and west by the Ionian sea. It was 
generally known under the three great 
divisions of Peloponnesus, Hellas, and 
Northern Greece. 

Peloponnesus, more anciently called 
Pelasgia, and Argos, and now the Morea, 
was the southern peninsula ; it included 
the famous cities, Sparta, Mcssene, Elis, 
Corinth, Argos, etc. The division of 
Hellas, which now constitutes a great 
part of Livadia, included the following 
cities: Athens, Megara, Plata?a, Delphos, 
and Actium. Northern Greece included 
Thessaly and Epirus, with the cities La- 
rissa, Nicopolis, etc. The large islands 
of Crete and Euboea belonged to Greece, 
as well as most of those in the Archipel- 
ago and on the west. 

The Jews and the Greeks appear to 
have had little intercourse with each 
other, until after Alexander the Great 
overran Egypt, Syria, and the East. 
They then began to come in contact 
everywhere, for both races were widely 
dispersed. The Jews extended the name 
of Greeks to include the people conquer- 
ed and ruled by Greeks ; and the word 
is thus nearly synonymous in the New 
Testament with Gentiles, Mark 7:26; 
Acts 20 : 21 ; Rom. 1 : 16. The term 
"Grecian" or Hellenist, on the con- 
trary, denotes a Jew by birth or religion, 
w^ho spoke Greek. It is used chiefly of 
foreign Jews and proselytes, in contrast 
w'ith the Hebrews, that is, those speak- 
ing the vernacular Hebrew, or Aramaean, 
Acts 6:1; 9 : 29. The Greeks were a viva- 
cious, acute, and polished, but superficial 
people, compared with the Jews. They 
excelled in all the arts of war and peace ; 
but were worshippers of beauty, not of 
duty. Their pride of intellect, and their 
corruption of morals, were almost insur- 
mountable obstacles to their reception 
of Christianity. Yet it was among the 
Greek cities and people that Paul chiefly 
labored, and with great success. Many 
flourishing churches were, in early times, 
established among them ; and there 
can be no doubt that they, for a long 
time, preserved the apostolic customs 
with much care. At length, however, 
opinions fluctuated considerably on 
points of doctrine ; schisms and heresies 
divided the church ; and rancor, vio- 
lence, and even persecution followed in 
their train. To check these evils, coun- 
179 



GRI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HAB 



cils were called and various creeds com- 
posed. The removal of the seat of gov- 
ernment from Rome to Constantinople, 
gave a preponderance to the Grecian dis- 
tricts of the empire, and the ecclesiasti- 
cal determinations of the Greek church 
were extensively received. In the mid- 
dle of the eighth century disputes arose, 
which terminated in a permanent schism 
between the Greek and Latin churches. 
The Greek church has a general resem- 
blance to the Roman-catholic, and em- 
braces a population of not far from fifty 
millions of souls, in Russia, Greece, Tur- 
key, Syria, etc. 

The' Greek language is the original 
language of all the books of the New 
Testament, except perliaps the gospel by 
Matthew ; but the sacred authors have 
followed that style of writing which was 
used by the Hellenists, or Grecizing 
Hebrews, adopting many idioms and 
turns of speech from the Syriac and He- 
brew languages, very different from the 
classical style of the Greek writers. 
They were also obliged to make use of 
some new words, and new applications 
of old words, to express religious ideas 
before unknown to the Greeks, and for 
which they had no proper expression. 
After Alexander the Great, Greek be- 
came the language best known through- 
out the East, and was generally used in 
commerce. As the sacred authors had 
in view the conversion not only of the 
Jews, then scattered throughout the 
East, but of the Gentiles also, it was nat- 
ural for them to write to them in Greek, 
that being a language to which all were 
of necessity accustomed. 

GRIND. See Corn. 

GROVES were very early used for re- 
ligious worship. Gen. 21:33. "The 
groves were God's first temples," and 
seem naturally fitted for such purposes. 
Groves were also resorted to by hea- 
then idolaters. Some elevated spot 
was generally chosen for this purpose. 
*'They sacrifice upon the tops of moun- 
tains, and burn incense upon the hills ; 
under oaks and poplars and elms, be- 
cause the shadow thereof is good," Hos. 
4: 13. It should be noticed, however, that 
the Hebcew word Asherah, which occurs 
in many passages, and is rendered grove 
in the English version, rather signifies an 
image of Astarte, I Kin. 18:19 ; 2 Kin. 
13 : 6 ; etc. See Ashtoreth. The ' ' high 
places ' ' spoken of in Scripture were used 
180 



first, for the worship of Jehovah, 1 Kin. 
3:3, 4 ; etc. This was, strictly speaking, 
an irregularity, since, according to the 
law of Moses, every sacrifice was required 
to be brought to the altar of the sanc- 
tuary, Lev. 17:8, 9 ; Deut. 11 : 13, 16. 
The "high places" were also used, 
secondly, for the worship of idols, 2 Kin. 
23:15, etc. 



H. 



HABAK'KUK, one of the minor proph- 
ets. Of his life we know nothing, except 
that he appears to have been contempo- 
rary wdth Jeremiah, and to have proph- 
esied about 610 B. c. , shortly before Neb- 
uchadnezzar's first invasion of Judea, 
2 Kin. 24:1. 

The BOOK OF Habakkuk consists of 
three chapters, which all constitute one 
oracle. In the first chapter, he foretells 
the woes which the rapacious and terri- 
ble Chaldeans would soon inflict upon 
his guilty nation. In the second, he 
predicts the future humiliation of the 
conquerors. The thiid is a sublime and 
beautiful ode, in which the prophet im- 
plores the succor of Jehovah in view of 
his mighty works of ancient days, and 
expresses the most assured trust in him. 
Nothing, even in Hebrew poetry, is 
more lofty and grand than this trium- 
phal ode. 




HABER'GEON, Neh. 4:16, Job 41:26, 
a coat of mail ; an ancient piece of de- 
fensive armor, in the form of a coat or 
tunic, descending from the neck to the 



HAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HAL 



middle of the body, and formed of tough 
hide, or many quilted linen folds, or of 
scales of brass overlapping each other 
like fishes' scales, or of small iron rings 
or meshes linked into each other, Ex. 
28:82; 39:23. 

HA'BOR, or Ciiabor. a city of Media, 
near which Tiglath-pileser, and after- 
wards iShalmanezer located portions of 
the captive Israelites. It is thought to 
have stood where the town of Abhar 
now exists on a branch of the river Go- 
zan, 2 Kin. 17:6; 18:11. 

HA'DAD, I. , an Idumean prince, who 
defeated the Midianites in the plains of 
Moab; Gen. 36:35; 1 Chr. 1:16. 

II. A second prince of Edom, men- 
tioned in 1 Chr. 1:51. 

III. Another Edomite of the royal 
family, who fled to Egypt while young, 
upon David's conquest of Edom, 2 Sam. 
8:1-1; was well received, and married 
the queen's sister. After the death of 
David and Joab, he returned to Edom 
and made an ineflectual effort to throw 
off the yoke of Solomon, 1 Kin, 11:14- 
22; 2Chr. 8:17. 

HADADE'ZER, or Hadake'zer, a pow- 
erful king of Syria, reigning in Zobah 
and the surrounding country, even to 
the Euphrates, 1 Kin. 11:23. He w^as 
thrice defeated and his power overthrown 
by David, 2 Sam. 8 : 3, 4 ; 10 : 6-14, 16- 
19; 1 Chr. 18:3; 19:6. 

HADAD-RIM'MON, a place in the 
valley of Megiddo, where the good king 
Josiah lost his life in a battle with the 
Ethiopians, 2 Kin. 23:29 ; 2 Chr. 35:20- 
25. The lamentation over this event 
was very great, Zech. 12:11. 

HADO'RAM. See Adoniram. 

HA'GAR, stranger, an Egyptian bond- 
maid in the household of Sarah, Gen. 
12:16, who, being barren, gave her to 
Abraham for a secondary wife, that by 
her, as a substitute, she might have 
children, in accordance with the customs 
of the East in that age. The history of 
Hagar is given in Gen. 16 ; 17 ; 21. In 
an allegory, Paul makes Hagar represent 
the Jewish church, which was in bond- 
age to the ceremonial law ; as Sarah 
represents the true church of Christ, 
which is free from this bondage. Gal. 
4 : 24. Her name is much honored among 
the Arabs claiming to be her descend- 
ants. 

HAGARENES', or Ha'garites, 1 Chr. 
5:10, 20, descendants of Hagar and Ish- 



mael. In Psa. 83:6, the name seems to 
be given to a distinct portion of the Ish- 
maelites. 

HAG'GAI, one of the minor prophets, 
probably accompanied Zerubbabel in the 
lirst return of the Jews from Babylon, 
B. c. 536. He began to prophesy in the 
second year of Darius Hystaspis, b. c. 
520 ; and the object of his prophesying 
was to excite his countrymen to begin 
again the building of the temple, Avhich 
had been so long interrupted. In this 
he was successful, Darius having grant- 
ed a decree for this purpose, Ezra 6. The 
exceeding glory of the second temple 
was, as he foretold, that Christ "the 
Desire of all nations ' ' came into it, and 
made the place of his feet glorious, Hag. 
2:7-9. 

HAIL ! a salutation, importing a wish 
for the welfare of the person addressed. 
It is now seldom used among us ; but 
was customary among our Saxon ances- 
tors, and imported "joy to you," or 
"health to you," including in the term 
health all kinds of prosperity. 

HAIL-STONES, are drops of rain form- 
ed into ice by the power of cold in the 
upper regions of the atmosphere. Hail 
w^as among the plagues of Egypt, Ex. 
9:24, and was the more terrible, because 
it rarely occurred in that country. Hail 
was also made use of by God for defeat- 
ing an army of Canaanites, Josh. 10:11; 
and is used figuratively to represent ter- 
rible judgments, Isa. 28:2; Rev. 16:21. 

HAIR. The Jewish men, except Naz- 
arites. Num. 6:5, 9, and cases like that 
of Absalom, 2 Sam. 14:26, cut their hair 
moderately short, 1 Cor. 11:14, and ap- 
plied fragrant ointments to it, Ex. 30 : 30- 
33 ; Psa. 23 : 5 ; Eccl. 9:8. In mourn- 
ing they wholly neglected it, or shaved 
it close, or plucked it out by handfuls, 
Jer. 7:29. "Women prized a tine head of 
hair, and plaited, perfumed, and decked 
it in many ways, Isa. 3:18, 24; 1 Cor. 
11:15, so much as to call for apostolic 
interdictions, 1 Tim. 2 : 9 ; 1 Pet. 3 : 9. 
"Hair like women's" characterized the 
locusts of antichrist. Rev. 9:8. Lepers, 
when cleansed, and Levites, on their con- 
secration, shaved the whole body, Lev. 
13; 14:8. 9. 

HALAH, 2 Kin. 17:6. See Habor. 

HALLELU'JAH, and in the New Tes- 
tament, Alleluiah, Praise ye Jehovah. 
This word occurs at the beginning and 
at the end of many psalms. It was also 
181 



HAL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HAN 



sung on solemn days of rejoicing, as an 
expression of joy and praise, and as such 
it has been adopted in the Christian 
church, and is still used in devotional 
psalmody. Rev. 19:1, 3, 4, 6. 

HAL'LOW, to render sacred, set apart, 
consecrate. The English word is from 
the Saxon, and means to make holy : hence 
hallowed persons, things, places, rites, 
etc. ; hence also the name, power, and 
dignity of God are hallowed, that is, rev- 
erenced as holy. 

HAM, hurnt, swarthy^ black, I., a son of 
Noah, Gen. 5 : 32 ; 7 : 13 ; 9 : 18 ; 10 : 1. 
The impiety revealed in his conduct tow- 
ards his father, drew upon him, or rath- 
er, according to the Bible statement, on 
his son Canaan, a prophetic malediction, 
Gen. 9 : 20-27. Ham was the father of 
Cush, Mizraim, Phut, and Canaan, that 
is, the ancestor of the Canaanites, South- 
ern Arabians, Ethiopians, Egyptians, and 
the Africans in general. Gen. 10:G-20. 

II. A poetical name for Egypt, Psa. 
78:51; 106:22. 

III. An imknown place of the Zuzim, 
Gen. 14:5. 

HA'Mx\N, a favorite of Ahasuerus, king 
of Persia. In order to revenge himself 
upon Mordecai the Jew, he plotted the 
extermination of all the Jews in the 
kingdom ; but in the providence of God 
he was thwarted by Esther, fell into dis- 
grace with the king, and wrought his 
own ruin and the upbuilding of the 
Jews. He is called an Agagite ; and as 
Agag was a common name of the Ama- 
lekite kings, the Jews believe he was of 
that race. This would help to explain 
his malice against the Jews. See Amalek- 
iTES. Similar wholesale slaughters are 
still plotted in Asia, and the whole narra- 
tive is confirmed and illustrated by the 
descriptions of eastern life furnished by 
modern travellers in the same region. 
The death of Haman took place about 
485 B. c. His eventful history shows 
that pride goes before destruction ; that 
the providence of God directs all things ; 
that his people are safe in the midst of 
perils ; and that his foes must perish. 

HA'MATH, a celebrated city of Syria. 
Hamath, like Jerusalem and Damascus, 
is one of the few places in Syria and Pal- 
estine which have retained a certain de- 
gree of importance from the very earliest 
ages to the present time. The name oc- 
curs in Gen. 10:18, as the seat of a Ca- 
naanitish tribe ; and it is often mention- 
182 



ed as the northern limit of Canaan in its 
widest extent, Num. 13:21; Josh. 13:5; 
Judg. 3:3. In David's time, Toi king 
of Hamath was his ally, 2 Sam. 8:9, 10. 

Burckhardt describes Hamath as ' ' sit- 
uated on both sides of the Orontes ; a 
part of it is built on the declivity of a 
hill, and a part in the plain. The town 
is of considerable extent, and must con- 
tain at least 30,000 inhabitants. There 
are four bridges over the Orontes in the 
town. The river supplies the upper 
town with water by means of buckets 
fixed to high wheels, which empty them- 
selves into stone canals, supported by 
lofty arches on a level with the upper 
part of the town. There are about a 
dozen of the wheels ; the largest of them 
is at least seventy feet in diameter. The 
principal trade of Hamath is with the 
Arabs, Avho buy here their tent furniture 
and clothes. The government of Ha- 
math comprises about one hundred and 
twenty inhabited villages, and seventy 
or eighty which have been abandoned. 
The western part of its territory is the 
granary of northern Syria, though the 
harvest never yields more than ten for 
one, chiefly in consequence of the im- 
mense numbers of mice, which some- 
times Avholly destroy the crops. " " The 
entering in of Hamath ' ' is the northern 
part of the valley Avhich leads up to it 
from Palestine, between Lebanon and 
Anti-Lebanon, Num. 13:21; IKin. 8:65. 

HANANEEL', a kinsman of Jeremiah, 
from whom the prophet bought a piece 
of ground before the captivity, and had 
the legal record made, in token of his 
prophetic assiu-ance that his people would 
return to their possessions, Jer. 32:6-12. 

HANA'NI, L, a seer in the time of 
Asa, 955-914 b. c, imprisoned for his 
fidelity. He was also the father of the 
prophet Jehu, 1 Kin. 16 : 1-7 ; 2 Chr. 
16:7-10; 19:2; 20:34. 

II. A brother of Nehemiah, who 
brought to Babylon an account of the 
wretched state of the Jews then at Jeru- 
salem, and afterwards had charge of the 
gates of the city, Neh. 1:1-3; 7 : 2, 3, 
B. c. 455. 

HANANIAH, I., a false prophet of 
Gibeon, who for his impious hardihood 
was overtaken with speedy death, accord- 
ing to the word of God, Jer. 28:15-17. 

II. The Hebrew name of Shadrach. 

III. A pious and faithful officer under 
Nehemiah, Neh. 7:2. 



HAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HAR 



HAND is often put for strength, power ; 
so to be "in the hand" of any one, is 
to be in his power. Joining hands, or 
striking hands, is a very common meth- 
od of pledging one's self to a contract or 
bargain ; just as persons among us often 
shake hands in token of an agreement. 
To • ' lift the hand, ' ' means to make oath. 
"At the right hand of God," is the place 
of honor, power, and happiness, Psa. 
16:11; 45:9; 110:1; Matt. 26:64; Col. 
3:1. The right hand meant towards the 
south, the Jews being wont to speak as 
if facing the east. The "laying on of 
hands," signified consecration to office, 
and the bestowal of a blessing or of di- 
vine gifts, Gen. 48 : 14 ; Num. 8 : 10 ; 
27:18 ; Mark 10 : 16 ; Acts 6:6; 19 : 6 ; 
1 Tim. 4:14. The hands of the high- 
priest laid upon the scape-goat, as if 
transferring the guilt of the people to 
his head, represented the work wrought 
by Christ in order that the sinner might 
not be ' ' driven away in his wickedness. ' ' 
See Washing. 

HA'NES, a city of Egypt, Isa. 30 : 4, 
thought to be the modern Ehnes, in 
middle Egypt on the Nile. 

HANNAH, the pious wife of a Levite 
of Ramathaim-Zophim, named Elkanah, 
and mother of Samuel, b. c. 1171. She 
had earnestly besought the Lord for liim, 
and freely devoted him to serve God ac- 
cording to her vow. She was afterwards 
blessed with three other sons and two 
daughters, 1 Sam. 1-2:21. 

HAN UN, a king of the Ammonites, 
■whose father Nahash had befriended Da- 
vid in his early troubles. Upon the death 
of Nahash, David sent an embassage to 
condole with his son. The shameful 
treatment received by these ambassadors 
led to a destructive war upon the Am- 
monites, 2 Sam. 10; 1 Chr. 19. 

HARA, IChr. 5:26, probably a moun- 
tainous region in the northern part of 
Media. 

HARAN, I. , the eldest son of Terah, 
brother of Abraham, and father of Lot, 
Milcah, and Iscah. He died before his 
flither Terah, Gen. 11:26-31. 

II. An ancient city, called in the New 
Testament Charran, in the north-west 
part of Mesopotamia. Here, after leav- 
ing Ur, Abraham dwelt till his father 
Terah died ; and to this old homestead 
Isaac sent for a wife, and Jacob fled from 
the wrath of Esau, Gen. 11:31, 32 ; 12:5 ; 
24 ; 27 :43 ; 28 : 10 ; 29 : 4. Haran was 



ravaged by the Assyrians in the time of 
Hezekiah, 2 Kin. 19 : 12 ; Isa. 37 : 12. 
Here also Crassus the Roman general 
was defeated and killed by the Parthi- 
ans. Harran, as it is now called, is sit- 
uated on a branch of the Euphrates, in 
36° 52' N. lat., and 39° 5' E. long., in a 
flat and sandy plain, and is only peopled 
by a few wandering Arabs, who select it 
for the delicious water it furnishes. 




THE COMMON HARE OF PALESTINE. 

HARE, of the same genus as the rab- 
bit, prohibited to the Jcm^s for food. Lev. 
11:6, because, though it " cheweth the 
cud, " it " divideth not the hoof. ' ' No 
species of hare is known which strictly 
chews the cud. There were several va- 
rieties of the hare in Syria. 

HAR'LOT, an abandoned woman, Prov. 
29 : 3 ; a type of idolatrous nations and 
cities, Isa. I : 21 ; Ezek. 16 ; Nah. 3 : 4. 
Among the Jews, prostitutes were often 
foreigners ; hence their name of "strange 
women." They were often devoted to 
heathen idols, and their abominations 
Avere a part of the worship. Num. 25:1- 
5 ; Hos. 4:14; a custom from the defile- 
ment of Avhich the house of God was ex- 
pressly defended, Deut. 23:18. 

HAR'NESS, a suit of defensive armor, 
I Kin. 20 : 11 ; 2 Chr. 18 : 33. The He- 
brews went out from Egypt "harness- 
ed," that is, properly equipped or ar- 
ranged. 

HAROD, a spring near Jezreel and 
moiint Gilboa, Judg. 7:1 ; 2 Sam. 23:25. 

HARO'SHETH of the Gentiles, a city 
in the north of Canaan, the residence of 
Sisera, Judg. 4:2 ; 13 ; 16. The mission- 
ary Thompson finds its ruins at a place 
still called Harothieh, the Arabic equiv- 
alent for Harosheth, on a hill command- 
ing the entrance to the narrow passage 
of the Kishon from the plain of Esdrae- 
lon to the plain of Acre. 

HARP, Hebrew kinnor, the most an- 
cient and common stringed instrument 
183 



HAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HAZ 




ANCIENT HARPS OR LYRES. 

of the Jews, more properly translated 
lyre. It was light and portable, and 
was used on joyful occasions, whether 
sacred or not. It was invented by Ju- 
bal, Gen. 4 : 21 ; 31 : 27 ; 1 Chr. 16 : 5 ; 
25:1-5; Psa. 81:2. David was a profi- 
cient in its use, 1 Sam. 16: 16, 23 ; 18: 10. 
The instrument most nearly resembling 
our harp was the Hebrew nebel, trans- 
lated psaltery in the Old Testament, 
Psa. 57:8; 81:2; 92:3; 108:2. It had 
a general triangular shape, and seven to 
twelve strings, Psa. 33 : 2 ; 144 : 9. It 
was played with the hand, or Avith a 
short iron rod or plectrum, according to 
its size. The Jews had other stringed 
instruments, like the guitar and lute, 
but little can be accurately determined 
respecting their form, etc. See Music. 

HAPtT, or Stag, a species of deer, clean 
by the Levitical law, Deut. 12:15, and 
celebrated for its elegance, agility, and 
grace. Song 2:9; Isa. 85:6. See Hind, 
and Roe. 

HATE often denotes in Scripture only 
a less degree of love. Gen. 29 : 30, 31 ; 
Deut. 21:l5; Prov. 13:24; Mai. 1:2, 3: 
Luke 14 : 26 ; Rom. 9 : 13. God has a 
just and perfect abhorrence of sin and 
sinners, Psa. 5:5. But hatred in gen- 
eral is a malevolent passion, Gal. 5:20, 
and no one who is not perfect in love, 
can hate without sin. 

HAU'RAN, Ezek. 47:16, was original- 
ly a small district south of Damascus, 
and east of the sea of Tiberias, but was 
afterwards extended to the south and 
east, and under the Romans was called 
Auranitis. It now includes the ancient 
Trachonitis, the Haouran, Ituraa, and 
part of Batan;5ea, and is very minutely 
described by Burckhardt. Many ruins 
of cities, with Greek inscriptions, are 
scattered over its rugged surface. 
184 



HAVI'LAH. The Scriptures mention 

a Havilah descended from Ham, Gen. 

10 : 7, and another from Shem, Gen. 

11:29. We must assume a double Havi- 

i lah, corresponding to each of these. 

1. The location of one Havilah is con- 
nected with that of the garden of Eden. 
According to one theory, it is to be sought 
on the south-eastern extremity of the 
Black sea ; according to another, at the 
head of the Persian gulf. See Eden. 

2. The other Havilah seems to have 
been in Arabia. From the statement in 

1 Sam. 15:7, that " Saul smote the Am- 
alekites from Havilah unto Shur, that is 
over against Egypt," it would seem to 
have been somewhere in the north-west- 
ern part of Arabia ; since, from the cir- 
cumstances of this campaign, we cannot 
well suppose that it extended over a great 
tract of country. 

HA'YOTH-JAIR', huts of Jair, a dis- 
trict in Gilead, containing thirty ham- 
lets belongmg to the thirty sons of Jair, 
judges of Israel, Num. 32 : 41 ; Judg. 
10:3, 4. 

HAWK, or Falcon, a strong- winged 
and rapacious bird, of several species in 
Syria ; unclean for the Hebrews, Lev. 
11 : 16, but sacred among the Greeks and 
Egyptians. In its migrations, it illus- 
trates the wise providence of the Crea- 
tor, Job 39:26. 

HAY, in Prov. 27:25 and Isa. 15:6, 
denotes the first shoots of grass. The 
Jews did not prepare and store up hay 
for winter use, as is customary in cold 
climates. 

HAZ'AEL, an officer of Benhadad king 
of Syria, whose future accession to the 
throne was revealed to the prophet Eli- 
jah, 1 Kin. 19: 15. Many years after- 
wards he was sent by Benhadad to con- 
sult Elisha, then at Damascus, as to his 
recovery from sickness, and on the next 
day smothered the king with a wet cloth, 

2 Kin. 8 : 7-15, b. c. 885. His discom- 
posure under the eye of the prophet was 
an indication that he had already medi- 
tated this crime. Having usurped the 
throne, he reigned forty years ; and by 
his successful and cruel wars against Ju- 

• dah and Israel justified the forebodings 
of Elisha, 2 Kin. 8 : 28 ; 10 : 32 ; 12 : 17 ; 
13:3, 7; 2 Chr. 22:5. 

HAZ'ERIM, an ancient abode of the 
A vim, apparently in the north-western 
part of Arabia PetrjBa, Deut. 2:23. 

HAZ'EROTH, a station of the Israel- 



HAZ 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HEB 



ites, about five days' journey from mount 
Sinai, Num. 11:85. Here they remained 
a week or more, Num. 12 ; and their next 
station recorded was near Kadesli-bar- 
nea, on the borders of Canaan, Num. 
12:1G; 13:26; Deut. 1:19-21. 

HAZE'ZON-TA'MAE. See En-gedi. 

HA'ZOli, I., a chief city of northern 
Canaan, whose king Jabin, at the head 
of an allied host, was defeated by Joshua, 
Josh. ll:l-lo. Hazor revived, however, 
and for a time oppressed the Israelites ; 
but was subdued by Barak, fortified by 
Solomon, and remained in the possession 
of Israel until the invfu«ion of Tiglath- 
pileser. Josh. 19::j6 ; Judg. 4:2 ; I Kin. 



9:1: 



Kin. 15:29. It lay not far from 



lake Merom. 

II. A region in Arabia, laid waste by 
Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 49:28-oo. Its lo- 
cation is unknown. 

III. Cities in Judah and Benjamin, 
Josh. 15:23; Neh. 11:33. 

HEATH, supposed to be the Juniper, 
a low tree found in desert and rocky 
places, and thus contrasted with a tree 
growing by a water-course, Jer. 17:5-8 ; 
48:6. 

HEAVEN, in the Bible, means pri- 
marily the region of the air and clouds, 
and of the planets and stars, but chiefly 
the world of holy bliss above the visible 
heavens. It is called "the third heav- 
en," "the highest heaven," and "the 
heaven of heavens," expressions nearly 
synonymous. There holy beings are to 
dwell, seeing all of God that it is possi- 
ble for creatures to sec. Thither Christ 
ascended, to intercede for his people and 
prepare for them a place Avhere all shall 
at length be gathered, to go no more out 
for ever, Eph. 4:10 ; Heb. 8:1, ; 9:24-28. 
In this life we can know but little of the 
location and appearance of heaven, or of 
the employments and blessedness of its 
inhabitants. The Scriptures inform us 
that all sin, and every other evil, are 
for ever excluded ; no fruits of sin will 
be found there — no curse nor sorrow nor 
sighing, no tear, no death : the former 
things are passed away. They describe 
it figuratively, crowding together all the 
images which nature or art can supply 
to illustrate its happiness. It is a king- 
dom, an inheritance : there are rivers of 
pleasure, trees of life, glorious light, rap- 
turous songs, robes, crowns, feasting, 
mirth, treasures, triumphs. Tliey also 
give us positive representations : the 



righteous dwell in the presence of God ; 
they appear with Christ in glory. Heav- 
en is life, everlasting life : glory, an eter- 
nal weight of glory : salvation, repose, 
peace, fulness of joy, the joy of the Lord, 
There are difierent degrees in that glory, 
and never-ceasing advancement. It will 
be a social state, and its happines.s, in 
some measure, will arise from mutual 
communion and converse, and the ex- 
pressions and exercises of mutual benev- 
j olence. It will include the perfect purity 
■ of every saint ; delightful fellowship with 
those we have here loved in the Lord, 
Matt. 8:11; 17 : 3, 4 ; 1 Thess. 2 : 19 ; 
4:13-18 ; the presence of Christ, and the 
consciousness that all is perfect and ever- 
lasting. We are taught that the body 
will share this bliss as well as the soul : 
the consummation of our bliss is subse- 
quent to the resurrection of the body ; 
for it is redeemed as well as the soul, 
and shall, at the resurrection of the just, 
be fashioned like unto Christ's glorious 
body. By descending from heaven, and 
reascending thither, he proves to the 
doubting soul the reality of heaven ; he 
opens its door for the guilty by his aton- 
ing sacrifice ; and all who are admitted 
to it by his blood shall be made meet for 
it by his grace, and find their happiness 
for ever in his love. See Kikgdom of 

HEAVEX. 

HE'BER, L, an ancestor of the He- 
brews, Luke 3:35. See Hebrews. 

II. A Kenite, descended from Hobab, 
Moses' father-in-law. He resided in the 
northern part of Canaan, and seems to 
have been a man of note in his day. His 
wife Jael slew Sisera with her own hand, 
Judg. 4:11, 17; 5:24. 

BE'BREWS, that branch of the poster- 
ity of Abraham whose home was in the 
land of promise. The name Hebrew is 
first applied to Abraham in Gen. 14:13, 
and is generally supposed to have been 
derived from Heber, the last of the long- 
lived patriarchs. Heber outlived six 
generations of his descendants, includ- 
ing Abraham himself, after whose death 
he was for some years the only surviving 
ancestor of Isaac and Jacob. Hebrews 
appears to have been the name by which 
the Jewish people were known to for- 
eigners, in distinction from their com- 
mon domestic name, "the children of 
Israel. ' ' The name of Jews, derived from 
Judah, was afterwards applied to them 
as inhabitants of Judea, 2 Km. 16:6. 
185 



HEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HEB 



Abraham, the founder of the Jewish 
nation, was a migratory shepherd, whose 
property consisted mainly in vast flocks 
and herds, but who had no fixed resi- 
dence, and removed from place to place 
as the convenience of water and pastur- 
age dictated. As such a nomad, he had 
lived in Ur of the Chaldees, and then in 
Haran, whence he removed and dwelt in 
the same manner among the Canaanites, 
in the country which God promised to 
give to his posterity. His son and 
grandson, Isaac and Jacob, followed in 
his steps. By a miraculous arrange- 
ment of Providence, Joseph, one of the 
sons of Jacob, became grand- vizier of 
Egypt ; and in a time of famine invited 
his family to settle in that land. Here 
they dwdt four hundred and thirty 
years ; during which time the Egyptians 
reduced them to a state of bondage. 
From this they were delivered by Jeho- 
vah through Moses, who led them out 
Avith great signs and wonders to Sinai, 
where God gave them his law ; and 
then, after forty years of wanderings, he 
brought tliein to the borders of the 
promised land. Here Moses died, and 
was succeeded by Joshua, who conquer- 
ed the desired country, and allotted it 
to the several tribes. From this time 
they were governed in the name of Je- 
hovah, by chiefs, judges, or patriarchal 
rulers, until the time of Samuel ; when 
the government was changed to a mon- 
archy, and Saul anointed king. David, 
a shepherd youth, but the man after 
God's own heart, was afterwards king, 
and founded a family which continued 
to reign in Jerusalem until the entire 
subjugation of the country by the Chal- 
deans. Under his grandson Rehoboam, 
however, ten tribes revolted and formed 
a separate kingdom, that of Israel, be- 
tween Avhich and the kingdom of Judah 
there were hostile feelings and frequent 
wars. The termination of the whole was 
the carrying away of the greater part of 
both nations to Babylonia, Media, etc. 
After seventy years of exile, a few small 
colonies of Hebrews returned, and built 
another temple at Jerusalem, and at- 
tempted to reestablish their nation ; but 
they had to struggle first, under the 
Maccabees, against the kings of the Se- 
leucian race, (see Jerusalem,) and then 
against the Romans ; by whom at length, 
under Titus, Jerusalem was taken and 
utterly destroyed, a. d. 70-71. Since 
186 



that time, although Jerusalem has been 
rebuilt, the Hebrews have ceased to exist 
as an independent people ; but they are 
scattered among all the nations of the 
earth, where they retain their character- 
istic traits, and live as strangers, and, in 
a great measure, as outcasts. 

The government of the Hebrews is, 
by Josephus, called a theocracy — a form 
of government which assigns the whole 
poAver to God, with the management of 
all the national affairs — God, in fact, 
being the proper King of the state. This 
government, however, underwent sev- 
eral changes under the legislator Moses, 
his successor Joshua, the judges, the 
kings, and the high-priests. But amid 
all these revolutions, God was considered 
as the monarch of Israel, though he did 
not exercise his jurisdiction always in 
the same manner. In the time of Moses, 
he dwelt among his people as a king in 
his palace, or in the midst of his camp ; 
always ready to be consulted, promul- 
gating all needful laws, and giving spe- 
cific directions in all emergencies. This 
was, properly, the time of the theocracy, 
in the strictest sense of the term. Under 
Joshua and the judges, it continued 
nearly the same : the former being filled 
by the spirit which animated Moses, 
would undertake nothing without con- 
sulting Jehovah ; and the latter were 
leaders, raised up by God himself, to de- 
liver the Hebrews and govern in his 
name. The demand of the people for a 
king occasioned to Samuel, the proph- 
et-judge, great disquietude; for he re- 
garded it as a rejection of the theocratic 
government, 1 Sam. 8 : 6, 7. God com- 
plied with the wishes of the people ; 
but he still asserted his own sovereign 
authority, and claimed the obedience of 
all. 

The religion of the Hebrews may bo 
considered in different points of view, 
with respect to the different conditions 
of their nation. Under the patriarchs, 
they were instructed in the will of God 
by direct revelation, worshipped him by 
prayer and sacrifices, opposed idolatry 
and atheism, used circumcision as the 
appointed seal of the covenant made by 
God Avith Abraham, and folloAved the 
laws Avhich the light of grace and faith 
discovers to those Avho honestly and se- 
riously seek God, his righteousness, and 
truth. They lived in expectation of the 
Messiah, the Desire of all nations, to 



HEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HEB 



complete their hopes and wishes, and 
fully to instruct and bless them. Such 
was the religion of Abraham, Isaac, Ja- 
cob, Judah, Joseph, etc., who maintained 
the worship of God and the tradition of 
the true religion. After the time of Mo- 
ses, the religion of the Hebrews became 
more tixed, and ceremonies, days, feasts, 
])riests, and sacrifices Avere determined 
with great exactness. This whole dis- 
pensation only prefigured that more per- 
fect one which should in after-times arise, 
when the Messiah should come, and bring 
life and immortiility to light in his gos- 
pel, and make a full atonement for the 
sins of the world. See Type. 

The long abode of the Hebrews in 
Egypt had cherished in them a strong 
propensity to idolatry ; and neither the 
miracles of Moses, nor his precautions to 
withdraw them from the worship of 
idols, nor the rigor of his laAvs, nor the 
splendid marks of God's presence in the 
Israelitisli camp, were able to conquer 
this unhappy perversity. We know with 
what facility they adopted the adoration 
of the golden calf, when they had re- 
cently been eye-witnesses of such divine 
wonders. Saul and David, with all their 
authority, were not able entirely to sup- 
press such inveterate disorders. Super- 
stitions, which the Israelites did not dare 
to exercise in j)ublic, were practised in 
private. They sacrificed on the high 
places, and consulted diviners and ma- 
gicians. Solomon, whom God had cho- 
sen to build his temple, was himself a 
stone of stumbling to Israel. He erected 
altars to the false gods of the Phoinicians, 
Moabites, and Ammonites, and not only 
permitted his wives to worship the gods 
of their own country, but himself to 
some extent adored them, I Kin. 11:5-7. 
Most of his successors showed a similar 
weakness. Jeroboam introduced the 
worship of the golden calves into Israel, 
which took such deep root that it was 
never entirely extirpated. It was for 
this cause that God gave the Hebrews 
over into the hands of their enemies, to 
captivity and dispersion. See Idolatry. 
After the captivity, they appear to have 
been Avholly free from the worship of 
idols ; but they were still corrupt and far 
from God, and having filled the cup of 
their guilt by rejecting and crucifying 
the Lord of glory, they were extirpated 
as a nation and became strangers and 
sojourners over all the earth. 



For the language of the Hebrews, see 
Language. 

The existence of the Hebrews as a 
people distinct from all others, to this 
day, is a miracle of that indisputable 
kind which may well justify a few re- 
marks. 

1. They are spread into all parts of 
the earth ; being found not only in Eu- 
rope and America, but to the utmost 
extremity of Asia, even in Thibet and 
China. They abound in Persia, North- 
ern India, and Tartary, wherever travel- 
lers have penetrated. They are, as 
they assert, descendants of the tribes 
carried away captive by the Assyrian 
monarchs. They are also numerous in 
Arabia, in Egypt, and throughout Africa. 

2. In most parts of the world their 
state is much the same — one of dislike, 
contempt, and oppression. In past ages 
innumerable exactions and wrongs have 
been heaped upon them. Within the 
last few years they have received more 
justice at the hands of some of the Euro- 
pean states ; but they have usually held 
their possessions by a very precarious 
tenure. 

3. They everywhere maintain observ- 
ances peculiar to themselves : such as 
circumcision, performed after the law of 
their fathers ; the great day of expia- 
tion ; also the observance of a sabbath or 
day of rest on Saturday, and not on 
the Christian Sabbath. They have gen- 
erally retained the observance of the 
passover in some form. 

4. They are divided into various sects. 
Some of them are extremely attached to 
the traditions of the rabbins, and to the 
multiplied observances enjoined in the 
Talmud. Others, as the Cara'ites, reject 
these with scorn, and adhere solely to 
Scripture. The majority of the Jews in 
Europe, and those with whose works we 
are mostly conversant, are rabbinists, 
and may be taken as representatives of 
the ancient Pharisees. 

5. They everywhere consider Judea as 
their proper country, and Jerusalem as 
their metropolitan city. Wherever set- 
tled, and for however long, they still 
cherish a recollection of country, unpar- 
alleled among other nations. They have 
not lost it ; they will not lose it ; and 
they transmit it to their posterity. How- 
ever comfortably they may be settled in 
any residence, they hope to see Zion and 
Jerusalem revive from their ashes. 

187 



HEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HEL 



6. The number of the Jewish nation 
was estimated a few years ago, for the 
information of Buonaparte, at the fol- 
lowing amount, but from what docu- 
m^ents we know not: 

In the Turkish empire - 1,000,000 

In Persia, China, India, on the 
east and west of the Ganges-- 300,000 

In the west of Europe, Africa, 
America 1,700,000 

Total 3,000,000 

Tliis number is probably very far short 
of the truth. Maltebrun estimates them 
at from four to five millions. 

Hebrews, epistle to the. Tlie object 
of this epistle, which ranks among the 
most important of the New Testament 
books, was to prove to the Jews, from 
their own Scriptures, the divinity, hu- 
manity, atonement, and intercession of 
Christ, particularly his preeminence over 
Moses and the angels of God ; to demon- 
strate the superiority of the gospel to 
the law, and the real object and design 
of the Mosaic institution ; to fortify tlie 
minds of the Hebrew converts against 
apostasy under persecution, and to en- 
gage them to a deportment becoming 
their Christian profession. In this view, 
the epistle furnishes a key to the Old 
Testament Scriptures, and is invaluable 
as a clear elucidation and an inspired, 
unanswerable demonstration of the doc- 
trine of the great atoning Sacrifice as set 
forth in Old Testament institutions. The 
name of the writer of this epistle is no- 
where mentioned. The majority of crit- 
ics, however, refer it to the apostle Paul. 
It is also believed to have been written 
in Greek, at Rome, and about a. d. 63. 
See Paul. 

HE'BRON, one of the most ancient 
cities of Canaan, being built seven years 
before Tanis, the capital of Lower Egypt, 
Num. 13 : 22. It was anciently called 
Kirjath-arba, (see Arba,) and Mamre, 
and was a favorite residence of the patri- 
archs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Here 
too they were buried, Gen. 14 : 13-24 ; 
23:2-19; 35:27. Under Joshua and Ca- 
leb the Israelites conquered it from the 
Canaanites and Anakim, and it was after- 
wards made a Levitical city of refuge, 
Josh. 14:13-15 ; 15:13 ; 21:11, 13; Judg. 
1:10, 20. It was David's seat of govern- 
ment during the seven years when he 
reigned over Judah only, 2 Sam. 2:3; 5:5. 
Here Absalom raised the standard of re- 
volt, 2 Sam. 15:9, 10. It was fortified by 
188 



Rehoboam, and is mentioned after the 
captivity, but not in the New Testa- 
ment, Neh. 11:25. At present Hebron is 
an unwalled city of about 8,000 inhabit- 
ants, of whom some GOO are Jews, and 
the remainder Turks and Arabs. It lies 
in a deep valley and on the adjacent hill- 
side, in the ancient hill country of Ju- 
dea, about twenty miles south of Jerusa- 
lem, and 2,600 feet above the sea. Its 
modern name, El-khulil, the friend, is 
the same which the Moslems give to 
Abraham, "the friend of God;" and 
they profess to hold in their keeping the 
burial-place of the patriarchs, the ' ' cave 
of Machpelah." It is covered by a small 
mosque, surrounded by a stone structure 
60 feet high, 150 feet wide, and 200 feet 
long. Within this no Christian is per- 
mitted to enter ; but it is evidently of 
very high antiquity, and may well be 
regarded as inclosing the true site of the 
ancient tomb. Other relics of antiquity 
exist in two stone reservoirs, the larger 
133 feet square, and 21 feet deep. They 
are still in daily use ; and one of them was 
probably the "pool in Hebron," above 
which David himg up the assassins of 
Ish-bosheth, 2 Sam. 4:12. The city con- 
tains nine mosques and two synagogues. 
Its streets are narrow ; the houses of 
stone, with flat roofs surmounted by 
small domes. Large quantities of glass 
lamps and colored rings are here manu' 
factured ; also leathern bottles, raisins, 
and dibs, or grape-syrup. The environs 
of the city are very fertile, furnishing 
the finest vineyards in Palestine, numer- 
ous plantations of olive and other fruit 
trees, and excellent pasturage. See Esh- 
coL, Mamre. 

HEIF'ER. Red heifers were to be of- 
fered in sacrifice for the national sins, in 
the impressive manner described in Num. 
19: l-IO, illustrating the true sacrifice for 
sin in the person of Christ, Heb. 9:13, 
14. The well-fed heifer was a symbol of 
wanton wildness, Jer. 46 : 20 ; 60 : II ; 
Hos. 4:16. 

HEL'BON, formerly supposed to be 
Haleb, or as called in Europe, Aleppo, a 
city of Syria, about one hundred and 
eighty miles north of Damascus, and 
about eighty from the Mediterranean 
sea. In 1822, Aleppo was visited by a 
dreadful earthquake, by which it was 
almost entirely destroyed. Its present 
population is not one half of the 200,000 
it then possessed. But recently a valley 



HEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HEL 



has been found on the eastern slope of 
Anti -Lebanon, north of the Barada, call- 
ed Helbon, from one of its principal vil- 
lages. Its grapes and the wine made 
from them are still remarkable for their 
fine quality. This valley is probably the 
Helbon of Ezek. 27:18. 

HELIOP'OLIS, city of the sun, I., a cel- 
ebrated city of Egypt, called in Coptic, 
Hebrew, and the English version, On, sun, 
light. Gen. 41:45. The Seventy mention 
expressly, Ex. 1:11, that On is HeHop- 
olis. Jeremiah, 43 : 13, calls this city 
Beth-shemesh, that is, house or temple 
of the sun. In Ezekiel, 30:17, the name 
is pronounced Aven, which is the same 
as On. The Arabs called it Ain-Shems, 
fountain of the sun. All these names 
come from the circumstance that the 
city was the ancient seat of the Egyp- 
tian worship of the sun. It was in ruins 
in the time of Strabo, who mentions that 
two obelisks had already been carried 
away to Kome. At present its site, six 



miles north-north-east from Cairo, is 
marked only by extensive ranges of low 
mounds full of ruinous fragments, and a 
solitary obelisk formed of a single block 
of red granite, rising about sixty feet 
above the sand, and covered on its four 
sides with hieroglyphics. 

II. Another Heliopolis is alluded to in 
Scripture under the name of the ' ' plain 
of Aven," or field of the sun, Amos 1:5. 
This was the Heliopolis of Ccele-Syria, 
now Baalbec. Its stupendous ruins have 
been the wonder of past centuries, and 
will continue to be the wonder of future 
generations, till barbarism and earth- 
quakes shall have done their last work. 
The most notable remains are those of 
three temples, the largest of which, with 
its courts and portico, extended 1,000 
feet from east to west. A magnificent 
portico, 180 feet long, wdth twelve lofty 
and highly wrought columns, led to a 
large hexagonal court, and this to a vast 
quadrangle, 440 feet l3y 370. Fronting 




r.rixs or baalukc. 



on this, rose ten columns of the peristyle 
which surrounded the inner temple. 
There were nineteen columns on each 
side, or fifty-four in all, only six of 
which are now standing, and they were 
seven feet in diameter, and sixty-two 
feet high, besides the entablature of 



nearly fourteen feet. This temple rested 
on an immense vaulted substructure, 
rising nearly fifty feet above the ground 
outside, and in this are three stones six- 
ty-three feet long and thirteen feet higli, 
lying twenty feet above the ground. 
The temples are of Roman origin ; and 
189 



HEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



HER 



tti vastness of plan, combined with elab- 
orateness and delicacy of execution, they 
seem to surpass all others in the world. 
"They are like those of Athens for light- 
ness, but far surpass them in vastness ; 
they are vast and massive, like those of 
Thebes, but far excel them in airiness 
and grace. ' ' (Robinson. ) 

HEL'KATH-HAZZU'RIM, field of he- 
roes, a place near Gibeon, so named from 
a fatal duel-like combat, preceding a 
battle between the armies of David and 
Ish-bosheth, 2 8am. 2:16. 

HELL. The Hebrew Sheol, and the 
Greek Hades, usually translated hell, 
often signify the place of departed spir- 
its, Psa. 16:10; Isa. 14:9; Ezek. 31:16. 
Here was the rich man, after being bur- 
ied, Luke 16 : 23. The above and many 
other passages in the Old Testament 
show the futility of that opinion which 
attributes to the Hebrews an ignorance 
of a future state. 

The term hell is most commonly ap- 
plied to the place of punishment in the 
unseen world, and is usually represented 
in the Greek New Testament by the word 
Gehenna, valky of Hinnom. See Hixnom. 
In 2 Pet. 2:4, the rebellious angels are 
said, in the original Greek, to have been 
cast down into ' ' Tartarus, ' ' this being the 
Grecian name of the lowest abyss of Ha- 
des. Other expressions are also used, in- 
dicating the dreadfulness of the anguish 
there to be endured. It is called "outer 
darkness, " " flame, " " furnace of fire, ' ' 
"unquenchable fire," "fire and brim- 
stone," etc., Matt. 8:12; 13:42; 22:13; 
25:20, 41; Mark 9: 43-48 ; Jude 13 ; Eev. 
20: 14. The misery of hell will consist in 
the privation of the vision and love of 
God, exclusion from every source of hap- 
piness, perpetual sin, remorse of con- 
science in view of the past, malevolent 
passions, the sense of the just anger of 
God, and all other sufferings of body and 
soul which in the nature of things are the 
natural results of sin, or which the law 
of God requires as penal inflictions. The 
degrees of anguish will be proportioned to 
the degrees of guilt. Matt. 10 : 15 r 23 : 14 ; 
Luke 12:47, 48. And these punishments 
will be eternal, like the happiness of 
heaven. Tlie wrath of God will never 
cease to abide upon the lost soul, and it 
will always be "the wrath to come." 

HE'MAN, I., a celebrated sage, of the 
tribe of Judah. The period of his life is 
unknown, 1 Kin. 4:31. 
190 



II. A Kohathite Levite, to whom as a 
chief musician of the temple the eighty- 
eighth Psalm is inscribed, 1 Chr. 6:33; 
16:41. 42. 

HEM'LOCK, Hos. 10:4, Amos 6:12, 
in Hebrew, rosh, usually translated gall 
or bitterness, Deut. 32:32, and mention' 
cd in connection with wormwood, Deut. 
29 : 18 ; Jer. 9 : 15 ; 23 : 15 ; Lara. 3:19. 
It indicates some wild, bitter, and nox- 
ious plant, which it is difiicult to deter- 
mine. According to some it is the poi- 
sonous hemlock, while others consider it 
to be the poppy. 

HEN. The care of a hen to protect 
her brood from hawks, etc., illustrates 
the Saviour's tender care of his people 
when exposed to the swoop of the Ro- 
man eagle, as in all similar perils. Matt. 
23:37; 24:22. The common barn-door 
fowl is not often mentioned in Scripture, 
Mark 13: 35; 14:30; Luke 22:34; but at 
the present day they and their eggs are 
more used in Syria than any other food 
not vegetable. 

HE'NA, supposed to have been a city 
of Mesopotamia afterwards called Ana, 
at a ford of the Euphrates, 2 Kin. 18:34 ; 
19:13; Isa. 37:13. 

HEPH'ZIBAH, my delight, the mother 
of Manasseh, 2 Kin. 21:1, and a name 
given to the church, Isa. 62:4. 

HER'ESY, choice, chosen way of life 
or faith ; sect, school, party. The Greek 
word properly designates any sect or* 
party, without implying praise or cen- 
sure. So everywhere in the book of 
Acts, 5:17 ; 15:5; 26:4, 5. In the epis- 
tles it denotes a sect or party in a bad 
sense, implying a refractory spirit, as 
well as error in faith and practice, 1 Cor. 
11:19; Gal. 5:20; 2Pet.2:l. After the 
])rimitive age, the word came to signify 
simplv error in doctrine. 

HER'MAS, a Christian at Rome, Rom. 
16:14; supposed by some to have been 
the writer of the ancient work called 
"The Shepherd of Hermas" — a singular 
mixture of truth and piety with folly 
and superstition. 

HERMOG'ENES. and PHYGEL'LUS, 
fellow-laborers with Paxil in Asia Minor, 
who deserted him during his second im- 
prisonment at Rome. 2 Tim. 1 :15. 

HER'MON, a lofty mountain on the 
north-east border of Palestine, called 
also Sirion, Shenir, and Sion, (not Zion,) 
Deut. 3 : 8 ; 4 : 39. It is a part of the 
great Anti-Lebanon range ; at the point 



UER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HER 



whei'e an eastern and lower arm branches 
off, a little south of the latitude of Da- 
mascus, and runs in a southerly direction 
terminating east of the head of the sea 
of Galilee. Tliis low range is called Je- 
hel Heish. Mount Hermon is believed 
to be what is now known as Jebel esh- 
Sheikh, whose highest summit, surpass- 
ing every other in Syria, rises into the 
region of perpetual snow or ice, ten 
thousand feet above the sea. 

For a view of Hermon, see Merom. 
Professor Hackett thus describes its ap- 
pearance as seen from a hill north of 
Nazareth: "The mountain was conceal- 
ed one moment, and the next, on ascend- 
ing a few steps higlier, stood arrayed 
before me with an imposing effect which 
I cannot easily describe. It rose im- 
mensely above every surrounding object. 
The purity of the atmosphere caused it 
to appear near, though it was in reality 
many miles distant. The snow on its 
head and sides sparkled under the rays 
of the sun, as if it had been robed in a 
vesture of silver. In my mind's eye at 
that moment it had none of the appear- 
ance of an inert mass of earth and rock, 
but glowed with life and animation. It 
stood there athwart my path, like a 
mighty giant rearing his head towards 
heaven and swelling with the proud 
consciousness of strength and majesty. 
I felt how natural was the Psalmist's 
personification : ' ' Tlie north and the 
south thou hast created them ; Tabor 
and Hermon shall rejoice in thy name,' " 
Psa. 89:12. 

The ' ' little Hermon ' ' of modern trav- 
ellers, not mentioned in Scripture, is a 
shapeless mass of hills north of the 
smaller valley of Jezreel. "Hermon- 
ites," or Hermons, in Psa. 42:6, de- 
notes the peaks of the Hermon range. 

HER'OD, the name of four princes, 
Idumsjeans by descent, who governed 
either the whole or a part of Judea, 
under the Romans, and are mentioned 
in the New Testament. 

I. Hkrod the Great, Matt. 2 ; Luke 
1:5. He was the son of Antipater, an 
Idumwan, who was in high favor with 
Julius Ctcsar. At tlie age of fifteen 
years, Herod was constituted by his 
fiither procurator of Galilee under Hyr- 
canus II., who was then at the head of 
the Jewish nation ; while his brother 
Phasael was intrusted with the same 
authority over Judea. In these stations 



they were afterwards confirmed by An^ 
tony, with the title of tetrarch, about 
the year 41 b. c. The power of Hyrca- 
nus had always been opposed by his 
brother Aristobulus; and now Antigo- 
nus, the son of the latter, continued in 
hostility to Herod, and was assisted by 
the Jews. At first he was unsuccessful, 
and was driven by Herod out of the 
country ; but having obtained the aid cf 
the Parthians, he at length succeeded in 
defeating Herod, and acquired possession 
of the whole of Judea, about the year 40 
B. c. Herod meanwhile fled to Kome; 
and being there declared king of Judea 
through the exertions of Antony, he col- 
lected an army, vanquished Antigonus, 
recovered Jerusalem, and extirpated all 
the family of the Maccabees, b. c. 87. 
After the battle of Actium, in which 
his patron Antony was defeated, Herod 
i joined the party of Octavius, and was 
I confirmed by him in all his possessions. 
I He endeavored to conciliate the afiec- 
tions of the Jews, by rebuilding and dec- 
orating the temple, (see Temple,) and by 
founding or enlarging many cities and 
towns ; but the prejudices of the nation 
against a foreign yoke were only height- 
ened when he introduced quinquennial 
games in honor of Caesar, and erected 
theatres and gymnasia at Jerusalem. 
The cruelty of his disposition also was 
such as ever to render him odious. He 
put to death his own wife Mariamne, 
with her two sons Alexander and Aris- 
tobulus; and when he himself was at 
the point of death, he caused a number 
of the most illustrious of his subjects to 
be thrown into prison at Jericho, and 
exacted from his sister a promise that 
they should be murdered the moment he 
expired, in order, as he said, that tears 
should be shed at the death of Herod. 
This promise, however, was not fulfilled. 
His son Antipater was executed for con- 
spiring to poison his father; and five 
days after, Herod died, a. d. 2, aged sixty- 
eight, having reigned as king about thir- 
ty-seven years. It was during his reign 
tiiat Jesus was born at Bethlehem ; and 
Herod, in consequence of his suspicious 
temper, and in order to destroy Jesus, 
gave orders for the destruction of all the 
children of two years old and under in 
the place. Matt.' 2. This is also men- 
tioned by Macrobius. After the death 
of Herod, half of liis kingdom, includ- 
ing Judea, Idum»a, and Samaria, was 
191 



HER 



BIBLE DICT10NAll\-. 



HER 



given to his son Archelaus, with the title 
of Ethnaich ; while the remaining half 
was divided between two of his other 
sons, Herod Antipas and Philip, with the 
title of Tetrarclis ; the former having the 
regions of Gralilee and Perea, and the lat- 
ter Batanea, Trachonitis, and Auranitis. 
n. Herod Philip. See Philip. 

III. Herod An'tipas, Luke 3:1, was 
the son of Herod the Great by Malthace 
his Samaritan Avife, and own brother to 
Archelaus, along with whom he was 
educated at Rome. After the death of 
his father, he was appointed by Augus- 
tus to be tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, 
that is, the southern part of the country 
east of the Jordan, Luke 3:1, whence 
also the general appellation of king is 
sometimes given to him, Mark 6 : 14. 
The Saviour, as a Galilean, was under 
his jurisdiction, Luke 23:6-12. He first 
married a daughter of Aretas, an Arabian 
king ; but afterwards becoming enam- 
oured of Herodias, the wife of his brother 
Herod Phihp, and his own niece, he dis- 
missed his former wife, and induced He- 
rodias to leave her own husband and con- 
nect herself with him. At her instigation 
he afterwards went to Rome to ask for the 
dignity and title of king ; but being there 
accused before Caligula, at the instance 
of Herod Agrippa, his nephew and the 
brother of Herodias, he was banished to 
Lugdunum (now Lyons) in Gaul, about 
A-. D. 41, and the provinces which he gov- 
erned were given to Herod Agrippa. It 
was Herod Antipas who caused John the 
Baptist to be beheadad, Matt. 14:1-12; 
Mark 6:14-29. He also appears to have 
been a follower, or at least a favorer, of 
the sect of the Sadducees, Mark 8 : 15. 
Compare Matt. 16:6. See Herodians. 

IV. Herod Agrippa Major or I. , Acts 
12 ; 23 : 35, was a grandson of Herod the 
Great and Mariamne, and son of the 
Aristobulus who was put to death with 
his mother, by the orders of his father. 
(See above, Herod I.) On the accession 
of Caligula to the imperial throne, Agrip- 
pa was taken from prison, where he had 
been confined by Tiberius, and received 
from the emperor, a. d. 38, the title of 
king, together with the provinces which 
had belonged to his imcle Philip the 
tetrarch, (see Herod I.,) and also to the 
tetrarch Lysanias. (See Abilene.) He 
was afterwards confirmed in the posses- 
sion of these by Claudius, who also an- 
nexed to his kingdom all those parts of ' 

192 



Judea and Samaria which had formerly 
belonged to his grandfather Herod, a. d. 
43. In order to ingratiate himself with 
the Jews, he commenced a persecution 
against the Christians ; but seems to 
have proceeded no further than to put 
to death James, and to imprison Peter, 
since he soon after died suddenly and 
miserably at Csesarea, a. d. 44, Acts 12. 
He is mentioned by Josephus only under 
the name of Agrippa. 

V. Herod Agrippa Minor or II. , Acts 
25 ; 26, was the son of Herod Agrippa 
I., and was educated at Rome, under 
the care of the emperor Claudius. On 
the death of his father, when he was 
seventeen years old, instead of causing 
him to succeed to his father's kingdom, 
the emperor set him over the kingdom 
of Chalcis, which had belonged to his 
uncle Herod. He was afterwards trans- 
ferred (a. d. 53) from Chalcis, with the 
title of king, to the government of those 
provinces which his father at first pos- 
sessed, namely, Batanea, Trachonitis, 
Auranitis, and Abilene, to which several 
other cities were afterwards added. He 
is mentioned in the New Testament and 
by Josephus only by the name of Agrip- 
pa. It was before him that St. Paul was 
brought by Festus, Acts 25:13 ; 26. He 
died in the third year of Trajan's reign, 
at the age of seventy years. 

HERO'DIANS, partisans of Herod An- 
tipas, Matt. 22:16; Mark 3:6. Herod 
was dependent on the Roman power, 
and his adherents therefore maintained 
the propriety of paying tribute to Ccesar, 
which the Pharisees denied. This ex- 
plains Matt. 22:16. 

HERO'DIAS, a granddaughter of Her- 
od the Great and Mariamne, daughter 
of Aristobulus, and sister of Herod 
Agrippa I. She was fu'st married to her 
uncle Herod Philip, but afterwards aban- 
doned him and connected herself with 
his brother Herod Antipas. It was by 
her artifice that Herod was persuaded to 
cause John the Baptist to be put to 
death, she being enraged at John on ac- 
count of his bold denunciation of the 
incestuous connection which subsisted 
between her and Herod. When Herod 
was banished to Lyons, she accompanied 
him. Matt. 14 : 3, 6 ; Mark 6 : 17 ; Luke 
3:19. See Herod in. 

HER'ON. This name is put in Lev. 
11:19, Deut. 14 : 18, for a Hebrew word 
of very uncertain meaning. See Birds. 



HES 



DiBLE dictionary: 



11 1 NT 



HESIi'BON, a celebrated city of the 
Amorites, twenty miles east of the mouth 
of the Jordan, Josh. 3:10; 13:17. It 
was given to Reuben; but w^as after- 
wards transferred to Gad, and then to 
the Levites. It had been conquered from 
the Moabites by Sihon, and became his 
capital ; and was taken by the Israelites 
a little before the death of Moses, Num. 
21 : 25 ; Josh. 21 : 39. After the ten tribes 
were transplanted into the country be- 
yond the Euphrates, the Moabites recov- 
ered it, Isa. 15:4 ; Jer. 48:2, 34, 45. Its 
ruins are still called Hesban, and cover 
the sides of a hill seven miles north of 
Medeba. 

HEZEKI'AH, a pious king of Judah, 
succeeded his father Ahaz about 726 
B. c. , and died about 698 b. c. His his- 
tory is contained in 2 Kin. 18-20 ; 2 Chr. 
29-32. Compare Isa. 36-38. His reign 
is memorable for his faithful efforts to re- 
store the worship of Jehovah ; for his pride 
and presumption towards the Assyrians ; 
for the destruction of their invading host 
in answer to his prayer ; for his sickness 
and humiliation, and the prolonging of 
his life fifteen years of peace. He was 
succeeded by the unworthv Manasseh. 

HID'DEKEL, one of the rivers of Par- 
adise. Its modern name is Tigris. See 
Eden, and Euphrates. 

HTEL, God liveth, a Bethelite, who re- 
built Jericho in despite of the woe de- 
nounced five hundred years before. Josh. 
6 : 26. The fulfilment of the curse by the 
death of his children, proves the truth 
which his name signified, 1 Kin. 16:34. 

HIEKAP'OLIS, a city of Phrygia, sit- 
uated on its western border, near the 
junction of the rivers Lycus and Mean- 
der, and not far from Colosse and Lao- 
dicea. It was celebrated for its warm 
springs and baths. A Christian church 
was early established here, and enjoyed 
the ministrations of the faithful Epaph- 
ras. Col. 4:12, 13. The city is now des- 
olate, but its ruins still exhibit many 
traces of its ancient splendor. Among 
them are the remains of three churches, 
a theatre, a gymnasium, and many se- 
pulchral monuments. The white front 
of the cliffs, above which the city lay, 
has given it its present name of Pam- 
luke-kaleh, the Cotton Castle. 

HIGGAI'ON, in Psa. 9:16, is supposed 
to indicate a pause in the singing of the 
Psalm, for meditation, probably with an 
instrumental interlude. 
9 



HIGH PLACES. The ancient Ca- 
naanites, and other nations, worshipped 
the heavenly bodies and their idols upon 
hills, moimtains, and artificial eleva- 
tions. The Israelites were commanded 
to destroy these places of idol-worship, 
Deut. 12:2, but instead of this, they 
imitated the heathen, and at first wor- 
shipped Jehovah in high places, 1 Sam. 
9:12; 1 Kin. 3:4, and afterwards idols, 
! 1 Kin. 11 : 7 ; 2 Kin. 17 : 10, 11. Here 
j also they built chapels or temples, 
I "houses of the hi^h places," 1 Kin. 
I 13 : 32 ; 2 Kin. 17 : 29, and had regular 
I priests, 1 Kin. 12 : 32 ; 2 Kin. 17 : 32. 
j Different groves were sacred to differ- 
1 ent gods ; and the high places were in- 
separably linked to idolatry. Hence 
1 one reason wdiy Jehovah required the 
j festivals and sacrifices of the Jews to 
! be centred at his temple in Jerusalem ; 
j that the people of the living and only 
I true God might be delivered from the 
! temptations of the groves, and witness 
[ as one man against idolatiy. TTie proph- 
ets reproach the Israelites for worship- 
ping on the high places ; the destroying 
of which was a duty, but the honor of 
performing it is given to few princes in 
Scripture, though several of them were 
zealous I'or the laAv. Before the temple 
was built, the high places were not ab- 
solutely contrary to the law, provided 
God only was adored there. Under the 
judges, they seem to have been tolerated 
j in some exceptional cases ; and Samuel 
1 offered sacrifice in several places where 
the ark was not present. Even in Da- 
vid's time, the people sacrificed to the 
Lord at Shiloh, Jerusalem, and Gibeon. 
The high places were much frequented 
in the kingdom of Israel ; and on these 
hills they often adored idols, and com- 
mitted a thousand abommations. See 
Bamotii and Groves. 

HILKI'AH, a faithful high-priest in 
the reign of Josiah, 2 Kin. 22 ; 23. 

This was also the name of the fathers 
of Jeremiah and Eliakim, 2 Kin. 18: 18 ; 
Jer. 1:1. 

HIN, a Hebrew liquid measure ; as of 
oil, Ex. 30:24; Ezek. 45:24, or of wine, 
Ex. 29 :40 ; Lev. 23 : 13. It was the sixth 
part of an ephah or bath, and contained 
ten or eleven pints. 

HIND, the female of the hart or stag, 

a species of deer, distinguished for the 

lightness and elegance of its form. The 

hind is destitute of horns, like all the 

193 



MIX 



BIBLE DlCTlOXARr. 



II IK 




HIXD AND FAWN. 

females of this class, except the reindeer. 
In Gen. 49:21, Naphtali is compared to 
a hind roaming at liberty, or quickly 
growing up into elegance ; while the 
"goodly words" of Naphtali refer to the 
future orators, prophets, and poets of the 
tribe. A faithful and affectionate wife is 
compared to the hind, Prov. 5 : 19, as 
also ai-e swift and sure-footed heroes, 
2 Sam. 22:34; Hab. 3:19. 

HIN'NOM, that is, the valley of Hin- 
nom, or of the son of Hinnom, a nari'OAv 
valley just south of Jerusalem, running 
up -westward from the valley of the Ce- 
dron, and passing into the valley of Gi- 
hon, which follows the base of mount 
Zion north, up to the Joppa gate. It 
was well watered, and in ancient times 
most verdant and delightfully shaded 
with trees. The boundary line between 
Judah and Benjamin passed through it. 
Josh. 15 : 8 ; 18 : 6 ; Neh. 11 :30. In its 
lowest part, towards the soutli-east, and 
near the king's gardens and Siloam, the 
idolatrous Israelites made their children 
pass through the fire to Moloch, I Kin. 
11:7 ; 2 Kin. 16:3 ; Jer. 32:35. See Mo- 
loch. The phice of these abominable 
sacrifices is also called Tophet, Isa. 30:33 ; 
Jer. 7:31. According to some, this name 
is derived from the Hebrew toph, drum, 
because drums are supposed to have been 
used to drown the cries of the victims. 
But this opinion rests only on conjecture. 
King Josiah defiled the place, 2 Kin. 
23: 10. probably by making it a deposito- 
ry of filth. It has been a common opin- 
ion that the later Jews, in imitation of 
Josiah, threw into this place all manner 
ef filth, as well as the cai-casscs of ani- 
194 



mals and the dead bodies of malefactors ; 
and that with reference to either the 
baleful idolatrous fires in the worshif) of 
Moloch, or to the fires afterwards main- 
tained there to consume the mass of im- 
purities that might otherwise have occa- 
sioned a pestilence, came the figurative 
use of the fire of Gehenna, that is, valley 
of Hinnom, to denote the eternal fire in 
which wicked men and fallen spirits shall 
be punished. This supposition, how- 
ever, rests upon uncertain grounds. 

It seems clear that the later Jews bor- 
rowed their usage of the fire of the val- 
ley of Hinnom (Gehenna) to represent 
the punishment of the wicked in the 
future world directly from two passages 
of Isaiah: "For Tophet is ordained of 
old ; yea, for the king it is prepared ; he 
hath made it deep and large: the pile 
thereof is fire and much wood ; the 
breath of the Lord, like a stream of 
brimstone, doth kindle it," chap. 80:33 ; 
"And they shall go forth, and look upon 
the carcasses of the men that have trans- 
gressed against me: for their worm shall 
not die, neither shall their fire be quench- 
ed : and they shall be an abhorring unto 
all flesh," chap. 66:24. These they cor- 
rectly interpreted figuratively, as repre- 
senting the vengeance which God would 
take on his enemies and the oppressors 
of his people. That the prophet, in this 
terrible imagery, alluded to any fire kept 
perpetually burning in the valley of Hin- 
nom, has not been clearly proved. But 
however this may le, it is certain that 
the Jews transferred the name Gehenna, 
that is, valley of Hinnom, to the place in 
which devils and wicked men are to be 
punished in eternal fire, and m hich in the 
New Testament is alwavs translated hell, 
Matt. 5:22, 29, £0; 10:28; Mark 9:43, 
45, 47 ; Luke 12 : 5 ; James 3 : 6. Fee Hell. 

Tlie rocks on the south side of Hinnom 
are full of gaping apertures, the mouths 
of tombs once filled with the dead, but 
now vacant. 

HI'RAM, or Hu'eam, I., a king of 
Tyre, who sent to congratulate David 
on his accession to the throne, and aided 
him in building his palace. 2 Sam. 5:11 ; 
1 Chr. 14:1. He seems to have been the 
Abibal of secular history. 

II. A king of Tyre, probably a son of 
the former, 2 Chr. 2:13, and like him a 
friend of David. He congratulated Sol- 
omon at the commencement of his reign, 
and furnished essential aid in building 



HIS 



BIBLE DICTIONAIIY. 



11 OL 



the temple. He provided timber and 
stones, together with gold to an immense 
amomit, and received in return large 
supplies of corn, wine, and oil, with twen- 
ty cities in Galilee, 1 Kin. 5 ; 2 Chr. 2. 
See Cabul. He afterwards joined Sol- 
omon in his commercial enterprises in 
the eastern seas, 1 Kin. 9:26-28 ; 10:11- 
22; 2 Chr. 8:18. Josephus relates that 
he and Solomon Avere wont to exchange 
enigmas Avith each other ; that he greatly 
improved his city and realm, and died 
after a prosperous reign of thirty-four 
years, at the age of fifty-two. 

111. A skilful artificer of Tyre, Avhose 
mother was a Jewess. Tlie interior dec- 
orations and utensils of Solomon's tem- 
ple were made under his direction, 1 Kin. 
7:13, 14; 2 Chr. 2:13, 14. 

HIS'SIXG, as a mode of calling an at- 
tendant to his master" s side, is a custom 
very prevalent in Palestine. Says Os- 
borne, "Whenever a servant was want- 
ed, the usual ' shee !' which is so common 
throughout the land, started two or three 
in an instant." The same custom is ev- 
idently alluded to in Isa. 5:26; 7:18; 
"The Lord shall hiss for the fly that is 
in the uttermost part of the rivers of 
Egypt," etc. 

"HIT'TITES, descendants of Heth, Gen. 
10:15, a Canaanite tribe dwelling near 
Hebron in the time of Abraham, Gen. 
15:20; 23, and subdued in the Israelit- 
ish invasion, Ex. 3:8 ; Josh. 3:10. They 
Avere not, however, exterminated : Uriah 
Avas a Hittite, 2 Sam. 11:8; Solomon 
used their serAdces, 1 Kin. 9:20 ; we read 
of the "kings of the Hittites" in the 
south, 1 Kin. 10 : 29 ; 2 Kin. 7:6; and 
they AA^ere not lost as a people until after 
the JcAA's' return from captivity, Ezra 
9:1. See Canaaxites. 

HI'VITES. See Caxaanites. 

HO'BAB, the son of Raguel or Reuel, 
Num. 10:29. According to one suppo- 
sition he Avas the same as Jethro, Moses' 
father-in-law, Zipporah being called the 
daughter of Reuel as one of his descend- 
ants. According to another view, he 
Avas the brother of Jethro. Those Avho 
hold this opinion maintain that the He- 
brcAV Avord rendered father-in-laAV, Judg. 
4:11, may denote simply a relation by 
marriage. When the Hebrews were 
about leaving mount Sinai, Closes re- 
quested him to cast in his lot Avith the 
people of God, both for his OAvn sake and 
because his knoAAdedge of the desert and 



its inhabitants might often be of service 
to the Jews. It Avould appear that he 
acceded to this request, Judg. 1 : 16 ; 
4:11. 

HO'BAH, a place north of Damascus, 
visited by Abraham, Gen. 14 : 15 ; noAV 
miknoAvn. 

HO'LY, HO'LINESS. These terms 
sometimes denote outward purity or 
cleanliness ; sometimes internal purity 
and sanctification. True holiness chai'- 
acterizes outward acts, but still more the 
motiA-e and intent of the heart. It is an 
iuAvard principle ; not mere rectitude or 
benevolence, or any one moral excel- 
lence, but the harmonious and perfect 
blending of all, as all the colors of the 
prism duly blended form pure light. 
God is holy in a transcendent and infi- 
nitely perfect manner, Isa. 1:4; 6:3. 
The Messiah is called "the Holy One," 
Psa. 16:10 ; Luke 4:34 : Acts 3:14 ; and 
Holy is the common epithet giA^en to the 
third person of the Trinity, the Holy 
Spirit. God is the fountain of holiness, 
innocence, and sanctification. Mankind 
lost all holiness in the fall ; but God 
makes his people gradually "partakers 
of his holiness" here, and in heaven 
they Avill be found perfectly and for CA^er 
sanctified ; as an earnest of Avhich, he 
looks upon them as already in Christ, 
holy and beloved. The Bible applies 
the epithet holy in a secondary sense to 
Avhatever pertains especially to God — to 
heaven, to his temple, its parts, utensils, 
and services ; to his day, his ministers, 
priests, prophets, and apostles. The 
JevA's were called a holy people, because 
they Avere separated unto God, to be a 
religious and consecrated people ; and 
Christians, as a body, are also called 
holy, because they are in like manner 
separated unto Christ. But a " holy 
man," in the ordinary Christian sense, 
is one who exhibits in his conduct the 
iuAvard purity, benevolence, and holy 
devotedness to the Saviour, with which 
his heart overfloAvs. 

HO'LY SPIRIT, or Holy Ghost, the 
third person in the blessed Trinity. He 
is said to proceed from the Father, and 
to be sent by the Father and the Son 
upon disciples, John 14 : 26 ; 15 : 26 ; to 
be the Spirit of the Father. Matt. 10:20; 
1 Cor. 2 : 11 ; and the Spirit of Christ, 
Gal. 4:0; Phil. 1:19. 

That he is a real person, and not mere- 
ly an attribute or emanation of God, is 
195 



HOM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HOR 



clear from the numerous passages in the 
Bible which describe him as exercising 
the acts, thoughts, emotions, and voli- 
tions of a distinct intelligent person. 
None other could be pleased, vexed, and 
grieved, could speak, console, and inter- 
cede, or divide his gifts severally to every 
one as he will. So also, in Greek as in 
English, the personal masculine pro- 
nouns are applied to him ; whereas, if 
he were not a person, the neuter pro- 
nouns would be necessary. 

That he is a divine person, equally 
with the Father and the Son, is proved 
from his association with them in a great 
variety of acts purely divine ; as in the 
work of creation, Gen. 1:2; Psa. 33:6; 
104:30. He is honored as they are in 
the baptismal formula, Matt. 28:19, and 
in the apostolic benediction, 2 Cor. 13 : 14. 
He receives the name, 2 Cor. 3:17, and 
exercises the attributes of God, Rom. 
8:14; 1 Cor. 2:10; 6:19 ; Heb. 9:14. He 
is prayed to as God, Rev. 1 : 4, 5 ; sin 
against him is sin against God, Acts 5:3, 
4 ; Eph. 4 : 30 ; and blasphemy against 
him is unpardonable. Matt. 12:31. 

The WORK of the Holy Spirit is divine. 
Of old, he inspired the sacred writers and 
teachers, and imparted miraculous gifts. 
Under the Christian dispensation, he 
applies the salvation of Christ to men's 
hearts, convicting them of sin, John 
16:8, 9; showing them "the things of 
Christ," illuminating and regenerating 
them, John 3:5; Eph. 2:1. He is the 
Comforter of the church, aids believers 
in prayer, witnesses with and intercedes 
for them, directs them in duty, and sanc- 
tifies them for heaven. 

HO'MER, or Cor, the largest dry meas- 
ure of the Hebrews, equal to ten baths 
or ephahs, and containing about eight of 
our bushels, Ezek. 45:14. 

HON'EY was formerly very plentiful 
in Palestine, and hence the frequent ex- 
pressions of Scripture which import that 
that country w^as a land flowing with 
milk and honey, Lev. 20:24. Wild bee 
honey was often found in hollow trees 
and clefts in the rocks, Deut. 32: 13 ; Psa. 
81 : 16 ; and on this John the Baptist fed. 
Matt. 3:4. Honey was highly prized, 



Psa. 19:10; Prov. 5:3; 27 



Modern 



travellers observe that it is still very 
common there, and that the inhabitants 
mix it in all their sauces. Forskal says 
the caravans of Mecca bring honey from 
Arabia to Cairo, and that he has often 
19G 



seen honey flowing in the woods in Ara- 
bia. It would seem that this flowing 
honey is bee-honey, and this fact illus- 
trates the story of Jonathan, 1 Sam, 
14:25, 27. But there is also a vegetable 
honey that is very plentiful in the East. 
Burckhardt, speaking of the productions 
of the Ghor, or valley of the Jordan, 
says one of the most interesting produc- 
tions of this place is the Beyrouk honey, 
as the Arabs call it. It was described to 
him as a juice dropping from the leaves 
and twigs of a tree called Gharrab, of 
the size of an olive-tree, with leaves like 
those of the poplar, but somewhat broad- 
er. The honey collects on the leaves 
like dew, and is gathered from them, or 
from the ground under the tree. An- 
other vegetable product is referred to in 
the Bible as honey, 2 Chr. 31:5. It is a 
syrup, prepared by boiling down the juice 
of dates, etc. That made from grapes 
is called dibs, and is much used by the 
Arabs as a condiment with food. It re- 
sembles thin molasses, and is pleasant to 
the taste, Gen. 43:11. 
HOPH'NI. See next page. 




HOR, a mountain of a conical form in 
the range of mount Seir, on the east side 
of the Arabah, or great valley running 
from the Dead sea to the Elanitic gulf. 
It is an irregularly truncated cone, with 
three rugged peaks, overlooking a wil- 
derness of heights, cliffs, ravines, and 
deserts. On this mountain Aaron died, 
alone with his brother and son. Num. 
20:22-29; 33:38. It is still called Jebel 
Neby Haroon, mount of the prophet 
Aaron ; and on its summit stands a Mo- 
hammedan tomb of Aaron, on the site 
of a still more ancient structure, and 
marking perhaps the place of his burial. 



HOR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HOS 



HOPH'NI, and PHIN'EHAS, the guilty 
and wretched sons of Eli the high-priest. 
They grossly and continuously abused 
the influence of their position and sacred 
office ; and their cupidity, violence, and 
impious profligacy, overbearing the fee- 
ble remonstrances of their father, brought 
disgrace and ruin on their family. The 
ark, which they had carried to the camp 
in spite of divine prohibitions, was tak- 
en, and they were slain in battle, 1 Sam. 
2-4. See Eli. The ark of God protects 
only those who love and obey him. Men 
in all ages are prone to rely on a form of 
religion, while the heart and life are not 
right with God ; and all Avho thus sin, 
like the sons of Eli, must perish like- 
wise. 

HO'REB. See Sinai. 

HORTTES, or Ho'rim, a race of early 
dwellers in mount Seir, whence they 
were expelled by the Edomites, Gen. 
14 : 6 ; Deut. 2 : 12, 22. They are sup- 
posed to have lived in caves, like the 
men referred to in Job 30:6, and to have 
been divided into several tribes, Gen. 
36:20-30. 

HOR'MAH, destruction, Num. 21:1-3; 
also called Zephath ; a city in the ex- 
treme south of Canaan, near which the 
rebellious Hebrews were defeated, in the 
second year after leaving Egypt, Num. 
14 : 45 ; it was afterwards laid waste, 
Judg. 1:16, 17. The Simeonites repeo- 
pled it. Josh. 19:4, and David sent them 
some of his spoils taken from the Ama- 
lekites, 1 Sam. 30:30. 







HORNS of animals were used as drink- 
ing- vessels, and to hold ointments, per- 



fumes, etc., 1 Sam. 16 : 1 ; 1 Kin. 1 : 39. 
The ' ' horns of the altar ' ' were its four 
corners and the elevations on them, Ex. 
27:2; 30:2. See Altar. The principal 
defence and ornament of many beasts 
are in their horns ; and hence the horn 
is often a symbol of strength, honor, and 
dominion. The Lord exalted the horn 
of David, and of his people ; he breaketh 
the horn of the ungodly. We read also 
of raising up a horn of salvation, and 
of dehling the horn in the dust, Deut. 
33:17; 1 Sam. 2:1, 10; Job 16:15; Psa. 
75:10 ; Dan. 7:20-24 ; Luke 1:69. There 
may be an allusion in these passages to 
a very common part of the female dress 
in some parts of the East. The married 
women among the Druses of mount Leb- 
anon still wear on their heads silver 
horns, as in the accompanying cut ; the 
other head is that of an Abyssinian chief. 

HOPi'NET, a well-known insect, which 
has a powerful sting. The Lord drove 
out many of the Canaanites before Israel 
by means of this insect, Ex. 23:28 ; Deut. 
7:20; Josh. 24:12. The Israelites, being 
in the sandy wilderness, would escape it. 
Compare Fly. 

HOPv-'SES were anciently less used for 
labor, in Bible lands, than oxen and 
asses. They were used by princes and 
warriors, both with and without chari- 
ots, Ex. 14:9, 23 ; Esth. 6:8 ; Eccl. 10:7. 
The finest description of the war-horse 
ever written, is found in one of the most 
ancient books. Job 39 : 19-25. Horses 
were common in Egypt, Gen. 47 : 17 ; 
60 : 9 ; Song 1:9; but the Jews were at 
first forbidden to go there for them, 
Deut. 17:16, or to keep any large num- 
ber, Josh. 11:6 ; 2 Sam. 8:4. The object 
of this Avas to restrain them from grow- 
ing proud, idolatrous, and fond of con- 
quest. Isa. 31:1-3. Solomon, however, 
procured a large cavalry and chariot 
force, 2 Chr. 1 : 14-17 ; 9 : 25. Horses 
were sometimes consecrated to idols, 
2 Kin. 23 : 11, and were often used as 
symbols of angelic and earthly powers, 
under the control of God, 2 Kin. 2:11 ; 
6:15-17; Zech. 1:8; 6:2-6; Rev. 2-8. 

HORSE'LEECH, the bloodsucker, a 
well-known water-worm ; an apt em- 
blem of avarice and rapacity, Prov. 
30 : 15. Cicero speaks of the horseleeches 
of the public treasury at Rome. 

HOSAN'NA, a word of joyful accla- 
mation in Hebrew, signifying save now. 
The people cried Hosanna as Jesus enter- 
197 



HOS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HOS 



ed ill triumph into Jerusalem ; that is, 
they thus invoked the blessings of heav- 
en on him as the Messiah, Matt. 21:9. 
This was also a customary acclamation at 
the joyful feast of tabernacles, in which 
the Jews repeated Psa. 118:25, 26. 

HOSE'A, the first of the twelve minor 
prophets, as arranged in our Bibles. He 
prophesied for a long time, from Uzziah 
to Hezekiah, about 785-725 b. c. 

The BOOK OF HosEA contains properly 
two parts. The first three chapters con- 
tain a series of symbolical actions di- 
rected against the idolatries of Israel. 
It is disputed whether the marriage of 
the prophet was a real transaction, or 
an allegorical vision ; in all probability 
the latter is the correct view ; but in ei- 
ther case it illustrated the relations of 
idolatrous Israel to her covenant God. 
The remaining chapters are chiefly occu- 
pied with denunciations against Israel, 
and especially Samaria, for the worship 
of idols which prevailed there. Hosea's 
warnings are mingled with tender and 
pathetic expostulations. His style is ob- 
scure, and it is difficult to fix the pe- 
riods or the divisions of his various pre- 
dictions. He shows a joyful faith in the 
coming Redeemer, and is several times 
quoted in the New Testament, Matt. 
9:13 ; Rom. 9:25, 26 ; 1 Pet. 2:10. 

HOSHE'A, the last king of Israel, the 
successor of Pekah, whom he slew, 2 Kin. 
15:o0, B. c. 730. He reigned nine years, 
and was then carried away captive by 
Shalmaneser, 2 Kin. 17 : 1-6 ; 18 : 9-12, 
B. c. 721. 

HOSPITAL'ITY is regarded by all ori- 
ental nations as one of the highest vir- 
tues. The following notices by mod- 
ern travellers serve to illustrate very 
strikingly many passages of Scripture. 
Thus De la Roque says, "We did not 
arrive at the foot of the mountain till 
after sunset, and it was almost night 
when we entered the plain ; but as it 
was full of villages, mostly inhabited by 
Maronites, we entered into the first we 
came to, to pass the night there. It was 
the priest of the place who wished to 
receive us ; he gave us a supper under 
the trees before his littk dwelling. As 
we were at table, there came by a stran- 
ger, wearing a white turban, who, after 
having saluted the company, sat himself 
down to the table without ceremony, 
ate with us during some time, and then 
went awav, repeating scA^eral times the 
198 



name of God. They told us it was some 
traveller who no doubt stood in need of 
refreshment, and who had profited by 
the opportunity, according to the cus- 
tom of the East, which is to exercise 
hospitality at all times and towards all 
persons. ' ' This reminds us of the guests 
of Abraham, Gen. 18, of the conduct of 
Job, 31:17, and of that frankness with 
which the apostles of Christ were to en- 
ter into a man's house after a salutation, 
and there to continue "eating and drink- 
ing such things as were set before them," 
Luke 10:7. The universal prevalence of 
such customs, and of the spirit of hospi- 
tality, may help to explain the indigna- 
tion of James and John against certain 
rude Samaritans, Luke 9:52-56, and also 
the stern retribution exacted for the 
crime of the men of Gibeah, Judg. 19 ; 
20. 

Says Niebuhr, "The hospitality of the 
Arabs has always been the subject of 
praise ; and I believe that those of the 
present day exercise this virtue no less 
than their ancestors did. When the Arabs 
are at table, they invite those who hap- 
pen to come, to eat witli them, whether 
they be Christians or Mohammedans, 
gentle or simple. In the caravans, I 
liave often seen with pleasure a mule- 
driver press those who passed to partake 
of his repast ; and though the majority 
politely excused themselves, he gave, 
with an air of satisfaction, to those who 
would accept of it, a portion of his little 
meal of bread and dates ; and I was not 
a little surprised when I saw, in Tur- 
key, rich Turks withdraw themselves 
into corners, to avoid inviting those who 
might otherwise have sat at table Avith 
them." 

We ought to notice here also the ob- 
ligations understood to be contracted by 
the intercourse of the table. Niebuhr 
says, '■ ' When a Bedaween sheikh eats 
bread with strangers, they may trust 
his fidelity and depend on his protection. 
A traveller will always do well therefore 
to take an early opportunity of securing 
the friendship of his guide by a meal. ' ' 
This brings to recollection the complaint 
of the psalmist, Psa. 41:9, penetrated 
with the deep ingratitude of one whom 
he describes as having been his own 
familiar friend, in whom he trusted, 
"who did eat of my bread, even he hath 
lifted up his heel against me." 

Beautiful pictures of primitive hospi- 



nou 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HOU 



tality may be found iu Gen. 18; 19; 
Ex. 2:20; Judg. 18:15; 19:1-9. ^ The 
incidents of the first two narratives may 
have suggested the legends of the Greeks 
and Romans, which represent their gods 
as sometimes coming to them disguised 
as travellers, in order to test their hos- 
pitality, etc., Heb. 13:2. 

The primitive Christians considered 
one principal part of their duty to con- 
sist in showing hospitality to strangers, 
Horn. 12:13; 1 Tim. 5:10; remembering 
that our Saviour had said, whoever re- 
ceived those belonging to him, received 
himself; and that whatever was given 
to such a one, though but a cup of cold 
water, should not lose its reward. Matt. 
10 : 40-42 ; 25 : 34-45. They were, in 
fact, so ready in discharging this duty, 
that the very heathen admired them for 
it. They were hospitable to all stran- 
gers, but especially to those of the house- 
hold of faith. Believers scarcely ever 
travelled without letters of communion, 
which testified the purity of their faith, 
and procured them a favorable reception 
wherever the name of Jesus Christ was 
known. Indeed, some suppose that the 
two minor epistles of John may be such 
letters of communion and recommenda- 
tion. 

HOUGH, (pronounced hock,) to ham- 
string, or cut the cords of the hind legs. 
The horses taken by David from the 
Syrians were thus disabled, Josh. 11:6, 
9; 2 Sam. 8:4. 

HOURS. The word hour, in Scripture, 
signifies one of the twelve equal parts 
into which each day, from sunrise to 
sunset, was divided, and which of course 
were of different lengths at diflerent sea- 
sons of the year, Matt. 20:3-6; John 
11:9. This mode of dividing the day 
prevailed among the Jews at least after 
the exile, and perhaps earlier, Dan. 3:6 ; 
4:19. The third, sixth, and ninth hours 
were the appointed seasons for prayer. 
Acts 2 : 15 ; 3 : 1 ; 10 : 9. Anciently, how- 
ever, the usual division of the day was 
into four parts, namely, the morning — 
the heat of the day, commencing about 
the middle of the forenoon — midday, 
and evening. In a similar manner, the 
Greeks appear at first to have divided 
the day into only three parts, to which 
they afterwards added a fourth division. 
The ancient Hebrews, as well as the 
Greeks, appear to have divided the 
night also into three parts or watches, 



namely, the first watch. Lam. 2:19; the 
middle, or second watch, Judg. 7:l9; 
and the morning, or third Avatch, Ex. 
14:24. But after the Jews became sub- 
ject to the Romans, they adopted the 
Roman manner of dividing the nigbt 
into four watches, namely, the evening, 
or first quarter, after sunset ; the mid- 
night, or second quarter, ending at mid- 
night ; cock-crowing, or third quarter, 
from midnight on ; and the morning, or 
fourth quarter, including the dawn, Matt. 
14:25; Mark 6:48; 13:35; Luke 12:48. 
A watch in the night seems but an in- 
stant to one who spends it in slumber, 
Psa. 90 : 4 ; equally short does the life of 
man appear in view of eternity. 

HOUSE is often put for dwelling, res- 
idence ; and hence the temple, and even 
the tabernacle, are called the house of 
God. 

The universal mode of building houses 
in the East, is in the form of a hollow 
square, with an open court or yard in 
the centre ; which is thus entirely shut 
in by the walls of the house around it. 
Into this court all the windows open, 
there being usually no windows towards 
the street. Some houses of large size 
require several courts, and these usually 
communicate with each other. These 
coiu'ts are commonly paved ; and in 
many large houses parts of them are 
planted with shrubs and trees, Psa. 
84:3 ; 128:3 ; they have also, when pos- 
sible, a fountain in them, often with a 
jet d'eau, 2^SLin. 17:18. It is customary 
in many houses to extend an awning 
over the whole court in hot weather ; 
and the people of the house then spend 
much of the day in the open air, and 
indeed often receive visits there. In 
Aleppo, at least, there is often on the 
south side of the court an alcove in the 
wall of the house, furnished with divans 
or sofas, for reclining and enjoying the 
fresh air in the hot seasons. 

In the middle of the front of each 
house is usually an arched passage, lead- 
ing into the court— not directly, lest the 
court should be exposed to view from the 
street, but by turning to one side. The 
outer door of this passage was, in large 
houses, guarded by a porter. Acts 12:13. 
The entrance into the house is either 
from this passage or from the court itself. 

The following extracts from Dr. Shaw 
will interest the reader, and at the same 
I time serve to illustrate manv passages of 
191) 



nou 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HOU 




INTERIOR OF AN ASCIENT HOUSli;. 



Scripture. He remarks, "The general 
method of building, both in Barbary and 
the Levant, seems to have continued the 
same from the earliest ages, without the 
least alteration or improvement. Large 
doors, spacious chambers, marble pave- 
ments, cloistered courts, with fountains 
sometimes playing in the midst, are cer- 
tainly conveniences very well adapted 
to tlic circumstances of these climates, 
where the summer heats are generally 
80 intense. The jealousy likewise of 
tliese people is less apt to be alarmed, 
while all the windows open into their 
respective courts, if we except a latticed 
window or balcony wliich sometimes 
looks into the streets, 2 Kin. 9:30. 

' ' The streets of eastern cities, the bet- 
ter to shade them from the sun, are 
usually narrow, with sometimes a range 
of shops on each side. If from these 
we enter into one of the principal houses, 
we shall first pass through a porch or 
gateway with benches on each side, 
where the master of the family receives 
visits and despatches business ; few per- 
sons, not even the nearest relations, hav- 
ing a further admission, except upon 
extraordinary occasions. From hence 
we are received into the court, or quad- 
rangle, which, lying open to the weath- 
er, is, according to the ability of the 
owner, paved with marble, or such ma- 
terials as will immediately carry off the 
200 



water into the common sewers. When 
much people are to be admitted, as upon 
the celebration of a marriage, the cir- 
cumcising of a child, or occasions of the 
like nature, the company is rarely or 
never received into one of the chambers. 
The court is the usual place of their 
reception, which is strowed accordingly 
with mats and carpets for their more 
commodious entertainment. Hence it is 
probable that the place where our Sav- 
iour and the apostles were frequently 
accustomed to give their instructions, 
was in the area, or quadrangle, of one of 
this kind of houses. In the summer 
season, and upon all occasions when a 
large company is to be received, this 
court is commonly sheltered from the 
heat or inclemency of the weather by a 
veil or awning, which, being expanded 
upon ropes from one side of the parapet 
wall to the other, may be folded or un- 
folded at pleasure. The psalmist seems 
to allude either to the tents of the Beda- 
ween, or to some covering of this kind, 
in that beautiful expression, of spreading 
out the heavens like a curtain, Psa. 104:2. 
The court is for the most part surround- 
ed with a cloister or colonnade ; over 
which, when the house has two or three 
stories, there is a gallery erected, of the 
same dimensions with the cloister, hav- 
ing a balustrade, or else a piece of carved 
or latticed work going round about it. 



HOU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HOU 



to prevent people from falling from it 
into the court. From the cloisters and 
galleries we are conducted into large 
spacious chambers, of the same length 
with the court, but seldom or never 
communicating with one another. One 
of them frequently serves a whole fam- 
ily ; particularly when a father indulges 
his married children to live with him ; 
or when several persons join in the rent 
of the same house. From whence it is, 
that the cities of these countries, which 
in general are much inferior in bigness 
to those of Europe, yet are so exceeding- 
ly populous, that great numbers of peo- 
ple are always swept away by the plague, 
or any other contagious distemper." 

The chambers of the rich were often 
hung with velvet or damask tapestry, 
Estli. 1:6; the upper part adorned with 
fretwork and stucco ; and the ceilings 
with wainscot or mosaic work of fragrant 
wood, sometimes richly painted, Jer. 
22 : 14. The floors were of wood, or of 
painted tiles, or marble ; and were usu- 
ally spread with carpets. Around the 
walls were mattresses or low sofas, in- 
stead of chairs. The beds were often 
at one end of the chamber, on a gallery 
several feet above the floor, with steps 
and a low balustrade, 2 Kin. 1:4, 16. 
The stairs were usually in a corner of 
the court, beside the gateway, Matt. 
24:17. 

' ' The top of the house, ' ' says Dr. Shaw, 
* ' which is always flat, is covered with a 
strong plaster of terrace ; from whence, 
in the Frank language, it has attained 
the name of the terrace. It is usually 
surrounded by two walls ; the outermost 
whereof is partly built over the street, 
partly makes the partition with the con- 
tiguous houses, being frequently so low 
that one may easily climb over it. The 
other, which I call the parapet wall, 
hangs immediately over the court, being 
always breast high ; we render it the 
'battlements,' Deut. 22:8. Instead of 
this parapet wall, some terraces are 
guarded in the same manner the galler- 
ies are, with balustrades only, or latticed 
work ; in which fashion probably, as the 
name seems to import, was the net, or 
'lattice,' as we render it, that Ahaziah, 
2 Kin. 1:2, might be carelessly leaning 
over, when he fell down from thence 
into the court. For upon these terraces 
several offices of the family are perform- 
ed ; such as the drving of linen and flax, 
^0* 



Josh. 2:6, the preparing of figs and rai- 
sins ; here likewise they enjoy the cool, 
refreshing breezes of the evening ; con- 
verse with one another, 1 Sam. 9 : 25 ; 
2 Sam. 11:2; and offer up their devotions, 
2 Kin. 23 : 12 ; Jer. 19 : 13 ; Acts 10 : 9. 
In the feast of Tabernacles booths were 
erected upon them, Neh. 8:16. When 
one of these cities is built upon level 
ground, we can pass from one end of it 
to the other, along the tops of the 
houses, without coming down into the 
street. 

"Such, in general, is the manner and 
contrivance of the eastern houses. And 
if it may be presumed that our Saviour, 
at the healing of the paralytic, was 
preaching in a house of this fashion, we 
may, by attending only to the struct- 
ure of it, give no small light to one 
circumstance of that history, which has 
given great offence to some unbelievers. 
Among other pretended difficulties and 
absurdities relating to this fact, it has 
been urged that the uncovering or break- 
ing up of the roof, Mark 2:4, or the let- 
ting a person down through it, Luke 
5:19, supposes the breaking up of tiles, 
rafters," etc. But it is only necessary 
here to suppose that the crowd being so 
great around Jesus in the court below, 
that those who brought the sick man 
could not come near him, they went 
upon the flat roof, and removing a part 
of the awning, let the sick man down in 
his mattress over the parapet, quite at 
the feet of Jesus. 

Dr. Shaw proceeds to describe a sort 
of addition to many oriental houses, 
which corresponds probably to the upper 
chamber often mentioned in the Bible. 
He says, ' ' To most of these houses there 
is a smaller one annexed, which some- 
times rises one story higher than the 
house ; at other times it consists of one 
or two rooms only and a terrace ; while 
others that are built, as they frequently 
are, over the porch or gateway, have (il 
we except the ground floor, which they 
have not) all the conveniences that be- 
long to the house, properly so called. 
There is a door of communication from 
them into the gallery of the house, kept 
open or shut at the discretion of the 
master of the family ; besides another 
door, which opens immediately from a 
privy stairs down into the porch, with- 
out giving the least disturbance to the 
house. These smaller houses are known 
201 



HUL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HUS 



by the name alee, or oleah, and in them 
strangers are usually lodged and enter- 
tained ; and thither likewise the men are 
wont to retire, from the hurry and noise 
of their families, to be more at leisure for 
meditation or devotion, Matt. 6:6; be- 
sides the use they are at other times put 
to, in serving for wardrobes and maga- 
zines." 

This then, or something like this, we 
may suppose to have been the ali'yah or 
upper chamber of the Hebrews. Such 
was the " little chamber upon the wall," 
which the Shunammite had built for 
Elisha, 2 Kin. 4:10; the "summer par- 
lor" of Eglon, Judg. 3:20; and the 
"chamber over the gate," where David 
retired to w^eep, 2 Sam. 18:33 ; and per- 
haps in the New Testament the "upper 
chamber ' ' where Tabitha was laid out. 
Acts 9 : 37, and whence Eutychus fell 
from the window of the third lofl^ into 
the court, Acts 20:9. 

The flat roofs of oriental houses often 
afford a place of retirement and medita- 
tion ; here Samuel communed with Saul, 
1 Sam. 9 : 25 ; and from ver. 26, they 
would seem also to have slept there, as 
is still common in the East, 2 Sam. 
11:2; Dan. 4:30. Mr. Wood says, "It 
has ever been a custom with them," the 
Arabs in the East, ' ' equally connected 
with health and pleasure, to pass the 
nights in summer upon the house-tops, 
which for this very purpose are made 
flat, and divided from each other by 
walls. We found this way of sleeping 
extremely agreeable ; as we thereby en- 
joyed the cool air, above the reach of 
gnats and vapors, without any other 
covering than the canopy of heaven, 
which unavoidably presents itself in dif- 
ferent pleasing forms, upon every inter- 
ruption of rest, Avhen silence and solitude 
strongly dispose the mind to contempla- 
tion, Acts 10:9. The roof of an ancient 
house was the best and often the only 
place, from which to get a view of the 
region around ; hence the resort to it in 
times of peril, Isa. 15 : 3 ; 22 : 1 . In many 
cases roofs were coated with hardened 
earth, through which, when cracked or 
soaked through by rain, the water drip- 
ped, Prov. 27 : 15 ; and in which, when 
neglected, the grass grows in spring, but 
soon withers after the rains have ceased, 



I also used. But the houses of the people 
I in the East in general are very bad 
: constructions, consisting of mud walls, 
\ reeds, and rushes ; whence they beconfe 
apt illustrations of the fragility of hu- 
I man life, Job 4: 19 ; and as mud, pebbles, 
j and slime, or at best unburnt bricks are 
used in forming the walls, the expres- 
sion, "digging through houses," Job 
24:16; Matt. 6:19; 24:14, is easily ac- 
counted for ; as is the behavior of Eze- 
kiel, 12:5, who dug through such a wall 
in the sight of the people ; whereby, as 
may be imagined, he did little injury to 
his house ; notwithstanding which, the 
symbol was very expressive to the be- 
holders. See also the striking illustra- 
tion in Ezek. 13:10-16. On the sites of 
many ancient cities of Syria and Baby- 
lonia only the ruins of public edifices re- 
main, the houses having entirely disap- 
peared ages ago. Ti-avellers near the 
Granges and the Xile speak of multitudes 
of huts on the sandy banks of those riv- 
ers being swept away in a night by sud- 
den freshets, leaving not a trace behind. 
This may illustrate our Saviour's para- 



ble, in Matt. 7:24-2 



See Tent. 



Psa. 129:6, 



Isa. 



The common material for building the 
best oriental houses is stone. Brick is 
202 



HUL'DAH, a prophetess in the reign 
of Josiah, consulted respecting the de- 
nunciations in the new-found copy of the 
Book of the Law, 2 Kin. 22 : 14-20 ; 
2 Chr. 34:22-28, b. c. 623. 

HUMILITY, the opposite of pride, in 
its nature and in the degree of its preva- 
lence. It is often extolled in the Bible, 
Prov. 15 : 33 ; 16 : 19 ; and the Saviour 
especially exalts it, Matt. 18:4, and en- 
nobles and endears it by his own exam- 
ple, John 13:4-17; Phil. 2:5-8. Every 
created being, however holy, should 
possess it ; but in the character of the 
sinful sons of men it should become a 
fundamental and all-pervading trait, to 
continue for ever. 

HUE, a chief man among the He- 
brews in the desert, associated with 
Aaron in upholding the hands of Moses 
at Rephidim, and in supplying his place 
while on the summit of Sinai, Ex. 17 : 10 ; 
24:14. 

HU'SHAI, the Archite, David's friend. 
Being informed of Absalom's rebellion, 
and that David was obliged to fly from 
Jerusalem, he met him on an eminence 
without the city, -with his clothes rent 
and his head covered with earth. David , 
suggested, that if he went with him he 
would be a burden to him ; but that he 



HUS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



HYS 



might do him important service if he 
should remain in Absalom's suite as an 
adviser. Hushai therefore returned to 
Jerusalem, and by defeating the counsel 
of Ahithophel, and gaining time for Da- 
vid, to whom he sent advices, was the 
cause of Ahithophel' s suicide and of Ab- 
salom's miscarriage, 2 Sam. 15 : 32-37 ; 
16:16-19; 17. 

HUSKS. The prodigal son desired to 
feed on the husks, or pods, given to the 
hogs, Luke 15 : 16. The Greek word 
here used, means the kharob-beans, the 
fruit of a tree of the same name. This 
fruit is common in all the countries bor- 
dering on the Mediterranean: it is suf- 
fered to ripen and grow dry on the tree ; 
the poor eat it, and cattle are fattened 
with it. The tree, the Ceratonia Siliqua, 
is an evergreen of a middle size, full of 




branches, and abounding with round 
dark green leaves, an mch or two in 
diameter. The blossoms are little red 
clusters, wath yellowish stalks. The 
fruits are fiat brownish pods, from six to 
eight inches long, and an inch or more 
broad: they resemble the pods of our 
locust-trees ; and are composed of two 
husks, separated by membranes into sev- 
eral cells, and containing flat, shining 



I seeds, and when ripe a sweetish, honey- 
like kind of juice. In all probability, 
] their crooked figure occasioned their 
I being called, in Greek, keratia, which 
j signifies little horns. The tree is called 
i by the Germans, Johannisbrodbaum, 
I that is, " John's-bread-tree," because 
John the Baptist was supposed to have 
I lived on its fruit. 

i H YMENE'US, a member of ihe church, 
i probably at Ephesus, who fell into the 
heresy of denying the true doctrine of 
the resurrection, and saying it had al- 
; ready taken place. When first men- 
tioned, 1 Tim. 1 : 20, he Avas excluded 
from the church ; and when again men- 
tioned, 2 Tim. 2:17, 18, was still exert- 
ing a pernicious influence. 
HYMN. See next page. 
HYP'OCRITE, one who, like a stage- 
player, feigns to be what he is not. The 
epithet is generally applied to those who 
assume the appearance of virtue or pie- 
ty, without possessing the reality. Our 
Saviour accused the Pharisees of hypoc- 
risy, Luke 12:1. 




OR CAPER-PLANT. 

HYS'SOP is often mentioned in Scrip- 
ture, and is directed to be used in the 
sprinklings which made part of the Jew- 
ish ceremonial law, Ex. 12 : 22 ; Lev. 
14:4-6; Psa. 51:9; Heb. 9:19. It is 
! some low shrub, which is contrasted 
I with the loftv cedar, 1 Kin. 4 : 33. In 
203 



HYM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



IDO 



John 19:29, the soldiers are said to have 
"tilled a sponge with vinegar, and put 
it upon hyssop," that is, upon a rod of 
hyssop, two feet or more in length, 
which was long enough to enable one 
to re.ich the mouth of a person on the 
cross. Many different plants have been 
taken for the hyssop of Scripture, and 
ani' )ng others, the caper-plant. 

HYMN, a religious canticle, song, or 
psalm, Eph. 5:19; Col. 3:16. Paul re- 
quires Christians to edify one another 
with "psalms and hymns and spiritual 
songs." Matthew says that Christ and 
his disciples, having supped, sung a 
hymn, and went out. They probably 
chanted a part of the psalms which the 
Jews used to sing after the Passover, 
which they called the Halal ; that is, 
the Hallelujah psalms. These are Psa. 
113-118, of which the first two are sup- 
posed to have been chanted before the 
Passover was eaten, and the others after- 
wards. 



I. 



IB'ZAN, the tenth "judge of Israel," 
born in Bethlehem. He held office seven 
years, and was noted for his large and 
prosperous family, b. c. 1182, Judg. 12:8. 

ICH'ABOD, where is the glory ? a son of 
Phinehas, and grandson of Eli, both of 
whom, and his mother also, died on the 
day of his birth, 1 Sam. 4:19-22 ; 14:3. 

ICO'NIUM, a large and opulent city 
of Asia Minor, now called Konieh. The 
provinces of Asia Minor varied so much at 
different times, that Iconium is assigned 
by different writers to Phrygia, to Lyca- 
onia, and to Pisidia. Christianity was 
introduced here by Paul, a. d. 45. But 
he was obliged to flee for his life from a 
persecution excited by unbelieving Jews, 
Acts 13:51 ; 14:1-6. They pursued him 
to Lystra, where he was nearly killed, 
but afterwards, a. d. 51, he revisited Ico- 
nium, Acts 14:19-21 ; 2 Tim. 3:11. The 
church continued in being here for eight 
centuries, bat under the Mohammedan 
rule was almost extinguished. At pres- 
ent, Konieh is the capital of Cararaania. 
It is situated in a beautiful and fertile 
country, 260 miles south-east of Con- 
stantinople, and 120 from the Mediter- 
ranean. It is very large, and its walls 
are supported by 108 square towers, forty 
paces distant from each other. The in- 
204 



habitants, 40,000 in number, are Turks, 
Armenians, Greeks, and Jews. 

ID'DO, a prophet of Judali, who proph- 
esied against Jeroboam, and wrote the 
history of Rehoboam and Abijah, 2 Chr. 
9 : 29 ; 12 : 15 ; 13 : 22. Josephus and oth- 
ers are of opinion that he was sent to 
Jeroboam, at Bethel, and that it was 
he who was killed by a lion, 1 Kin. 13. 
Several other persons of this name are 
mentioned in Scripture, 1 Chr. 27 : 21 ; 
Ezra 8: 17-20; Zech. 1:1. 

IDLE, in Matt. 12:36, means empty 
and fruitless. The "idle word" which 
Christ condemns is a word morally use- 
less and evil. 




THE IDOL JITGGERNArT. 

I'DOL, IDOL'ATRY. The word idol 
signifies literally a representation or fig- 
ure. It is always employed in Scripture 
in a bad sense, for representations of 
heathen deities of what nature soever. 
God forbids all sorts of idols, or figures 
and representations of creatures, formed 
or set up with intention of paying super- 
stitious worship to them, Ex. 20 : 3, 4 ; 
34 : 13 ; Deut. 4 : 16-19 ; 7 : 25, 26. He 
also forbids all attempts to represent 
him by any visible form, Ex. 32:4, 5; 
Deut. 4:15; Neh. 9:18. 

The heathen had idols of all sorts — 
paintings, bas-reliefs, and all varieties of 
sculpture— and these of many kinds of 
materials, as gold, silver, brass, stone, 
wood, potter's earth, etc. Stars, spmts, 
men, animals, rivers, x^lants, and ele- 
ments were the subjects of them. Scarce- 



IDO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



IDO 




THE HINDOO IDOL PULLIAR. 

ly an object or power in nature, scarcely 
a faculty of the soul, a virtue, a vice, or 
a condition of human life, has not re- 
ceived idolatrous worship. See Stars. 
Some nations worshipped a rough stone. 
Such is the black stone of the ancient 
Arabs, retained by Mohammed, and now 
kept in the Caaba at Mecca. 

It is impossible to ascertain the period 
at which the worship of false gods and 
idols was introduced. No mention is 
made of such worship before the deluge ; 
though from the silence of Scripture 
we cannot argue that it did not exist. 
Josephus and many of the fathers were 
of opinion, that soon after the deluge 
idolatry became prevalent ; and certain- 
ly, Avherever we turn our eyes after the 
time of Abraham, we see only a false 
worship. That patriarch's forefathers, 
and even he himself, were implicated in 
it, as is evident from Josh. 24:2, 14. 

The Hebrews had no peculiar form of 
idolatry ; they imitated the superstitions 
of others, but do not appear to have been 
the inventors of any. When they were 
in Egypt, many of them worshipped 
Egyptian deities, Ezek. 20:8 ; in the wil- 
derness, they worshipped those of the 
Canaanites, Egyptians, Ammonites, and 
Moabites ; in Judea, those of the Phoeni- 
cians, Syrians, and other people around 
them, Num. 25 ; Judg. 10:6 ; Amos 5:25 ; 
Acts 7 : 42. Kachel, it may be, had adored 
idols at her father Laban's, since she car- 



ried off his teraphim, Gen. 31:30. Ja- 
cob, after his return from Mesopotamia, 
required his people to reject the strange 
gods from among them, and also the su- 
perstitious pendants worn by them in 
their ears, which he hid under a tere- 
binth near Shechem. He preserved his 
family in the worship of God while he 
lived. 

Under the government of the judges, 
"the children of Israel did evil in the 
sight of the Lord, and served Baalim. 
They forsook the Lord God of their fa- 
thers, and followed other gods — of the 
gods of the people that were round about 
them ; and they forsook the Lord, and 
served Baal and Ashtaroth," Judg. 2:11, 
12. Gideon, after he had been favored 
by God with a miraculous deliverance, 
made an ephod, which ensnared the Is- 
raelites in unlawful worship, Judg. 8:27. 
Micah's teraphim also were the objects 
of idolatrous worship, even till the cap- 
tivity of Israel in Babylon, Judg, 17:5; 
18:30, 31. See Teraphim. 

During the times of Samuel, Saul, and 
David, the worship of God seems to have 
been preserved pure in Israel. There 
was corruption and irregularity of man- 
ners, but little or no idolatry. Solomon, 
seduced by complaisance to his strange 
wives, caused temples to be erected in 
honor of Ashtoreth goddess of the Phoe- 
nicians, Moloch god of the Ammonites, 
and Chemosh god of the Moabites. Jero- 
boam, who succeeded Solomon, set up 
golden calves at Dan and Bethel, and 
made Israel to sin. The people, no lon- 
ger restrained by royal authority, wor- 
shipped not only these golden calves, 
but many other idols, particularly Baal 
and Ashtoreth. Under the reign of 
Ahab, idolatry reached its height. The 
impious Jezebel endeavored to extin- 
guish the worship of the Lord, by per- 
secuting his prophets, (who, as a barrier, 
still retained some of the people in the 
true religion,) till God, incensed at their 
idolatry, abandoned Israel to the kings 
of Assyria and Chaldea, Avho transplant- 
ed them beyond the Euphrates. Judah 
was almost equally corrupted. The de- 
scriptions given by the prophets of their 
irregularities and idolatries, of their 
abominations and lasciviousness on the 
high places and in woods consecrated to 
idols, and of their human sacrifices, fill 
us with dismay, and unveil the awful 
corruption of the heart of man. See Mo- 
20.=> 



IDU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



IDU 



LOCH. After the return from Babylon, 
we do not find the Jews any more re- 
proached with idolatry. They expressed 
much zeal for the worship of God, and 
except some transgressors under Antio- 
chus Epiphanes, 1 Mac. 1, the people 
kept themselves clear from this sin. 

As the maintenance of the worship of 
the only true God was one of the funda- 
mental objects of the Mosaic polity, and 
as God was regarded as the king of the 
Israelitish nation, so we find idolatry, 
that is, the worship of other gods, occu- 
pying, in the Mosaic law, the first place 
in the list of crimes. It was indeed a 
crime, not merely against God, but also 
against the fundamental law of the state, 
and thus a sort of high treason. The 
only living and true God was also the 
civil legislator and ruler of Israel, and 
accepted by them as their king ; and 
hence idolatry was a crime against the 
state, and therefore just as deservedly 
punished with death, as high treason is 
in modern times. By the Jewish law, 
an idolater was to be stoned to death, 
and an idolatrous city must be wholly 
destroyed, with all it contained, Deut. 
13:12-18; 17:2, 5. 

At the present day, idolatry prevails 
over a great portion of the earth, and is 
practised by about 600,000,000 of the 
human race. Almost all the heathen 
nations, as the Chinese, the Hindoos, 
the South Sea islanders, etc., have their 
images, to which they bow down and 
worship. In some lands professedly 
Christian, it is to be feared that the ado- 
ration of crucifixes and paintings is noth- 
ing more nor less than idol-worship. 
But when we regard idolatry in a moral 
point of view, as consisting not merely 
in the external worship of false gods, 
but in the preference of, and devotion 
to something else than the Most High, 
how many Christians must then fall 
under this charge. Whoever loves this 
world, or the pursuits of wealth or honor 
or ambition, or selfishness in any form, 
and for these forgets or neglects God and 
Christ, such a one is an idolater in as bad 
a sense at least as the ancient Israelites, 
and cannot hope to escape an awful con- 
demnation. Col. 3:5. 

IDUMiEA, the name given by the 
Greeks to the land of Edom, or mount 
Seir, which extended originally from the 
Dead sea to the Elanitic gulf of the Red 
sea. including a territory about one hun- 
206 



dred miles long, and fifteen or twenty 
wide. Afterwards it extended more into 
the south of Judah, towards Hebron. A 
large part of it was occupied by the long 
chain of mountains lying between the 
great sandy valley El-Ghor and El-Ara- 
bah on the west, (see Jordan,) and the 
Arabian desert on the east. The north- 
ern part of this chain is now called Dje- 
bal, the ancient Gebal, which see ; the 
remainder of the chain takes the name 
Jebel Shera. The whole chain is inter- 
sected with valleys and ravines, running 
down from the elevated desert on the east 
to the Arabah on the west. It contains 
traces of many towns and villages, long 
since destroyed, and many springs, and 
fertile valleys with tokens of its former 
productiveness. Gen. 27:39. But at this 
day, desolation reigns. Tlie capital of 
East Idumaea was Bozra ; but the chief 
capital of Edom Avas Petra, or Sela, that 
is, the rock, because it was excavated in 
part from a mountain. It is now called 
Wady Mousa, the valley of Moses. See 
Sela. 

The original inhabitants of this coun- 
try were called Horites, and were dispos- 
sessed by the Iduma?ans of history. Gen. 
14:6 ; 36:21 ; Deut. 12:2. The true Idu- 
mieans, or Edomites, were, as their name 
implies, descendants of Edom, or Esau, 
elder brother of Jacob, Gen. 36 : 6-9. 
They were governed by dukes or princes, 
ver. 15, and afterwards by their own 
kings, ver. 31. Compare Exod. 15 : 15 ; 
Niim. 20 : 14. On the approach of the 
Israelites from Egypt to the western bor- 
der of Edom, they were refused a peace- 
ful passage through that country to Mo- 
ab. See Exodus. They were divinely 
charged, however, to preserve friendly 
relations with their "brother" Esau, 
Num. 20 : 14-21 : Deut. 2:4-7; 23 : 7. 
Yet hostilities seemed inevitable. Saul 
was involved in war with them, 1 Sam. 
14:47 ; but they continued independent 
till the time of David, Avho subdued 
them, in completion of Isaac's proph- 
ecy, that Jacob should rule Esau, Gen. 
27 : 29 ; 2 Sam. 8 : 14 ; 1 Kin. 11 : 15 ; 
1 Chr. 18 : 11-13. Tlie Idumj^ans bore 
their subjection with great impatience, 
and at the end of Solomon's reign, Ha- 
dad, an Edomite prince who had been 
carried into Egypt during his childhood, 
returned into his own country, where 
he procured himself to be acknowledged 
king, 1 Kin. 11:14-22. It is probable, 



ILL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



I MM 



however, that he reigned only in East 
Edom, 1 Kin. 22 : 47 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 36 ; for 
Edora south of Judea continued subject 
to the kings of Judah till the reign of Je- 
horam, against whom it rebelled, 2 Chr. 
21:8, in fulfilment of the second part of 
Isaac's prophecy, Gen. 27:40. Amaziah 
king of Judah also discomfited the Edom- 
ites, killed 1,000 men, and cast 10,000 
more from a precipice, 2 Kin. 14 : 7 ; 
2 Chr. 25 : 11, 12. But these conquests 
were not permanent. When Nebuchad- 
nezzar besieged Jerusalem, the Iduma;- 
ans joined him, and encouraged him to 
raze the very foundations of the city ; 
but their cruelty did not long continue 
unpunished. Many predictions of the 
prophets foreshadowed Edom's real 
doom, Obad. ; Jer. 49 : 7 ; Ezek. 25 ; 35 ; 
Mai. 1:3, 4. Five years after the taking 
of Jerusalem, Nebuchadnezzar humbled 
all the states around Judea, particularly 
Idumtea, though he did not carry them 
captive ; and subsequently John Hyrca- 
nus drove them from Southern Judea, 
into which they had penetrated, entirely 
conquered them, and obliged them to 
receive circumcision and the law. They 
continued subject to the later kings of 
Judea till the destruction of Jerusalem 
by the Romans. Josephus informs us 
that 20,000 of them were summoned to 
aid in the defence of that city, but gave 
themselves up to rapine and murder. 
Ultimately, the Idum;eans were sup- 
planted and absorbed by the Nabathe- 
ans, descendants of Nabaioth, a son of 
Ishmael. In the time of their prosper- 
ity, the Edomites were numerous and 
powerful, devoted to commerce by land 
and by sea, and also to agriculture and 
the raising of cattle. Num. 20:17. But 
neither their strong rock-fortresses, Jer. 
49 : 16, nor their gods, 2 Chr. 25 : 20, 
could save that rich and salubrious coun- 
try from becoming a desert, and a strik- 
ing monument of the truth of prophecy. 
See Keith on Prophecy. 

ILLYRTCUM, a country of Europe, 
lying east of the Adriatic sea, north of 
Epirus, and west of Macedonia. It was 
anciently divided into Liburnia, now 
Croatia, on the north, and Dalmatia on 
the south, which still retains its name. 
See Dalmatia. The limits of Illyricum 
varied much at different times. It was 
reached by Paul, preaching the gospel of 
Christ, and probably traversed in part, 
A. D. 57, Rom. 15:19. 



IMAGE, an exact and complete copy 

or counterpart of any thing. Christ is 

called "the image of God," 2 Cor. 4:4, 

Col. 1:15, Heb. 1:3, as being the same in 

nature and attributes. The image of God 

in which man was created, Gen. 1:27, 

i was in his spiritual, intellectual, and 

i moral nature, in righteousness and true 

I holiness. The posterity of Adam were 

I born in his fallen, sinful likeness, Gen. 

15:3; and as we have borne the image of 

i sinful Adam, so we should be moulded 

into the moral image of the heavenly 

man Christ, 1 Cor. 15 : 47-49 ; 2 Cor. 

3:18. 

"An image," Job 4:16, was that 
which seemed to the dreamer a reality. 
The word sometimes appears to include, 
with the image, the idea of the real ob- 
ject, Psa. 73 : 20 ; Heb. 10 : 1. It is usu- 
ally applied in the Bible to representa- 
tions of false gods, painted, graven, etc. , 
Dan. 3. All use of images in religious 
worship was clearly and peremptorily 
prohibited, Ex. 20 : 4, 5 ; Deut. 16 : 22 ; 
Acts 17 : 16 ; Rom. 1 : 23. Their intro- 
duction into Christian churches, near 
the close of the fourth century, was at 
first strenuously resisted. Now, how- 
ever, they are universally used by Pa- 
pists : by most in a gross breach of the 
second commandment, and by the best 
in opposition to both the letter and the 
spirit of the Bible, Ex. 20:4, 5 ; 32:4, 5 ; 
Deut. 4:15; Isa. 40:18-31; John 4:23, 
24; Rev. 22:8, 9. 

The ' ' chambers of imagery, ' ' in Ezek. 
8 : 7-12, had their walls covered with 
idolatrous paintings, such as are found 
on the still more ancient stone walls of 
Egyptian temples, and such as modern 
researches have dii;closed in Assyrian 
ruins. See Nineveh. 

IMMAN'UEL. See Emmanuel. • 
IMMORTAL'ITY, in God, is underived 
and absolute : ' ' who only hath immor- 
tality." In creatures, it is dependent 
upon the will of God. The immortality 
of the soul is argued from its boundless 
desires and capacities, its unlimited im- 
provement, its desert of future punish- 
ment or reward, etc. All arguments, 
however, are unsatisfying without the 
testimony of Scripture. Christ "hath 
brought life and immortality to light 
through the gospel," 2 Tim. 1:10: the 
immortal blessedness of Christians, in- 
cluding the resurrection of the body, is 
bv virtue of their union with Christ, 
207 



INC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



INS 



John 14: 19. The everlasting woe of the 
wicked, the punishment of their sins, 
runs parallel with the eternal life of the 
redeemed, Matt. 25:46. 

IN'CENSE, a dry, aromatic gum, ex- 
uding from a tree which grows in Arabia 
and India. It is called also frankincense, 
from the freedom with which when burn- 
ing it gives forth its odors. Other spices 
were mixed with it to make the sacred 
incense, the use of which for any other 
purpose was strictly forbidden, Exod. 
00:34-38. To offer incense, among the 
Hebrews, was an office peculiar to the 
priests; for which purpose they entered 
into the holy apartment of the temple 
every morning and evening. On the 
great day of expiation, the high-priest 
burnt incense in his censer as he entered 
the Holy of Holies, and the smoke which 
arose from it prevented his looking Avith 
too much curiosity on the ark and mer- 
cy-seat, Lev. 16:13. The Levites were 
not permitted to touch the censers ; and 
Korah, Dathan, and Abiram suffered a 
terrible punishment for violating this pro- 
hibition. Incense was especially a sym- 
bol of prayer. While it was offered, the 
people prayed in the court without, and 
their prayers ascended with the sweet 
odor of the incense, until the priest re- 
turned and gave the blessing. So Christ 
presents his people and their prayers to 
God, accepted through his merits and 
intercession, and gives them the bless- 
ing, ' ' Your sins are forgiven ; go in 
peace," Psa. 141:2 ; Luke 2: 9 ; Rev. 5:8; 
8:4. " Incense ' ' sometimes signifies the 
sacrifices and fat of victims, as no other 
kind of incense was offered on the altar 
of burnt-offerings, Psa. 66 : 15. For a 
description of the altar of incense, see 

IN'DIA, Esth. 1:1; 8:9, the country 
Ij'ing east of the ancient Persia and Bac- 
tria, so named from the river Indus 
which passed through it. The India of 
the ancients extended more to the north 
and west than modern India; and the 
southern region, now best known to us, 
was comparatively unknown until the 
era of modern navigation. 

INHEK'ITANCE. The laws of inher- 
itance among the Hebrews were vci-y 
simple. Land might be mortgaged, but 
could not be alienated, Num. 36 : 6-9. 
See Jubilee. The only permanent right 
to property was by heritage, or lineal 
succession. The eldest son had a double 
208 



portion. Females had no teiTitorial pos- 
session ; but if a man left no sons, his 
daughters inherited — on condition of 
their marrying into a family within the 
tribe to which their father belonged. 
If a man had no children, his land pass- 
ed to distant relatives, according to a 
law laid down in Num. 27 : 8-11. The 
law of ]\Ioses rendered wills unnecessary ; 
they were introduced, however, at a later 
period. Gal. 3:15; Heb. 9 : 17. Property 
was sometimes distributed among chil- 
dren during the lifetime of the father : 
thus, in the parable of the prodigal son, 
the father divided his property between 
the two sons, Luke 15:12. 

INK, Jer. 36:18. The ink of the an- 
cients Avas thick and durable, and resem- 
bled our printer's ink. The ordinary 
materials were powdered charcoal, or 
ivory-black, water, and gum. The black 
matter of the scuttle-fish was also used. 
Writers carried their inkhorns within, 
or suspended from, their girdles, Ezek. 
9:2. See Girdle. 

INNS. There appear to be three de- 
scriptions of these buildings in the East. 
Some are simply places of rest, (by the 
side of a fountain, if possible,) which, 
being at proper distances on the road, 
are thus named, though they are mere 
naked walls ; others have an attendant, 
wdio subsists either by some charitable 
donation, or the benevolence of passen- 
gers ; and others are more considerable 
establishments, where families reside 
to take care of them, and furnish many 
necessary provisions. 

INSPIRATION, that supernatural in- 
fluence exerted on the minds of the sa- 
cred writers by the Spirit of God, in vir- 
tue of which they unerringly declared 
his will. Whether what they wrote was 
previously familiar to their own know- 
ledge, or, as in many cases it must 
have been, an immediate revelation from 
heaven ; whether his influence in any 
given case was dictation, suggestion, or 
superintendence; and however clearly 
we may trace in their writings the pe- 
culiar character, style, mental endow- 
ments, and circumstances of each ; yet 
the whole of the Bible was written under 
the unerring guidance of the Holy Ghost, 
2 Tim. 3:16. 

Christ everywhere treats the Old Tes- 
tament Scriptures as infallibly true, and 
of divine authority — the word of God. 
To the New Testament writers inspi- 



INT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ISA 



ration was promised, Matt. 10 : 19, 20 ; 
John 1-1 :2G ; 1G:18; and they wrote and 
prophesied under its direction, 1 Cor. 
2 : 10-13 ; 14 : 37 ; Gal. 1 : 12 ; 2 Pet. 
1:21; 3:15; lie v. 1:1, 10-19. 

INTERCES'SION, Christ's appearing 
before the throne in heaven as the Ad- 
vocate of his people, presenting his fin- 
ished work as the reason why their pray- 
ers should be heard and their persons 
accepted in him, Isa. 53:12 ; Rom. 8:34 ; 
lleb. 7:25; 9:24; 1 John 2:1. In thus 
l)leading for sinners as the one Mediator, 
his work is perfect ; it precludes all help 
of virgin, saints, or angels; and will 
certainly prevail. The Holy Spirit in 
the hearts of believers is said to inter- 
cede for them, Rom. 8:26, when he puts 
words into their mouths, and holy de- 
sires into their hearts, such as they 
would otherwise fail of, but which are 
according to the will of God and accept- 
able to him through Christ. 

INTERPRETA'TION, revealing the 
true meaning of supernatural dreams, 
Gen. 41, Dan. 2 ; 4, of unknown tongues, 
etc., ICor. 12:12, 30; 14:5, 13. 

For the right interpretation of the 
word of God, the chief requisites are, a 
renewed heart, supremely desirous to 
learn and do the will of God ; the aid of 
the Holy Spirit, sought and gained ; a 
firm conviction that the word of God 
should rule the errhig reason and heart 
of man ; a diligent comparison of its dif- 
ferent parts, for the light they throw 
upon each other ; all reliable informa- 
tion as to the history and geography, the 
customs, laws, and languages, the public, 
domestic, and inner life of Bible times. 
Thus to study the Bible for one's self is 
the privilege and duty of every one. 

IRON was early known and wrought. 
Gen. 4 : 22. Moses often alludes to it. 
He compares the bondage in Egypt to a 
furnace for smelting iron, and speaks of 
the iron ore of Canaan, Deut. 3 : 11 ; 4 : 20 ; 
8 ; 9. Many dilferent articles and tools 
were anciently made of it. Immense 
quantities were provided for the build- 
ing of the temple, 1 Chr. 29 : 2, 7. 
"Iron" is used to illustrate slavery, 
strength, obstinacy, fortitude, affliction, 
etc., Deut. 28:48 ;* Job 40:18; Isa. 48:4; 
Jcr. 1:18; Ezck. 22:18, 20; Dan. 2:33. 
"Iron sharpeneth iron," says the wise 
man, "so a man sharpeneth the counte- 
nance of his friend;" that is, the pres- 
ence of a friend gives us more confidence 



and assurance. God threatens his im- 
grateful and perfidious people that he 
will make the heaven brass and the earth 
iron ; that is, make the earth barren, and 
the heaven to pi-oduce no rain. Char- 
iots of iron are chariots armed with iron 
spikes and scythes. See Chariots. 

I'SAAC, laughter, Gen. 17:17; 18:12; 
21:6, one of the patriarchal ancestors of 
the Hebrew nation and of Christ, son of 
Abraham and Sarah, b. c. 1896-1705. 
His history is related in Gen. 21 ; 24-28 ; 
35:27-29. He is memorable for the cir-', 
cumstances attending his birth, as a 
child of prophecy and promise, in the 
old age of his parents. Even in child- 
hood he was the object of dislike to his 
brother Ishmael, son of the bondwoman ; 
and in this, a type of all children of the 
promise. Gal. 4:29. Trained in the fear 
of God to early manhood, lie showed a 
noble trust and obedience in his conduct 
during that remarkable trial of faith 
which established Abraham as the "fa- 
ther of the faithful;" and in his meek 
submission to all the will of God, prefig- 
ured the only-begotten Son of the Fa- 
ther. At the age of forty he married 
the pious and lovely Rebekah of Meso- 
potamia. Most of his life was spent in 
the southern part of Canaan and its 
vicinity. At the burial of his father, he 
was joined by his outcast brother Ish- 
mael. Two sons of Isaac are named in 
Scripture. The partiality of the mother 
for Jacob, and of the father for Esau, led 
to luihappy jealousies, discord, sin, and 
long separations between the brothers, 
though all were overruled to accomplish 
the purposes of God. At the age of one 
hundred and thirty-seven, Isaac blessed 
Jacob and sent him away into Mesopota- 
mia. At the age of one hundred and 
eighty, he died, and was buried in the 
tomb of Abraham by his two sons. In 
his natural character, Isaac was humble, 
tranquil, and meditative ; in his piety, 
devout, full of faith, and eminently sub- 
missive to the will of God. 

IS AT AH, the son of Amoz, (not Amos,) 
one of the most distinguished of the He- 
brew proj^hets. He began to prophesy 
at Jerusalem towards the close of the 
reign of Uzziah, about the year 759 b. c, 
and exercised the prophetical office some 
sixty years, under the three following 
monarchs, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, 
Isa. 1:1. Compare 2 Kin. 15-20 ; 2 Chr. 
26 32. The first twelve chapters of his 
200 



ISA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ISA 



prophecies refer to the kingdom of Ju- 
dah; then follow chapters 18-23, directed 
against foreign nations, except chapter 22, 
against Jerusalem. In chapters 24-35, 
which would seem to belong to the time 
of Hezekiah, the prophet appears to look 
forward in prophetic vision to the times 
of the exile and of the Messiah. Chap- 
ters 36-39 give a historical account of 
Sennacherib's invasion, and of the ad- 
vice given by Isaiah to Hezekiah. This 
account is parallel to that in 2 Kin. 
18:13, to 20: 19 ; and indeed chapter 37 of 
Isaiah is almost word for word the same 
with 2 Kin. 19. The remainder of the 
book of Isaiah, chapters 40-66, contains a 
series of oracles referring to the future 
times of temporal exile and deliverance, 
and expanding into glorious views of the 
spiritual deliverance to be wrought by 
the Messiah. 

Isaiah seems to have lived and proph- 
esied wholly at Jerusalem; and disap- 
pears from history after the accounts con- 
tained in chapter"39. A tradition among 
the Talmudists and fathers relates that 
he Avas sawn asunder during the reign of 
Manasseh, Heb. 12:37 ; and this tradition 
is embodied in an apocryphal book, called 
the "ascension of Isaiah ;" but it seems 
to rest on no certain grounds. 

Some commentators have proposed to 
divide the book of Isaiah chronologically 
into three parts, as if composed under 
the three kings, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hez- 
ekiah. But this is of very doubtful pro- 
priety ; since several of the chapters are 
evidently transposed and inserted out of 
their chronological order. But a very 
obvious and striking division of the book 
into two parts exists ; the first part, in- 
cluding the first thirty-nine chapters, 
and the second, the remainder of the 
book, or chapters 40-66. 

The first part is made up of those 
prophecies and historical accounts which 
Isaiah wrote during the period of his 
active exertions, when he mingled in the 
public concerns of the rulers and the peo- 
ple, and acted as the messenger of God 
to the nation in reference to their internal 
and external existing relations. These 
are single prophecies, published at dif- 
ferent times, and on different occasions ; 
afterwards, indeed, brought together into 
one collection, but still marked as dis- 
tinct and single, either by the super- 
scriptions, or in some other obvious and 
known method. 

210 



The second j^art, on the contrary, is 
occupied wholly with the future. It was 
apparently written in the later years of 
the prophet, when, having left all active 
exertions in the theocracy to his younger 
associates in the prophetical office, he 
transferred his contemplations from the 
present to that which was to come. 
In this part therefore, which was not, 
like the first, occasioned by external cir- 
cumstances, it is not so easy to distin- 
guish in like manner between the differ- 
ent single prophecies. The whole is 
more like a single gush of prophecy. 
The prophet first consoles his people by 
announcing their deliverance from the 
approaching Babylonish exile, which he 
had himself predicted, chapter 89 : 6, 7 ; 
he names the monarch -svhom Jehovah 
will send to punish the insolence of 
their oppressors, and lead back the peo- 
ple to their home. But he does not stop 
at this inferior deliverance. With the 
i prospect of freedom from the Babylon- 
ish exile, he connects the prospect of 
deliverance from sin and error through 
; the Messiah. Sometimes both objects 
' seem closely interwoven Avith each oth- 
I er ; sometimes one of them appears 
! alone with particular clearness and 
I prominency. Especially is the view of 
the prophet sometimes so exclusively 
' directed upon the latter object, that, 
filled with the contemplation of the 
glory of the spiritual kingdom of God 
j and of its exalted Founder, he loses sight 
' for a time of the less distant future. In 
the description of this spiritual deliv- 
erance also, the relations of time are 
not observed. Sometimes the prophet 
beholds the Author of this deliverance 
in his humiliation and sorrows; and 
again, the remotest ages of the Messiah's 
kingdom present themselves to his en- 
' raptured vision — when man, so long 
estranged from God, vdW have again re- 
turned to him ; when every thing op- 
posed to God shall have been destroyed, 
and internal and external peace univer- 
sally prevail ; and when all the evil in- 
troduced by sin into tlie world, will be 
for ever done away. Elevated above all 
space and time, the prophet contem- 
plates from the height on which the 
Holy Spirit has thus placed him. the 
whole development of the Messiah's 
kingdom, from its smallest beginnings 
, to its glorious completion. 
i Isaiah is appropriately named "tha 



ISH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ISR 



evangelical prophet." and the fathers 
called his book ' ' the Gospel according to 
St. Isaiah." In it the wonderful person 
and birth of ' ' Emmanuel — God with us, ' ' 
his beneficent life, his atoning death, 
and his triumphant and everlasting king- 
dom, are minutely foretold, Isa. 7: it 
16; 9:6, 7; 11:1-10 : 32 ; 42 ; 49; 52:1:3- 
15; 53; 60; 61:1-3. The simplicity, 
purity, sweetness, and sublimity of Isai- 
ah, and the fulness of his predictions 
respecting the- Messiah, give him the pre- 
eminence among the Hebrew prophets 
and poets. 

ISH'BI-BE'NOB, a giant who was on 
the point of killing David in battle, but 
was slain by Abishai, 2 Sam. 21:16, 17. 

ISH'BOSHETH, son and successor of 
Saul. Abner, Saul's kinsman and gen- 
eral, so managed that Ishbosheth was 
acloiowledged king at Mahanaim by the 
greater part of Israel, while David reign- 
ed at Hebron over Judah. He was forty- 
four 3-ears of age when he began to 
reign, and he reigned two years peacea- 
bly ; after which he was involved in a 
long and unsuccessful war against David. 
Being abandoned by Abner, whom he 
had provoked, he became more and more 
feeble, and was at last assassinated, 2 Sam. 
2:8-11; 3; 4. See Esiibaal. 

ISH'MAEL, I., Gen. 16; 21, son of 
Abraham and Hagar, b. c. 1910. He 
was at first regarded as ' ' the son of the 
promise ;" but after the birth and wean- 
ing of Isaac he was driven from his fa- 
ther's house, at the age of about seven- 
teen, and took with his mother the way to 
Egypt her native land. Overcome with 
heat and thirst, and then miraculously 
relieved, he remained in the Avilderness 
of Paran, took a wife from Egypt, and 
was the father of twelve sons, heads of 
Arab tribes. He seems to have become 
on friendly terms with Isaac, and to 
have attended at the bedside of their 
dying father. At his own death, he was 
one hundred and thirty-seven years old, 
Gen. 25:9, 17. 

The Ishmaelites, his posterity, were 
said, in the days of Moses, to dwell j 
"from Havilah unto Shur that is be- 
fore Egj-pt," that is. in the north-west- ' 
ern part of Arabia. See Havil.\h II. \ 
Subsequently they, with the descendants ' 
of Joktan, the fourth from Shem, Gen. ' 
10 : 26-29, and Jokshan, the son of I 
Abraham by Keturah, Gen. 25 : 3, and { 
perhaps also of some of the brethren 1 



of Joktan and Jokshan, occupied the 
whole peninsula of Arabia. See Ara- 
bia. They became very numerous and 
powerful, according to the divine prom- 
ise, Gen. 17:16. The prediction also 
in Gen. 16 : 12, has been fully verified 
in their history. Located near their 
"brethren" the Jews, they have al- 
ways led a roving, wild, and predatory 
life. To a great degree unchanged, they 
are to this day the untamed though 
tributary masters of the desert. See 

MiDIANITES. 

II. A prince of Judah, who fled to the 
Ammonites when Jerusalem was de- 
stroyed by the Chaldeans. Soon after, 
he returned and assassinated Gedaliah 
the governor and many others ; but was 
obliged to flee for his life, Jcr. 40 ; 41. 

ISLE, ISLAND. The Hebrew word 
which is more commonly translated isle, 
means strictly dry land, habitable coun- 
try, in opposition to water, or to seas 
and rivers, Isa. 42 : 15. Compare Isa. 
50 : 2. Hence, as opposed to water in 
general, it means land adjacent to water, 
either washed or surrounded by it, that 
is, maritime country, coast, island. Thus 
it means coast, when used of Ashdod, 
Isa. 20 : 6 ; of T}-re, Isa. 23 : 2, 6 ; of Pe- 
loponnesus, or Greece, Ezek. 27:7, "the 
isles of Elishah. ' ' It means island when 
used of Caphtor, for example, or Crete, 
Jer. 47:4; also Jer. 2:10; so Psa. 97:1 ; 
and also Esth. 10 : 1, where the phrase 
isles of the sea is in antithesis Avith the 
land or continent. The plural of this 
word, usually translated islands, was 
employed by the Hebrews to denote dis- 
tant regions beyond the sea, whether 
coasts or islands; and especially the 
islands and maritime countries of the 
west, which had become indistinctly 
known to the Hebrews, through the voy- 
ages of the Phoenicians, Isa. 24 : 15 ; 
40 : 15 ; 42 : 4, 10, 12 ; Psa. 72 : 10. In 
Ezek. 27:15, the East Indian Archipela- 
go would seem to be intended. 

IS'RAEL. who prevails with God, a name 
given to Jacob, after having wrestled 
with the An2:el- Jehovah at Penuel. Gen. 
32 : 1. 2, 28, 30 : Hosea 12:3. See Jacob. 
By the name Israel is sometimes under- 
stood all the posterity of Israel, the seed 
of Jacob, 1 Cor. 10 : 18 ; sometimes all 
true believers, his spiritual seed. Rom. 
9:6; and sometimes the kingdom of 
Israel, or the ten tribes, as distinct from 
the kingdom of Judah. 

211 



ISR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



IVO 



IS'RAELITES, the "children of Isra- 
el," a name of the twelve tribes unitedly 
until the separation under Rehoboam, 
when it became the usual designation of 
the ten tribes forming the kingdom of 
Israel. Ephraim, the leading tribe 
among the ten, seems to have shown an 
early spirit of rivalry towards Judah ; 
Joshua had belonged to Ephraim, the 
ark had long rested within its borders at 
Shiloh, and Jeroboam was also an Ephra- 
imite. After the division, in order to 
prevent the ten tribes from repairing to 
.Jerusalem to worship, the two golden 
calves were set up, at Bethel and Dan, 
and thus idolatry was established in 
those tribes, and corruption and ungod- 
liness increased more rapidly than in 
Judah. Israel was chastised by sword, 
famine, etc. ; and at length, having 
been often reproved and hardening their 
necks, they were suddenly destroyed, and 
that without remedy. During the two 
hundred and fifty-four years of the king- 
dom of Israel, b. c. 975-721, there were 
nineteen different kings, of various lines. 
See Kings. Shechem, Thirzah, and Sa- 
maria were in turn the seats of govern- 
ment. After their captivity by Shal- 
maneser, the Israelites as a nation never 
returned. Those who did return were 
merged in the tribes of Judah and Ben- 
jamin, and with them constituted the 
Jews of our Saviour's day. See Canaan, 
Hebrews, and Juda.h. 

IS'SACHAPt, recompense, so named by 
Leah his mother. Gen. 30:18, the ninth 
son of Jacob, born b. c. 1749. The 
character of his posterity was foretold by 
Jacob and by Moses, Gen. 49 : 14, 15 ; 
Dent. 83:18, 19. 

The tribe or Issaciiar numbered fifty- 
four thousand men in the desert, and on 
entering Canaan was the third in pop- 
ulation. Num. 1:28 ; 26:25. Their por- 
tion, having the Jordan on the east, 
Manasseh on the west, Zebulun north, 
and Ephraim south, included a consider- 
able part of the fine plain of Esdraelon, 
the most fertile in the country. They 
were industrious agriculturists, and are 
mentioned with honor for their brave 
and wise patriotism, Judg. 5:15; 1 Chr. 
7:1-5: 12:32. 

ITALY is not mentioned in the Old 
Testament, unless under general terms, 
as Chittim, Isles of the sea. In the New 
Testament, Acts 18 : 2 ; 27 : 1, 6 ; Heb. 
13:24, it is chief! v of interest on account 
212 



of Rome, which see. The Italian band, 
mentioned in Acts 10:1, was probably a 
Roman cohort from Italy, stationed at 
Cassarea ; so called to distinguish it from 
the other troops, which were drawn from 
Syria and the adjacent regions. 

ITHAMAR, the fourth son of Aaron, 
consecrated to tlie priesthood, Ex. 6:23 ; 
Num. 3:2, 3. His posterity took charge 
of the tabernacle in the wilderness, Ex. 
38:21 ; Num. 4:28. Some of this line, 
namely, Eli, Ahitub, Ahiah, Ahimelech, 
and Abiathar, held the office of high- 
priest, but under Solomon it reverted to 
the family of Eleazar, 1 Kin. 2:7. See 
Abiathar. 

ITUREA, a region in the extreme 
north-east of Palestine, perpetuating the 
name of Jetur a son of Ishmael, and be- 
longing to the half-tribe of Manasseh, 
1 Chr. 1 : 31 ; 5 : 19. The name Jedur 
still remains there. In the time of 
Christ, Iturea was in the tetrarchy of 
Philip, Luke 3:1. It lay about midway 
between the sea of Galilee and Damas- 
cus, but its limits are not well known. 
Its inhabitants are said to have been skil- 
ful archers and dexterous robbers. 




IVORY : FROM EGYPTIAN KUINS. 

I'VORY is mentioned in the reign of 
Solomon, and referred to in Psalm 45, 
as used in decorating palaces. Solomon, 
who traded to India, brofight thence ele- 
phants and ivory to Judea. "For the 
king had at sea a navy of Tarshish, with 
the" navy of Hiram : once in three years 
came the navy of Tarshish, bringing gold 
and silver and ivory," 1 Kin. 10:22; 
2 Chr. 9:21. Solomon had a throne dec- 
orated with ivory, and inlaid with gold, 
these beautiful materials relieving the 
splendor and heightening the lustre of 



J AD 



BIBLE DlCTlONAJir. 



J AC 



each other, 1 Kin. 10 : 18. Ivory, as is 
well known, is the substance of the tusks 
of elephants, and hence it is always call- 
ed in Hebrew, tooth. 

As to the "ivory houses," 1 Kin. 
22 : 39, Amos 3:15, they may have had 
ornaments of ivory, as they som.:tunes 
have of gold, silver, or other precious 
mxterials, in such abundance as to be 
n:imed from the article of their decora- 
tion ; as the emperor Nero's palace was 
named aurea, or golden, because overlaid 
with gold. This method of ornamenting 
buildings or apartments was very ancient 
among the Greeks, and is mentioned by 
Homer. See Ezek. 27:6, 15; Amos 6:4; 
Rev. 18:12. 



J. 



JA'BAL, son of Lamech and Adah, 
and a descendant of Cain. He is sup- 
posed to have been the llrst to adopt the 
nomadic mode of life, still practised in 
Arabia and Tartary, and to have invent- 
ed portable tents, perhaps of skins, Gen. 
4:20. 

JAB'BOK, now the Zerka, a perennial 
stream, flowing into the Jordan midway ! 
between the sea of Galilee and the Dead \ 
sea, about thirty miles from each, after 
a westerly course of some sixty miles. It 
traverses at tirst an elevated and desert 
region, and receives a branch from the 
north and another from the south. Tliis 
latter branch separated the Ammonites 
from Israel. The eastern part of the 
Jabbok is dry in summer. Towards the 
west, it flows through a deep ravine. 
Penuel, where Jacob wrestled with the 
Angel, was a fording-place of the Jab- 
bok, Gjn. 32 : 22. This stream divided 
the territory of Og from that of Sihon, 
Josh. 12 : 2, 5, and traversed the region 
afterwards assigned to the tribe of Gad. 

JA'BESH, a city in the half-tribe of 
Minasseh east of the Jordan, generally | 
called Jabesh-gilead because situated : 
within the territory commonly called , 
Gileid. Eusebius places it six miles j 
from Bella, towards Gerasa. It was ! 
sicked by the Israelites for refusing to j 
aid in chastising the Benjamites, Judg. I 
21:8-10. At a later day, it was besieged } 
by the Ammonites, and relieved by Saul ; | 
in gratitude for which service the men of I 
Jabesh-gilead rescued the dead bodies of j 
Saul and his sons from the insiilts of the 



Philistines, 1 Sam. 11 ; 31 : 11-1:3 ; 2 Sam. 
2:5. 

JA'BEZ, a descendant of Judah, whose 
high distinction among his brethren 
seems to have been owing to his preva- 
lence in prayer, 1 Chr. 4:9, 10. 

JA'BIN, I., a powerful king in the 
time of Joshua, at Hazor in the north 
of Canaan. The league Avhich he or- 
ganized to crush Joshua, only made his 
own ruin more complete, Josh. 11, b. c. 
1450. 

II. Another king of Hazor, a century 
and a half later, who sorely oppressed 
Israel for twenty years, till Deborah and 
Barak were raised up as deliverers, Judg. 
4 ; Psa. 83 : 9. 

JAB'NEH, afterwards Jamnia, now 
Jebna, a Philistine city on the Mediter- 
ranean coast, some twelve miles south of 
Joppa. It was conquered by the Jews, 
2 Chr. 26:6. 

JA'CHIN, God confirms, the name of 
the right-hand brazen column at the 
entrance of Solomon's temple, 1 Kin. 
7:21. See BoAz. 

JA'CINTH, or Hyacinth, a gem of a 
yellowish red or hyacinth color, nearly 
related to zircon and to the amethyst. 
It loses its color by being heated, and 
resembles the diamond, Eev. 9 : 17 ; 
21:20. 

JA'COB, son of Isaac and Eebekah, 
and twin-brother to Esau. As at his 
birth he held his brother's heel, he was 
called Jacob, that is, the heel-holder, 
one who comes behind and catches the 
heel of his adversary, a supplanter. Gen. 
25 : 26. This was a kind of predictive 
intimation of his future conduct in life. 
Jacob was meek and peaceable, living a 
shepherd life at home. Esau was more 
turbulent and fierce, and passionately 
fond of hunting. Isaac was partial to 
Esau, Piebekah to Jacob. Jacob hav- 
ing taken advantage of his brother's 
absence and his fiither's infirmity to 
obtain the blessing of the birthright, 
or primogeniture, was compelled to fly 
into Mesopotamia to avoid the conse- 
quences of his brother's wrath. Gen. 27 ; 
28. On his journey the Lord appeared 
to him in a dream, (see Ladder,) prom- 
ised him His protection, and declared His 
purpose relative to his descendants' pos- 
sessing the land of Canaan, and the de- 
scent of the Messiah through him. Gen. 
28:10, etc. His subsequent days, which 
he calls "few and evil," were clouded 
213 



JAC 



BIBLE DICTION AliY. 



JAM 



with many Borrows, yet amid them all 
he was svistained by the care and favor 
of God. On his solitary journey of six 
hundred miles into Mesopotamia, and 
during the toils and injuries of his twen- 
ty years' service with Laban, God still 
prospered him, and on his return to the 
land of promise inclined the hostile spir- 
its of Laban and of Esau to peace. On 
the border of Canaan the angels of God 
met him, and the God of angels wrestled 
with him, yielded him the blessing, and 
gave him the honored name of Israel. 
But sore trials awaited him : his mother 
Avas no more ; his sister-wives imbittered 
his life with their jealousies ; his chil- 
dren Dinah, Simeon, Levi, and Reuben 
filled him with grief and shame ; his be- 
loved Rachel and his father were remov- 
ed by death ; Joseph his favorite son he 
had given up as slain by wild beasts ; i 
and the loss of Benjamin threatened to 
bring his gray hairs with sorrow to the 
grave. But the sunset of his life was 
majestically calm and bright. For sev- 
enteen years, he enjoyed in the land of 
Goshen a serene happiness : he gave a 
dying blessing in Jehovah's name to his 
assembled sons ; visions of their future 
prosperity rose before his eyes, especially 
the long line of the royal race of Judah, 
culminating in the glorious kingdom of 
SniLOH. "He saw it, and was glad." 
Soon after, he was gathered to his fathers, 
and his body was embalmed, and buried 
with all possible honors in the burial- 
place of Abraham near Hebron, b. c. 
1836-1689. In the history of Jacob w-e 
observe that in repeated instances he 
used unjustifiable means to secure prom- 
ised advantages, instead of waiting, in 
faith and obedience, for the unfailing 
providence of God. We observe also the 
divine chastisement of his sins, and his 
steadfast growth in grace to the last. 
Gen. 25-50. His name is found in the 
New Testament, illustrating the sove- 
reignty of God and the power of faith, 
Rom. 9:13; Heb. 11:9, 21. 

JACOB'S WELL. See Siiechem. 

JA'EL, wife of Heber the Kenite, slew 
Sisera, general of the Canaanitish army, 
who had fled to her tent, which was then 
temporarily on the western border of the 
plain of Esdraelon. Jael took her oppor- 
tunity, and while he was sleeping, drove 
a large nail or tent-pin through his tem- 
ples, Judg. 4:17-23. The life of Sisera 
was undoubtedly forfeited to the Israel- 
214 



ites by the usages of war, and probably 
to society by his crimes. Besides this, 
the life or honor of Jael may have been 
in danger, or her feelings of hospitality 
may have been overpowered by a sudden 
impulse to avenge the oppressed Israel- 
ites, with whom she was allied by blood. 
Tlie song of Deborah celebrates the act 
as one of justice and heroism, and as a 
divine judgment which, as well as the 
defeat of Sisera' s host, was the more dis- 
graceful to him for being wrought by a 
woman, Judg. 5:1, 24-27, 31. 

JAH, a Hebrew contraction for Jeho- 
vah, Psa. 68:4. It is often found in He- 
brew compound words, as in Adonijah, 
Malachia, Hallelujah. 

JA'HAZ, Jaha'zah, or Jah'zah, a city 
in the north of Moab, near which Moses 
defeated Sihon, Num. 21:23. It was in 
the limits of Reuben, and was a Levitical 
city, Josh. 21:36. In Isa. 15:4, and Jer. 
48:21, it appears as again in the hands 
of Moabites. 

JAIR, I., a leader in the conquest of 
Bashan, probably before the Jews crossed 
the Jordan, b. c. 1451. Twenty-three 
cities near Argob were called after him 
Havoth-jair, which see. 

11. The eighth judge of Israel, in Gil- 
ead of Manasseh, b. c. 1210. He seems 
to have been a descendant and heir of 
the former, Judg. 10:3-5. 

JAI'RUS, a ruler of the synagogue at 
Capernaum, memorable for his faith in 
Christ. His deceased daughter, twelve 
years of age, was restored to life and 
health by the Saviour, Mark 5 : 22 ; Luke 
8:41. 

JAM'BRES. See Jan'nes. 

JAMES, I., surnamed the greater, or 
the elder, to distinguish him from James 
the younger, was one of the twelve apos- 
tles, brother of John the evangelist, and 
son of Zebedee and Salome, Matt. 4:21 ; 
27 : 56. Compare Mark 15 : 40. James 
was of Bethsaida in Galilee, and left his 
earthly occupation to follow Christ, Mark 
1 : 19, 20. His mother Salome was one of 
those women who occasionally attended 
our Saviour in his journeys, and one day 
desired that her two sons might be seated 
at his right and left hand in his king- 
dom. Matt. 20:20-23. 

James and John were originally fish- 
ermen, with Zebedee their father, Mark 
1 : 19. They were witnesses of our Lord's 
transfiguration, Matt. 17:1, 2 ; and when 
certain Samaritans refused to receive him, 



J A M 



BIbLE DICTIONARY 



JAS 



James andJohu wished for lire from heav- 
en to consume tliem, Lulie 9 : 54. For this 
reason, or because of their zeal and en- 
ergy as ministers of Christ, tlie name of 
Boanerges, or sons of thunder, was after- 
wards given to them, Mark 3:17. To- 
gether with Peter tliey appear to have 
enjoyed special honors and privileges 
among the disciples, Mark 1 : 29 : 5 : o7 ; 
9 : 2 ; 13 : 3 ; 14 : 33 ; Luke 8 : 51. After 
the ascension of our Lord, at which 
James w^as present, he appears to have 
remained at Jerusalem, and was put to 
death by Herod, about^\. d. 44, the first 
martyr among the apostles, Acts 12:1, 2. 

II. Another apostle, son of Alpha^us, 
or Cleophas, Matt. 10 : 3 ; Mark 3 : 18 ; 
Luke 6 : 15. His mother's name was 
Mary, (III. ,) and his brethren were Joses 
and Judas, (III.,) Matt. 27 : 56 ; Mark 
15:40. He is here called the less, or the 
younger, to distinguish him from James 
the son of Zebedee. 

IIL "The Lord's brother," GaL 1:19; 
either a brother of Christ, being a son 
of Joseph and Mary ; or as many think, 
a cousin of Christ, and identical with the 
James above, II. He resided at Jerusa- 
lem, Acts 15:13; and is called "the 
Just" by Josephus, and said to have 
liecn stoned to death, about a. d. 62. 
The epistle of James is ascribed to him 
by those wlio distinguish him from James 
the Less. The question of his true rela- 
tionship to Christ is involved in much 
doubt. The gospels repeatedly men- 
tion James, Joses, Juda, and Simon, as 
' ' brothers ' ' of our Lord, and speak in 
the same connection of his "mother" 
and his "sisters," Matt. 12 : 46 ; 13 : 56 ; 
Mark 3:31 ; 6:3 ; Luke 8:19 ; moreover, 
the inspired writers expressly distinguish 
the brothers of Christ from the apostles, 
while they include among the apostles 
both James the Less and Jude, John 
2 : 12 ; 7 : 3-10 ; Acts 1 : 13, 14, thiis fur- 
nishing strong reasons, as many believe, 
for the opinion that James the Just was 
literall}^ a brother of our Lord. 

The Epistle of James is generally sup- 
posed to have been written at Jerusalem, 
about A. D. 61, by James the Just, short- 
ly before his death. It is addressed 
particularly to Jewish converts, but was 
intended for the benefit of (Christians 
generally. It is hence called catholic. 
See Catholic and Epistle. It has often 
been regarded as teaching a different 
doctnne in respect to faith and works, 



from what Paul teaches in his epistle 
to the Komans. But the doctrine of 
the two apostles is at bottom the same, 
only that Paul dwells more on faith, the 
sole origin of good works; and James 
dwells more on good works, which result 
from true faith. According to Paul, 
there can be no true faith w^hich does 
not manifest itself in good works ; and 
according to James, there can be no truly 
good works which do not spring from 
true faith. 

JAN'NES and JAM'BRES were two of 
the principal Egyptian magicians, who 
withstood Moses and Aaron by attempt- 
ing to imitate the miracles which they 
exhibited. See Exod. 7:11, etc. These 
names are not found in the Old Testa- 
ment, but are often mentioned in the 
rabbinical books. 2 Tim. 3:8. 

JA'PHETH, enlargement, the eldest of 
Noah's three sons. Gen. 9 : 24 ; 10 : 21, 
born one hundred years before the flood. 
He was perhaps the lapetos, whom Greek 
legends represent as the progenitor of 
the Greek race. His seven sons, Gen. 
10:2-5; 1 Chr. 1:5, occupied with their 
posterity the north of Asia and most of 
Europe. The probable location of each 
of the seven is described in its place. In 
later years the Greeks and Eomans sub- 
dued large portions of Southern and 
Western Asia, in accordance with the 



prediction of Noah, Gen. 



The 



enlargement" of Japheth now extends 
over America also. 

JAPH'O. See Joppa. 

JASH'EPi, the book of, that is, the 
book of the upright, or of the excellent, 
noble-minded. This work is mentioned 
in Josh. 10 : 13, and 2 Sam. 1 : 18, and 
would seem to have been a collection of 
national, historical, triumphal, and ele- 
giac songs, which was still extant in the 
time of David. Josephus speaks of a 
book of Jasher as then existing in the 
temple, but nothing is known respecting 
it. The books now published under this 
name are gross forgeries. 

JA'SON, a kinsman and host of Paul, 
at Thessalonica. His person and goods 
were interposed to shield the apostle 
from the rabble, a. d. 52, Acts 17:5-10. 
He seems also to have been with him 
at Corinth, five years afterwards, Eom, 
16:21. 

JAS'PEE, a precious stone of various 
colors, as green, purple, etc.. often cloud- 
ed Avith white, and beautifully striped 
215 



JAV 



WiiLE UllTlOXAllY. 



J Ell 



witli red or yellow, Ex. 28:20 ; Rev. 4:3 ; 
21:11. 

JA'YAN, the fourth son of Japheth, 
Gen. 10:2, 4. This name is the same as 
the Greek Ion, whence comes Ionia, and 
it is understood that Javan was the an- 
cestor of the Greeks. See Greece. 

JA'ZER, or Jaazer, Num. 21 : 32, a 
city of the Amorites, in Gilead ; after- 
wards a Levitical city in Gad. It la.y 
some fifteen miles north of Heshhon, 
near a small stream. Num. 32:1 ; Josh. 
21:39; 1 Glir. 26:31 ; Jer. 48:32. 

JEAL'OUSY. See under Adultery. 
The idol of jealousy, Ezck. 8:3, 5, is the 
sxme with Thammuz in verse 14. See 

TlIAMMUZ. 

JEB'USITES. See Canaanites. 

JECONI'AH. See Jehoiacuin. 

JEDIDI'AH, beloved of the Lord, a name 
given to Solomon at his birth, bv Nathan 
the prophet, 2 Sam. 12:25. 

JED'UTHUN, a Levite, one of the di- 
rectors of music at the temple, 1 Chr. 
16:33-42. His descendants held the 
same office, 2 Chr. 35:15; Neh. 11:17; 
and the name of one of them appears 
in the title of Psalms 39, 62, 77. See 
Asaph. 

JE'GAR-SAHADU'THA, heap of wit- 
ness, a Chaldee name, equivalent to Ga- 
leed in Hebrew, both marking the scene 
of the covenant between Jacob and La- 
ban, Gen. 31:47. 

JEHO'AHAZ, I., son and successor of 
Jehu king of Israel, b. c. 856, reigned 
seventeen years. In punishment for his 
sins and those of his people, Israel was 
invaded and reduced to great extrgmi- 
ties by the Syrians under Hazael and 
Benhadad. The king humbled himself 
bsfore God, and deliverance came by the 
hand of Joash his son, 2 Kin. 13:19, 25. 

II. Also called Shallum, 1 Chr. 3:15, 
the third son and the successor of Josiah 
king of Judah, b. c. 609, reigned about 
three months in Jerusalem. He was de- 
posed by the king of Egvpt, 2 Kin. 23 : 30- 
34 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 1-4. See also Jer. 22 : 10- 
13; Ezek. 19:3. 

JEHO'ASH. See Joash. 

JEHOI'ACHIN, son and successor of 
Jehoiakim, king of Judah, b. c. 503, 
reigned three months, and was then car- 
ried away to Babylon, where he Avas im- 
prisoned for thirty-six years, and then 
released and favored by Evil-merodach, 
2 Kin. 24:6-16; 25:27; 2 Chr. 36:9, ¥). 
In this last passage he is said to have 
21G 



been eight years old at the commence- 
ment of his reign. If the text has not 
here been altered from eighteen years, 
as it stands in the first passage, we may 
conclude that he reigned ten years con- 
jointly with his father. He is also called 
Coniah, and Jeconiah, 1 Chr. 3:16; Jer. 
27 : 20; 37 : 1. The prediction in Jer. 
22 : 30. signified that no son of his should 
occupy the throne, IChr. 3:17, 18 ; Matt. 
1:12. 

JEHOI'ADA, a high-priest, who pre- 
served the life and throne of the young 
Josiah against the usurping Athaliah. 
His wisdom and piety continued to bless 
the kingdom until he died, b. c. 834, 
aged 130, and was buried wdth royal 
honors, 2 Kin. 11 ; 2 Chr. 23 ; 24. 

JEHOIAKIM, or Eli'akim, second son 
of Josiah, brother and successor of Je- 
lioahaz or Shallum, king of Judah, for 
whom he was substituted by tlie king 
of Egypt. He was king during eleven 
years of luxury, extortion, and idolatry. 
In the third year, Nebuchadnezzar car- 
ried to Babylon a part of his princes and 
treasures. A year after, his allies the 
Egyptians were defeated on the Euphra- 
tes ; yet he despised the warnings of Jer- 
emiah, and cast his book into the fire. 
At length he rebelled against Nebuchad- 
nezzar, but was defeated and inglorious- 
ly slain, b. c. 599, 2 Kin. 23:34 ; 24:6 ; 
2 Chr.. 36: 4-8; Jer. 22; 26; 36. 

JEHO'EAM. See Joram. 

JEHOSH'APHAT, a pious king of Ju- 
dah, the son and successor of Asa. Ho 
began to reign at the age of thirty-five, 
about the year 914 b. c, and reigned 
twenty-five years. His history is found 
in 1 Kin. 15:24 ; 22 ; 2 Chr. 17-20. He 
was distinguished by his zeal for true 
religion, and his firm trust in God. He 
thoroughly cleansed the land from idol- 
atry, restored the divine ordinances, and 
provided for the religious instruction of 
the people. His government Avas highly 
prospered at home and abroad. The 
great error of his life was, an entangling 
alliance with the wicked Ahab, whose 
infamous daughter Athaliah early began 
to afflict the kingdom of Judah, of which 
she was afterwards the queen. Jehosha- 
phat was beguiled by Ahab into an un- 
successful war with the Syrians, but soon 
resumed his labors in behalf of religion 
and justice. Having failed in a commer- 
cial enterprise with Ahaziah, he declined 
a second trial, 1 Kin. 22 : 48, 49, but 



JEH 



BIBLE DICTIONAIIY. 



JEP 



united with Joram, his successor, in a 
war with Moab. This seems to have led 
to his being assailed by a vast host of Mo- 
abites, Ammonites, Edomites, and Syr- 
ians ; but again he was victorious through 
his faith in God. He died at the age of 
sixty years. 

Jeiioshaphat, vallky of, or valley of 
the judgment of God, a metaphorical name 
of some place where God Avould judge 
the foes of his people, Joel 3 : 2, 12, 
There is no ground for applying it to 
any known locality, or for connecting 
it, unless for mere illustration, with the 
great battle of Jehoshaphat described in 
2 Chr. 20. Since the third century, how- 
ever, the name has been appropriated to 
the deep and narrow glen east of Jeru- 
salem, running north and south between 
the city and the mount of Olives, called 
in the Bible the brook Kidron. See Je- 
rusalem. 

JEHOSH'EBA, the aunt of Joash, king 
of Judah, whose life in infancy and child- 
hood she saved, in spite of the designs of 
Athaliah, 2 Kin. 11:1-3. 

JEHO'VAH, the ineftable name of God 
among the Hebrews. It never has the 
article before it, nor is it found in the 
plural form. Tlie Jews never pronounc- 
ed this name ; and wherever it occurs in 
the Hebrew Scriptures, they substituted 
for it, in reading, the word Adonai, Lord, 
or Eloiiim, God. See God. In the He- 
brew Bible, it is always written with the 
vowels of one or the other of these words. 
Its ancient pronunciation is by many 
thought to have been Yahveh, but this is 
not certain. Its meaning is He is, the 
same as I am, the person only being 
changed. Thus it denotes the self-exist- 
ence, independence, immutability, and 
infinite fulness of the divine Being, which 
is a pledge that he will fulfil all his 
promises. Compare Ex. 3:14, I am that 
I AM, the meaning of which see imder 
the article God. In Ex. 6:3, God says, 
"I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, 
and unto Jacob, by the name of God 
Almighty ; but by my name Jehovah 
was I not known to them;" yet the 
appellation Jehovah appears to have 
been known from the beginning. Gen. 
4 : 2. We have I'eason to believe that 
God himself, who named man Adam, 
named himself Jeuovaii ; but in his rev- 
elation to the patriarchs he had not ap- 
propriated to himself this name in a 
peculiar way, as he now did, nor unfald- 
10 



ed the deep meaning contained in it. 
He had said to them, "I am God Al- 
mighty," Gen. 17:1; 26:11; or, "lam 
Jehovah, the God of Abraham," etc. ; 
but never simply, " I am Jehovah." It 
should be remembered that our English 
version translates this name by the word 
Lord, printed in small capitals. 

Jehovah-jireh, Jehovah will provide, 
the name given by Abraham to the place 
where he had been on the point of slay- 
ing his son Isaac, Gen. 22:14. He gave 
this name in allusion to his answer to 
Isaac's question in verse 8, that God 
would provide a victim for the sacrifice. 

Jeuovah-nis'si, Jehovah my banner, Ex. 
17:15. 

jEiiovAH-snA'LOM, Jehovah of peace or 
prosperity, the name given by Gideon to 
an altar which he built in the place 
where the Angel-Jehovah had appeared 
to him, and saluted him by saying, 
"Peace be unto thee," Judg. 6:24. 

jEHOVAH-SHAM'MAir, Jchovah is there, the 
name given by Ezekiel, 48:35, margin, 
to a future holy city. 

Jehovah-tzidke'nu, Jehovah our right- 
eousness, a name given to the Saviour, 
and through him to his church, Jer. 
23:6; 33:16, margin. 

JE'HU, L, the son of Hanani, a proph- 
et, sent with messages from God to Baa- 
sha king of Israel, and many years after- 
wards, to Jehoshaphat king of Judah, 
1 Kin. 16:1-7; 2 Chr. 19:1-3; 20:34. 

II. The "son" of Jehoshaphat and 
grandson of Nimshi, (compare 1 Kin. 
19:16, and 2 Kin. 9:2,) a general of the 
army of Joram, slew his master, and 
usurped the throne of Israel, b. c. 884. 
He reigned twenty-eight years. See his 
history in 1 Kin. 19: 16, 17 ; 2 Kin. 9 ; 10. 
He fulfilled the divine purpose in extir- 
pating the family of the impious Ahab, 
and zealously destroyed the priests of 
Baal and many other friends of Ahab. 
But his heart was not right with God, 
The Syrians possessed themselves of his 
eastern frontier, and his dynasty was cut 
short in the fourth generation. 

JEPH'THAH, the son of Gilead, was 
a judge of Israel, and successor to Jair. 
His history is told in Judg. 11 ; 12. A 
most affecting incident in it is his devot- 
ing his daughter to God as a sacrifice, in 
consequence of a rash vow. 

The arguments on the question wheth- 
er Jephthah's daughter was actually sac- 
rificed or not cannot here be cited. The 
217 



JEU 



131ULE JJICTIONAIIY. 



J Eli 



natural repugnance -nvc feel to such a vow 
and its fultilment has led many inter- 
preters to adopt the less obvious theory 
that she was only condemned to live and 
die unmarried. There is no intimation 
in Scriptinc that God approved of his 
vow, whatever it was. Paul numbers 
Jephthah among the saints of the Old 
Testament distmguished for their faith, 
Ilcb. 11:32. 

JEPiEMI'AH, one of the chief prophets 
of the Old Testament, prophesied under 
Josiah, Jehoiakim, and Zedckiah, and 
also after the captivity of the latter. He 
was born at Anathoth, of the race of the 
priests, and was destined of God to be a 
prophet, and consecrated for that object 
before his birth, Jer. 1:1,5. At an early 
age he was called to act as a prophet, 
B. c. 028, in the thirteenth year of king 
Josiah. This good king no doubt coop- 
crated with him to promote the reforma- 
tion of the people ; but the subsequent 
life of the prophet was full of afflictions 
and persecutions. Jehoiakim threw his 
prophetic roll into the lire, and sought 
his life. Zcdekiah Avas kindly instructed 
by him, and Avarned of the woes impend- 
ing over his guilty people, and of their 
seventy years' captivity, but to no pur- 
pose. The fidelity of the prophet often 
endangered his life, and he was in prison 
Avhen Jerusalem was taken by Nebuchad- 
nezzar. That monarch released him, and 
offered him a home in Babylon ; but he 
chose to remain with the remnant of the 
Jews, and was carried by them erelong 
into Egypt, b. c. 586, still faithfully ad- 
vising and reproving them till he died. 
For forty-two years he steadfastly main- 
tained the cause of truth and of God 
against his rebellious people. Though 
naturally mild, sensitive, and retiring, 
he shrank from no danger when duty 
called ; threats could not silence him, 
nor ill-usage alienate him. Tenderly 
compassionate to his infatuated coun- 
trymen, he shared Avith them the Avoes 
which he could not induce them to avert 
from their own heads. 

The BOOK OF Jebkhiaii, in the chro- 
nological order of its several predictions 
and divine messages, is somewhat diffi- 
cult of arrangement ; but may be divid- 
ed, by a natural and sufficiently accu- 
rate method, into foiu' general sections, 
containing severally the prophecies ut- 
tered in the reigns of Josiah, Jehoiakim, 
Zedekiah, and Gedaliah. The last chap- 
218 



[ ter of the book appears to have been 
added, perhaps by Ezra ; it is taken al- 
most verbatim from 2 Kin. 24 : 18-20, 
and ch. 25. See Jer. 51:64. 
j Jeremiah Avrote also the book of Lam- 
, ENTATiONS, in Avliich he utters the most 
! plaintive and pathetic sentiments over 
I the calamities of his people. Sec Lam- 

I EXTVTIONS. 

JERTCHO, a city of Benjamin, Josh. 
I 16:7 ; 18:21, about eighteen miles east- 
' north-east of Jerusalem, and scA'cn miles 
from the Jordan. It Avas the first city 
in Canaan taken by Joshua, Avho being 
miraculously aided by the doAvnfall of 
its Avails, totally destroyed it, sparing 
only Eahab and her household, and pro- 
nounced a curse upon the person Avho 
should ever rebuild it, Avhich Avas mcie 
than five hundred years afterAvards ful- 
filled on Hicl, Josh. 6:26 ; 1 Kin. 16:84. 
MeanAvhile a ncAV Jericho had been built 
on some neighboring site, Judg. 3:13; 
2 Sam. 10:5. Jericho Avas also called the 
"city of palm-trees," Dent. 34:3, Judg. 
1:16, and became afterAvards fiourithing 
and second in importance only to Jeru- 
salem. It contained a schccl of the 
prophets, and Avas the residence cf Eli- 
sha, 2 Kin. 2 : 4, 18. Here also Christ 
healed tAvo blind men. Matt. 20 : 29-34, 
and forgave Zaccheus, Luke l'J:l-10. 

The site of Jericho has usually been 
fixed at Iiihah, a mean and foul Arab 
hamlet cf some tAvo hundred inhabit- 
ants. Bcccnt travellers, hoAvever, j^hcAV 
that the probable location cf Jericho 
Avas tAvo miles Avest cf Idhah, at the 
mouth of Wady Kelt, and a\ here the read 
from Jerusalem c< mcs into the plain. 
The city destroyed by Jcshua may have 
been nearer to the fotmtain cf Elisha, 
supposed to be the present Ain es-Sultan, 
tAvo miles north-Avest cf Eihah. On the 
Avcst and north of Jericho lise high lime- 
stone hills, one cf Avhich, the dreary 
Quarantana, 1,2C0 or 1,l€0 feet high, 
derives its name from the modern tra- 
elition that it Avas the scene of our Lord's 
forty days' fast and temptatien. EetAvcen 
the "hills and the Jordan lies "the plain 
i of Jericho," Josh. 4:13, over against 
I "the plains of Moab " east of the river. 
I It Avas anciently well watered and amaz- 
I inglv fruitful. It might easily be made 
j so again, but noAV lies neglected, and the 
palm-trees, balsam, and honey, for Avhich 
I it Avas once famous, have disappeared. 
I Tlic road from Jericho to Jerusalem 



JEH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JEH 




THE PLAIN OF JERICHO, FROM THE HILLS ON THE WEST. 



ascends through narrow and rocky passes 
amid ravines and precipices. It is an ex- 
ceedingly difficult and dangerous route, 
and is still infested by robbers, as in 
the time of the good Samaritan, Luke 
10:30-34. 

JEEOBO'AM, I., the first king of Is- 
rael, an Ephraimite, the son of Nebat. 
During the latter part of Solomon's 
reign, and while an officer under him, 
he plotted against him, and was obliged 
to flee into Egypt. On the death of 
Solomon, he was summoned by the ten 
tribes to return and present their de- 
mands to Rehoboam ; and when these 
were refused, he was chosen king of the 
revolted tribes, b. c. 975. He reigned 
twenty-two years. The only notable act 
of his reign marked him Avith infamy, as 
the man " who made Israel to sin." It 
Avas the idolatroViS establishment of gold- 
en calves at Bethel and Dan, that the 
people might worship there and not at 
Jerusalem. He also superseded the sons 
of Aaron by priests chosen from "the 
lowest of the people. ' ' This unprincipled 
but effective measure, in which he was 
followed by all the kings of Israel, Avas a 
confession of weakness as well as of de- 
pravity. Neither miracles nor warnings, 
nor the premature death of Abijah his 
son, could dissuade him. He was at war 



with Judah all his days, and with the 
brief reign of Nadab his son the doomed 
family became extinct, 1 Kin. 12-14 : 20 ; 
2 Chr. 10 ; 13. 

II. Jeroboam Second, the thirteenth 
king of Israel, son and successor of Jo- 
ash, B. c. 825, reigned forty-one years. 
He folloAved up his father's successes 
over the Syrians, took Hamath and Da- 
mascus, and all the region east of the 
Jordan down to the Dead sea, and ad- 
vanced to its highest point the prosper- 
ity of that kingdom. Yet his long reign 
added heavily to the guilt of Israel, by 
increased luxurj-, oppression, and vice. 
After him, the kingdom rapidly declined, 
and his own dynasty perished Avithin a 
year, 2 Kin. 14 : 23-29 ; 15 : 8-12. Sec 
also the contemporary prophets, parlic- 
ularlv Amos and Hosca. 

JERUB'-BAAL, let Baal plead, Judg. 
6:31,32. See GiDEOX. 

JERU'SALEM, the chief city of the 
Holy Land, and to the Christian the 
most illustrious in the Avorld. It is sit- 
uated in 31° 40' 43" N. lat., and 35'' 13' 
E. long., on elcA^ated ground soiith of 
the centre of the country, about thirty- 
seven miles from the Mediterranean, and 
about twenty-four from the Jordan. Its 
site Avas early halloAved by God's trial of 
Abraham's faith, Gen. 22; 2 Chr. 3:1. 
219 



JEll 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JER 



It was on the border of the tribes of 
Benjamin and Judah, mostly within the 
limits of the former, but reckoned as 
belonging to the latter, because con- 
quered by it, Josh. 15 :8 ; 18 : 16, 28 ; 
Judg. l:i-8. The most ancient name 
of tiie city was Salem, Gen. 14:18 ; Psa. 
76:2; and it afterwards was called Je- 
bus, as belonging to the Jebusites, Judg. 
19:10, 11. Being a very strong position, 
it resisted the attempts of the Israelites 
to become the sole masters of it, until at 
length its fortress was stormed by David, 
2 Sam. 5:6, 9 ; after which it received its 
present name, and was also called "the 
city of David. ' ' It now became the relig- 
ious and political centre of the kingdom, 
and was greatly enlarged, adorned, and 
fortilied. But its chief glory was, that 
in its magnificent temple the one living 
AND TRUE God dwelt, and revealed him- 
self. 

After the division of the tribes, it con- 
tinued the capital of the kingdom of Ju- 
dah, was several times taken and plun- 
dered, and at length was destroyed at 
the Babvlonian captivitv, 2 Kin. 14:13 ; 
2Chr. 12:9; 21:16; 24:2:3; 25:23; 36:3, 
10, 17-20. After seventy years, it was 
rebuilt by the Jews on their return from 
captivity about 536 b. c. , who did much to 
restore it to its former splendor. About 
332 B. c, the city yielded to Alexander 
of ilacedon ; and not long after his death, 
Ptolemy of Egypt took it by an assault 
on the Sabbath, when it is said the Jews 
scrupled to fight. In 170 b. c, Jerusa- 
lem fell under the tyranny of Antiochus 
Epiphanes, who razed its walls, set up 
an image of Jupiter in the temple, and 
used every means to force the people into 
idolatry. Under the Maccabees, howev- 
er, the' Jews, in 163 b. c, recovered their 
independence. Just a century later, it 
v-as conquered by the Pvomans. Herod 
the Great expended vast sums in its em- 
bellishment. To the city and temple 
thus renovated the ever-blessed Messiah 
came, in the fulness of time, and made 
the place of liis feet glorious. By his 
rejection and crucifixion Jerusalem filled 
up the cup of her guilt ; the Jewish na- 
tion perished from ofi" the land of their 
fathers, and the city and temple were 
taken by Titus and totally destroyed, 
A. D. 70-71. Of all the structures of 
Jerusalem, only three towers and a part 
of the western wall were left standing. 
Still, as the Jews began to return thith- 
220 



er, and manifested a rebellious spirit, the 
emperor Adrian planted a Eoman colony 
there in a. d. 135, and banished the Jews, 
prohibiting their return on pain of death. 
He changed the name of the city to yElia 
Capitolina, consecrated it to heathen de- 
ities, in order to defile it as much as pos- 
sible, and did what he could to obliterate 
all traces both of Judaism and Christian- 
ity. From this period the name ^Via 
became so common, that the name Je- 
rusalem was preserved only among the 
Jews and better informed Christians. In 
the time of Constantine, however, it re- 
sumed its ancient name, which it has re- 
tained to the present day. Helena, the 
mother of Constantine, built two church- 
es in Bethlehem and on mount Olivet, 
about A. D. 326 ; and Julian, who, after 
his father, succeeded to the empire of his 
uncle Constantine, endeavored to rebuild 
the temple ; but his design, and that of 
the Jews, Avhom he patronized, was frus- 
trated, as contemporary historians relate, 
by an earthquake, and by balls of fire 
I bursting forth among the worlauen, a. d. 
! 363. 

I The subsequent history of Jerusalem 
' may be told in a few words. In 613, it 
, was taken by Chosroes king of Persia, 
j who slew, it is said, 90.000 men, and 
j demolished, to the utmost of his power, 
; whatever the Christians had venerated : 
in 627, Heraclius defeated Chosroes, and 
Jerusalem was recovered by the Greeks. 
Soon after commenced the long and 
wretched era of Mohammedanism. About 
637, the city was taken from the Chris- 
' tians by the caliph Omar, after a siege 
of four months, and continued under the 
caliphs of Bagdad till 8fj8, when it was 
' taken by Ahmed, a Turkish sovereign of 
Egypt. During the space of 220 years, 
1 it was subject to several masters, Turk- 
! ish and Saracenic, and in 1099 it was 
' taken by the crusaders under Godfrey 
Bouillon, who was elected king. He 
i was succeeded by his brother Baldwin, 
; who died in 1118. In 1187, Saladin, sul- 
tan of the East, captured the city, as- 
sisted by the treachery of Raymond, 
i count of Tripoli, who Avas found dead in 
his bed on the morning of the day in 
' which he was to have delivered up the 
city. It was restored, in 1242, to the 
Latin priaces, by Saleh Ismael, emir of 
= Damascus ; thev lost it in 1291 to the 
' sultans of Egypt, who held it till 1382. 
j Selim, the Turkish sultan, reduced Egypt 



JER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JER 



and Syria, including Jerusalem, in 1517 
and his son Solyman built or reconstruct- 
ed the present -walls in 1534. Since then I 
it has remained under the dominion of 
Turkey, except when held for a short 
time, 1832-4, by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt. 
At present, this city is included in the 
pashalic of Damascus, though it has a 
resident Turkish governor. 

Jerusalem is situated on the central 
table-land of Judea, about 2,400 feet 
above the Mediterranean. It lies on 
ground -which slopes gently down tow- 
ards the east, the slope being terminated 
by an abrupt declivity, in some parts 
precipitous, and overhanging the valley 
of Jehoshaphat or of the Kidron. This 
sloping ground is also terminated on the 
south by the deep and narrow valley of 
Hinnom, which constituted the ancient 
southern boundary of the city, and which 
also ascends on its west side, and comes 
out upon the high ground on the north- 
west. See GiiiON. But in the city itself, 
there were also two ravines or smaller 
valleys, dividing the land covered by 
buildings into three principal parts or 
hills. ZiON, the highest of these, was in 
the south-west quarter of the city, skirt- 
ed on the south and west by the deep 
valley of Hinnom. On its north and 
east sides lay the smaller valley ' ' of the 
cheesemongers," or Tyropceon, opening 
on the south-east into the valley of the 
Kidron. The Tyropaon also united, 
near the north-east foot of Zion, with 
a valley coming down from the north. 
Zion was also called. The city of David ; 
and by Josephus, ' ' the upper city. ' ' 
Surrounded anciently by walls as well 
as deep valleys, it was the strongest part 
of the city, and contained the citadel and 
the king's palace. The Tyropceon sepa- 
rated it from Acra on the north, and Mo- 
riah on the north-east. Acra. was less 
elevated than Zion, or than the ground 
to the north-west beyond the walls. It 
is called by Josephus " the lower city." 
MoRiAH, the sacred hill, lay north-east 
of Zion, with which it was anciently con- 
nected at its nearest corner, by a bridge 
over the Tyropojon, some remnants of 
which have been identified by Dr. Rob- 
inson. Moriah was at first a small emi- 
nence, but its area was greatly enlarged 
to make room for the temple. It was 
but a part of the continuous ridge on the 
east side of the city, overlooking the deep 
valley of the Kidron ; rising on the 



north, after a slight depression, into the 
hill Bezetha, the ' ' new city ' ' of Jose- 
phus, and sinking away on the south 
into the hill Ophel. On the east of Je- 
rusalem, and stretching from north to 
south, lies the mount of Olives, divided 
from the city by the valley of the Kid- 
ron, and commanding a noble prospect 
of the city and surrounding country. 
Over against Moriah, or a little further 
north, lies the garden of Gethsemane, 
with its olive-trees, at the foot of the 
mount of Olives. Just below the city, 
on the east side of the valley of the Kid- 
ron, lies the miserable village of Siloa; 
farther down, this valley unites Avith 
that of Hinnom, at a beautiful spot an- 
ciently "the king's gardens;" still be- 
low, is the well of Nehemiah, anciently 
En-rogel ; and from this spot the united 
valley winds among mountains south- 
ward and eastward to the Dead sea. In 
the mouth of the Tyropoeon, between 
Ophel and Zion, is the pool of Siloam. 
In the valley west and north-west of 
Zion are the two pools of Gihon, the 
lower being now broken and dry. In 
the rocks around Jerusalem, and chiefly 
in the sides of the valleys of the Kidron 
and Hinnom opposite the city, are many 
excavated tombs and caves. 

Of the WALLS of ancient Jerusalem, the 
most ancient, that of David and Solo- 
mon, encircled the whole of mount Zion, 
and was also continued around Moriah 
and Ophel. The depth of the valleys 
south and east of Jerusalem, rendered it 
comparatively easy to fortify and defend 
it on these sides. This southern wall, in 
the period of the kings and of Christ, 
traversed the outmost verge of those 
hills, inclosing the pool of Siloam, Ophel, 
and portions apparently of the valleys of 
Hinnom and the Kidron, 2 Chr. 33: 14 ; 
Neh. 2:14; 3:15. 

A second w^all, built by Jotham, Hez- 
ekiah, and Manasseh, made some chang- 
es on the southern line, and inclosed a 
large additional space on the north. It 
commenced somewhat east of the tower 
of Hippicus, on the north-west border of 
Zion, included Acra and part of Bezetha, 
and united with the old wall on the east. 
This wall w^as destroyed, as well as the 
first, at the captivity, but both were 
afterwards reerected, it is believed, on 
nearly the same lines, and were substan- 
tially the same at the time of Christ. 
The precise course of the second wall 
221 



JER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JER 



mllie time jjf Christ. 




0'<i^i^r7iir///r 









'^3/c IIU/Ill /i/6 








may perhaps be ascertained by future 
excavations, but is now more disputed 
than any other point of the topography 
of Jerusalem. To ascertain the exact 
location of " the tower Gennath," where 
this wall began, and trace its course "in 
a circuit ' ' to Antonia, would show wheth- 
er the traditional site of Calvaiy, now 
far within the city limits, lay within or 
222 



without the ancient wall. The argu- 
ments from topography are strongly 
against the tradition ; and it would 
seem that this whole region, if not ac- 
tually within the wall, must have been 
at least occupied by the city suburbs at 
that time ; for 

The third wall, commenced by Herod 
Agrippa only ten years after the cruci- 



JER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JER 



fixion of Christ, ran from the tower Ilip- 
picus nearly half a mile north-west to the 
tower of Psephinos, and sweeping round 
by the "tombs of the kings," passed 
down east of Bezetha, and joined the old 
eastern wall. The whole circumference 
of the city at that time Avas a little over 
four miles. Now it is only two and three 
quarters at the most ; and the large 
space on the north, which the wall of 
Agrippa inclosed, is proved to have been 
built upon by the numerous cisterns 



which yet remain, and the marble frag- 
ments which the plough often turns up. 
The preceding plan of ancient Jerusa- 
lem exhibits the walls, gates, towers, and 
other prominent objects in and around 
the city, with as much accuracy as can be 
secured, now that it has borne the rava- 
ges of so many centuries, been nearly a 
score of times captured, and often razed 
to the ground. Fuller descriptions of 
many of the localities referred to may be 
found under their respective heads. 



'■^^^^^ilrf' 




JEKUSALEM FROM THE BETHAXY ROAD, ON THE SOrTH PART OF UOVyT OLIVET. 



MoDKUN JnRusALE:^, called by the 
Arabs El-Sads, the holy, occupies un- 
questionably the site of the Jerusalem 
of the Bible. It is still "beautiful for : 
situation," and stands forth on its well- i 
defined hills "as a city that is compact ; 
together," Psa. 48:2, 12; 122 : 3, 4 ; | 
12-3:1, 2. The distant view of its stately | 
walls and numerous domes and minarets 
is highly imposing. But its old glory 
has departed ; its thronging myriads are 
no more ; desolation covers the barren I 
mountains around it, and the tribes go i 
up to the house of the Lord no longer. | 
She that once sat as a queen among i 
them, now sitteth solitary, " trodden i 
down of the Gentiles," "reft of her { 
sons, aiid mid her foes forlorn." "Zion 
is ploughed as a field." and the soil is i 
mixed with the rubbish of ages, to the ' 
depth in some places of forty feet. ; 



The modern wall, built in 1542, varies 
from twenty to sixty feet in height, and 
is about two and a half miles in circuit. 
On the eastern and shortest side, its 
course is nearly straight ; and it coin- 
cides, in the southern half on this side, 
with the wall of the sacred area noAv 
called El-Haram, the holy. This area, 
510 yards long from north to south, and 
310 to 350 yards in breadth, is inclosed 
by high walls, the lower stones of which 
are in many parts very large, and much 
more ancient than the superstructure. 
It is occupied by the great octagonal 
mosque called Kubbet es-Sukhrah, or 
Dome of the Ptock, and the mosque El- 
Aksa, with their grounds. It covers the 
site of the ancient temple and of the 
gi-eat tower Antonia. See Te^iple. At 
its south-east corner, where the wall is 
seventy-seven feet high, the ground at 
22;i 



JER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JER 



its base is one hundred and fifty feet 
above the dry bed of the Kidron. From 
this corner, the wall runs irregularly 
west by south, crosses mount Zion, leav- 
ing the greater part of it vminclosed on 
the south, and at its western verge turns 
north to the Jaffa gate, where the lower 
part of a very old and strong tower still 
remains. The upper part of this tower is 
less ancient and massive. It is known as 
"the Tower of David," and is generally 
thought to have been the Hippicus of Jo- 
sephus. Thence the wall sweeps irregu- 
larly round to the north-east corner. It 
is flanked at unequal distances by square 
towers, and has battlements running all 
around on its summit, with loop-holes in 
them for arrows or muskets. There are 
now in use only four gates : the Jaffa or 
Bethlehem gate on the west, the Damas- 
cus gate on the north, St. Stephen's gate 
on the east, and Zion gate on the south. 
In the eastern wall of El-Haram is the 
Golden gate, long since blocked up, and 
in the city Avail two smaller gates, more 
recently closed, namely, Herod's gate on 
the north-east, and Dung gate in the 
Tyropa'on on the south. 

Within the city walls are seen narrow 
and often covered streets, ungraded, ill- 
paved, and in some parts filthy, though 
less so than in most oriental cities. The 
houses are of hewn stone, with few win- j 
dows towards the streets. Their flat roofs ! 
are strengthened and ornamented by 
many small domes. The most beautiful 
part of the city is the area of the great 
mosque— from which until recently all 
Christians have been rigorously exclud- 
ed for six centuries— with its lawns and 
cypress-trees, and the noble dome rising 
high above the wall. On mount Zion, 
much of the space within the wall is oc- 
cupied by the huge Armenian convent, 
with the Syrian convent, and the church 
of St. James. Beyond the wall and far 
to the south is a Moharnmedan mosque, 
professedly over the tomb of David. This 
is more jealously guarded against Chris- 
tians than even the mosque of Omar. 
Near it is the small cemetery of the Amer- 
ican missionaries. At the north-west cor- 
ner of Zion rises the high square citadel 
above referred to, ancient and grand. 
Still farther north is the Latin convent, 
in the most westerly part of Jerusalem ; 
and between it and the centre of the city 
stands the church of the Holy Sepulchre, 
over the traditional scenes of the death 
224 



and the resurrection of our Lord. See 
Calvary. In various parts of the city 
the minarets of eight or ten mosques 
arise, amid an assemblage of about two 
thousand dwellings, not a few of which 
are much dilapidated. 

The present population of Jerusalem 
may be about 12,000 souls, of whom 
about two-fifths are Mohammedans, and 
the remainder Jews and Christians in 
nearly equal numbers. There is also a 
considerable garrison, 800 to 1,000, sta- 
tioned there ; and in April of each year 
many thousands of pilgrims from foreign 
lands make a flying visit to the sacred 
places. The Moslemim reside in the cen- 
tre of the city, and towards the north 
and east. The Jews' quarter is on the 
north-east side of Zion. The Greek, 
Latin, Armenian, Syrian, and Coptic 
Christians are located chiefly around 
their respective convents, and their bui-- 
ial-places are on mount Zion, as well as 
that of the American Protestant mission. 
The Jews bury on mount Olivet, and the 
Mohammedans in several places, though 
preferring the eastern brow of Moriah. 
Jerusalem is but the melancholy shadow 
of its former self The nominal Chris- 
tians residing there are in a state of de- 
graded and ignorant subjection to the 
Mohammedans, and their petty discords 
and superstitions are a reproach to the 
Christian name. The Jews, 3,000 to 
5,000 in number, are still more oppress- 
ed and abject. Most of them were born 
in other lands, and have come here to 
die, in a city no longer their oAvn. Dis- 
couraged by endless exactions, they sub- 
sist on the charities of their brethren 
abroad. It is only as a purchased privi- 
lege that they are allowed to approach 
the foundations of the sacred hill where 
their fathers worshipped the only true 
God. Here, in a small area near some 
huge and ancient stones in the base of 
the western wall of Moriah, they gather, 
especially on sacred days, to sit weeping 
and wailing on the giound, taking up 
the heart-breaking lamentations of Jer- 
emiah — living witnesses of the truth of 
God's word fulfilled in them. See Wall. 

The New Jerusalem is a name given 
to the church of Christ, and signifying 
its firm foundations in the love, choice, 
and covenant of God; its strong bul- 
warks, living fountains, and beautifuj 
palaces ; its thronging thousands, its in-, 
dwelling God, and its consummated gloi^ 



JES 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JES 



inhearen, Gal. 4:26; Heb. 12:22; Eev. 
3:12; 21. 

JESH'UA, or Joshua, son of Josedech, 
was high-priest of the Jews at their re- 
turn from the captivity, and acted well 
his part in the restoration of the city, 
the temple, and the divine worship, Ezra 
4:3 ; 5:2. His name occurs in the proph- 
ecies of the time, Hag. 1:1; 2:2; Zech. 
3; 6:11-15. 

JESH'UKUN, a poetical name of Is- 
rael, probably derived from a root mean- 
ing to he upright, and applied to the peo- 
ple of God as the objects of his justifying 
love, which does not "behold iniquity 
in Jacob," Deut. 32:5; 33:5, 26; Isa. 
44:2. 

JES'SE, son of Obed and father of Da- 
vid. He was a grandson of Ruth the 
Moabitess, and in her native land he 
found an asylum while David was most 
in danger from the jealous pursuit of 
Saul, Ruth 4 : 17 ; 1 Sam. 16 ; 17 : 12 ; 
22:3; Matt. 1:5. 

JE'SUS CHRIST, the Son of God, the 
Messiah and Saviour of the world, the 
first and principal object of the prophe- 
cies ; who was prefigured and promised 
in the Old Testament ; was expected and 
desired by the patriarchs ; the hope and 
salvation of the Gentiles ; the glory, hap- 
piness, and consolation of Christians. 
The name JESUS, in Hebrew Jehoshtjah 
or Joshua, signifies Saviour, or Jehovah 
saves. No one ever bore this name Avith 
so much justice, nor so perfectly fulfilled 
the signification of it, as Jesus Christ, 
who saves from sin and hell, and has 
merited heaven for us by the price of his 
blood. It M^as given to him by divine 
appointment, Matt. 1 : 21, as the proper 
name for the Saviour so long desired, 
and whom all the myriads of the re- 
deemed in heaven will for ever adore as 
their only and all-glorious Redeemer. 

Jesus was the common name of the 
Saviour ; while the name Curist, mean- 
ing The Anointed One, The Messiah, was 
his official name. Both names are used 
separately, in the gospels and also in the 
epistles ; but Jesus generally stands by 
itself in the gospels, which are narra- 
tives of his life ; while in the epistles, 
Avhich treat of his divine nature and of 
his redeeming work, he is called Christ, 
Christ Jesus, or The Lord Jesus Christ. 
See Christ. 

Here, under the Redeemer's human 
name, belong the facts relating to his 
10* 



human nature and the history of his life 
upon earth. His true and complete hu- 
manity, having the soul as well as the 
body of man, is everywhere seen in the 
gospel history. He who is ' ' God over 
all, blessed for ever," was an Israelite 
"as concerning the flesh," Rom. 9:5, 
and took upon him our whole nature, in 
order to be a perfect Saviour. As a man, 
Jesus was the King of men. No words 
can describe that character in which such 
firmness and gentleness, such dignity 
and humility, such enthusiasm and calm- 
ness, such wisdom and simplicity, such 
holiness and charity, such justice and 
mercy, such sympathy with heaven and 
with earth, sitch love to God and love to 
man blended in perfect harmony. Noth- 
ing in it was redundant, and nothing was 
wanting. The world had never pro- 
duced, nor even conceived of such a 
character, and its portraiture in the gos- 
pels is a proof of their divine origin 
which the infidel cannot gainsay. Could 
the whole human race, of all ages, kin- 
dreds, and tongues, be assembled to see 
the crucified Redeemer as he is, and 
compare earth's noblest benefactors with 
Him, there would be but one voice among 
them. Every crown of glory and every 
meed of praise would be given to Him 
who alone is worthy — for perfection of 
character, for love to mankind, for sacri- 
fices endured, and for benefits bestowed. 
His glory will for ever be celebrated as 
the Friend of man, the Lamb sacrificed 
for us. 

The visit of Jesus Christ to the earth 
has made it for ever glorious above less 
favored worlds, and forms the most sig- 
nal event in its annals. The time of his 
birth is commemorated by the Christian 
era, the first year of which corresponds 
to about the year 753 from the building 
of Rome. It is generally conceded, how- 
ever, that the Saviour was born at least 
four years before a. d. 1, and four thou- 
sand years after the creation of Adam. 
His public ministry commenced when he 
was thirty years of age ; and continued, 
according to the received opinion, three 
and a half years. Respecting his ances- 
tors, see Genealogy. 

The life of the Redeemer must be stud- 
ied in the four gospels, where it was re- 
corded under the guidance of supreme 
wisdom. Many efforts have been made, 
with valuable results, to arrange the 
narrations of the evangelists in the true 
225 



JES 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JES 



order of time. But as neither of the 
gospels follows the exact course of events, 
many incidents arc very indeterminate, 
and are variously arranged by diiferent 
harmonists. No one, however, has been 
more successful than Dr. Kobinson ; and 
we borrow from his valuable ' ' Harmony 
of the Gospels ' ' the following elaborate 
table, presenting in a condensed form the 
various events of our Saviour's life, with 
the supposed place and period of their 



occurrence : 



PART I. 



E\i:.\T3 CO>'>"ECTED WITH THE KIRTU AND CHILDHOOD 
OF OUR LORD. 

TiJiE : About thirteen and a half years. 

An angel appears to Zacharias — Jermalem. 

An angel appears to 3Iary— A'a^arei/i. 

Mary visits Elisabeth — Ja'tah. 

Birth of John the Baptist— Juttah. 

An angel appears to Joseph — Nazareth. 

The birth of Jesus— 5e«/t/c/ie»i. 

An angel appears to the shepherds — Near 
Be'hlrJipm. 

The circumcision of Jesus, and his presenta- 
tion in the temple — Bc'.hlehem; Jerusalem. 

The Magi — Teruxalr.m ; Bethlehem. 

The fliglit into Egypt. Herods cruelty. The 
return — Bdhlehem ; Egypt ; Nazareth. 

At twelve years of age Jesus goes to the Pass- 
ovei- — Jerusalem. 

PART II. 

AXXOUXCEMEXT AND IXTRODUCTION OF OUR LORD'S 
PUBUC MINISTRY. 

Time : About one year. 
The ministry of John the Baptist — TJie Desert ; 

The Jordan. 
The baptism of Jesus — The Jordan. 
The temptation — De-^ert of Judea. 
Preface to Johns gospel. 
Testimony of John the Baptist to Jesus — Beth- 

any bei/^nd .Jordan. 
Jesus gains disciples— r/ie Jordan ; Galilee ? 
The marriage at Cana of Galilee. 

PAUT III. 

OUR lord's first PASSOVER, AND THE SUBSEQUENT 
TRANSACTIONS UNTIL THE SECOND. 

Time : One year. 

At the Passover Jesus drives the traders out 
of the temple — Jerusalem. 

Our Lord's discourse with Nicodemus — Jeru- 
saUm. 

Jesus remains in Judea and baptizes. Fur- 
ther testimony of John the Baptist. 

Jesus departs into Galilee after John's im- 
prisonment. 

Our Lord's discourse with the Samaritan 
woman. Many of the Samaritans believe 
on liim — ^hechem or Ne%poli<i. 

Jesus teaches publicly in Galilee. 

Jesus again at Cana. where he heals the son 
of a nobleman lying ill at Capernaum — 
Cana of Galilee. 

Jesus at Nazareth ; he is there rejected, and 
fixes his abode at Capernaum. 
226 



The call of Simon Peter and Andrew, and 
of James and John, with the miraculous 
draught of lishes — Near Capernaum. 

The healing of a demoniac in the synagogue — 
Capernaum. 

The healing of Peter's wife's mother, and 
many others — Capernaum. 

Jesus with his disciples goes from Capernaum 
throughout Galilee. 

The healing of a leper — Galilee. 

The healing of a paralytic— C'opemawm. 

The call ol 31atthew — Capernaum. 

PART IV. 

OUR LORD'S SECOND PASSOVER, AND THE SUBSEQUENT 
TRANSACTIONS UNTIL THE THIRD. 

Time : One year. 

The pool of Bethesda ; the healing of the in- 
firm man ; and our Lords subsequent dis- 
course — .Terusalem. 

The disciples pluck ears of grain on the Sab- 
bath — On the way to Galilee. 

The healing of the withered hand on the Sab- 
bath — Galilee. 

Jesus arrives at the sea of Tiberias, and is fol- 
lowed by multitudes — Lalce of Galilee. 

Jesus withdraws to a mountain, and chooses 
the twelve ; the multitudes follow him — 
Near Capernaum. 

The sermon on the mount — Near Capernaum. 

The healing of the centurions servant — Caper- 
naum. 

The raising of the widow's son — Nain. 

John the Baptist in prison sends disciples to 
Jesus — Galilee ; Capernaum ? 

Reflections of Jesus on appealing to his 
mighty works — Capernaum ? 

While sitting at meat with a Pharisee, Jesus 
is anointed by a woman who had been a 
sinner — Capernaum ? 

Jesus, with the twelve, makes a second circuit 
in Galilee. 

The healing of a demoniac. The scribes and 
Pharisees bhisplieme— <?ri/i?ee. 

The scribes and Pharisees seek a sign. Our 
Lord's reflections — Galilee. 

The true disciples of Christ his nearest rela- 
tives — Galilee. 

At a Pharisee's table, Jesus denounces woes 
against the Pharisees and others— (?ah'?ee. 

Jesus discourses to his disciples and the mul- 
titude — Galilee. 

The slaughter of certain Galileans. Parable 
of the barren tig tree — Galilee. 

Parable of the sower — Lake of Galilee; Near 
Capernavm ? 

Parable of the tares. Other Parables — Near 
Capernaum ? 

Jesus directs to cross the lake. Incidents. 
The tempest stilled — Lalce of Galilee. 

The two demoniacs of Gadara — South-east coast 
of the lake of Galilee. 

Levi's fQast-^Capernaum. 

The raising of Jairus' daughter. The wom- 
an with a bloody flux — Capernaum. 

Two blind men healed, and a dumb spirit 
cast out — Capernaum ? 

Jesus again at Nazareth, and again rejected. 

A third circuit in Galilee. The twelve in- 
! structed and sent forth — Galilee. 

Herod holds Jesus to be .lohn the Baptist, 
whom he had just before beheaded — Galilee? 
Perea. 



JES 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JES 



The twelve return, and Jesus retires with 
them across tlie lake. Five thousand are 
fed — Capernaum ; North-east coast oj' the lake of 
Galilee. 

Jesus walks upon the water — Lake of Galilee; 
Gen7iesard. 

Our Lord's discourse to the multitude in the 
synagogue — At Capernaum. 

PART V. 

FROM OUR lord's XmRD PASSOVER ITynL HIS TISAL 
DEPARTURE FROM GAULEE AT THE FESTIVAL OF TAB- 
ERXACLESi. 

Time : Six months. 

Our Lord justifies his disciples for eating with 
unwashed hands. Tharisaic traditions — 
Cajiernaum. 

The daughter of a Syro-Phoenician woman is 
healed — Region of Tyre and Sidon. 

A deaf and dumb man healed ; also many 
others. Four thousand are fed — The Decap- 
olia. 

The Pharisees and Sadducees again require a 
sign — Xear Magdala, on the west side of the lake. 

The disciples cautioned against the leaven of 
the Pharisees, etc. — North-east coast of the lake 
of Galilee. 

A blind man healed — Bethsaida (Julian.) 

Peter and the rest again profess their faith in 
Christ — Region of Cemrea Philippi. 

Our Lord foretells his own death and resur- 
rection, and the trials of his followers — Re- 
gion of Ce^area Philippi. 

The transfiguration. Our Lord's subsequent 
discourse with the three disciples — Region of 
Cemrea Philippi. 

The healing of a demoniac, whom the disciples 
could not heal — Region of Cemrea Philippi. 

Jesus again foretells his own death and res- 
urrection — Galilee. 

The tribute-money miraculously provided — 
Cavernninn. 

The disciples contend who should be greatest. 
Jesus exhorts to humility, forbearance, and 
brotherly love — Capernaum. 

The seventy instructed and sent out — Caper- 
naum. 

Jesus goes up to the festival of Tabernacles. 
His final departure from Galilee. Incidents 
in Samaria. 

Ten lepers cleansed — Samaria. 

PART TI. 

TITE FESm'AL OF TABERNACLES, AXD THE SUBSEQUENT 
TRANSACTIONS UNTIL OUR LORD'S ARRIVAL AT BETH- 
AXY, SIX DAYS BEFORE THE FOURTH PASSOVER. 

TniE : Six month.'!, le.-^s one week. 

Jesus at the festival of Tabernacles. His pub- 
lic teacliing — Jerusalem. 

The woman taken in adultery — Jerusalem. 

Further public teaching of our Lord. He 
reproves the unbelieving Jews, and escapes 
from their hands — Jerusalem. 

A lawyer instructed. Love to our neighbor 
defined. Parable of the good Samaritan — 
Near Jerusalem. 

Jesus in the house of Martha and 'Si.a.ry— Beth- 
any. 

The disciples again taught how to pray — Near 
Jerusalem. 

The seventy return — JerusaUm ? 

A man born blind is healed on the Sabbath. 
Our Lord's subsequent discourses — Jerusa 
Urn. 



Jesus in Jerusalem at the festival of Dedica- 
tion. He retires beyond Jordan — JtruiU- 
lem ; Bethany beyond Jordan. 

The raising of Lazarus — Bethany. 

Tlie counsel of L'aiaphas against Jesus. He re- 
tires from Jerusalem — Jerusalem ; Ephraim. 

Jesus beyond Jordan is followed by multi- 
tudes. The healing of the infirm woman on 
the Sabbath — Valley of Jordan ; Perea. 

Our Lord goes teaching and journeying tow- 
ards Jerusalem. He is warned against 
Herod — Perea. 

Our Lord dines with a chief Pharisee on the 
Sabbath. Incidents — Perea. 

What is required of true disciples — Perea. 

Parable of the lost sheep, etc. Parable of the 
prodigal son — Perea. 

Parable of the unjust steward — Perea. 

The Pharisees reproved. Parable of the rich 
man and Lazarus — Perea. 

Jesus inculcates forbearance, faith, humili- 
ty — Perea. 

Christ's coming will be sudden — Perea. 

Parables: The importunate widow. The 
Pharisee and publican— Perea. 

Precepts respecting divorce — Perea. 

Jesus receives and blesses little children — Pe- 
rea. 

The rich young man. Parable of the laborers 
in the vineyard— Perea. 

Jesus a third time foretells his death and res- 
urrection— Perea. 

James and John prefer their ambitious re- 
quest — Perea. 

The liealing of two blind men near Jericho. 

The visit to Zacclieus. Parable of the ten 
minae — Jericho. 

Jesus arrives at Bethany six days before the 
Passover — Bethany. 

PART VII. 

OUR lord's PUBLIC ENTRY INTO JERUSALEM, AND 
THE SUBSEQUENT TRANSACTIONS BEFORE THE FOURTH 
PASSOAER. 

Time . Five days. 

Our Lord's public entry into Jerusalem — 
Bethany, Jerusalem. 

The barren fig-tree. The cleansing of the 
temple — Belhany ; Jerusalem 

The barren fig tree withers away — Between 
Bethany and Jerusalem. 

Christ's authority questioned. Parable of 
the two sons — .Jerusalem. 

Parable of the wicked liusbandmen-JerMsaZem. 

Parable of the marriage of the kings son— 
Jerusalem. 

Insidious question of the Pharisees : Tribute 
to Caesar — Jerusalem. 

Insidious question of the Sadducees : The res- 
urrection — Jerusalem. 

A lawyer questions Jesus. The two great 
commandments — Jerusalem. 

How is Christ the son of David ? — Jerusalem. 

Warnings against the evil example of the 
scribes and Pharisees — Jerusalem. 

Woes against the scribes and Pharisees. Lam- 
entations over Jerusalem — Jerusalem. 

The widow "s mite — Jeru.^alem. 

Certain Oreeks desire to see Jesus — Jerusalem. 

Reflections upon the unbelief of the Jews — 
Jerusalem. 

Jesus, on taking leave of the temple, foretells 
its destruction and the persecution of his 
disciples — Jerusalem : Mount of Olives. 



JES 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JEW 



The signs of Christ's coming to destroy Jeru- 
salem, and put an end to the Jewish state 
and dispensation — Mount of Oliixs. 

Transition to Christ's linal coming at the day 
of judgment. Exhortation to watchful- 
ness, rarables : The ten virgins. The live 
talents — Mount of OUiys. 

Scenes of the judgment day— -Vowjif of Olives. 

The rulers conspire. The supper at Bethany. 
Treachery of Judas — Jerusalem; Bethany. 

Preparation for the Passover — Bethany; Jeru- 
salem. 

PART Till. 

TUB FOrRTH PASSO^-ER ; OUR LORD'S PASSION ; AXD 
THE ACCOMPANYING EVENTS UNTIL THE END OF THE 
JEWTSU S-\BBATH. 

Time : Tuv days. 

The Passover meal. Contention among the 
twelve — Jerusalem. 

Jesus washes the feet of his disciples — Jerusa- 
lem. 

Jesus points out the traitor. Judas with- 
draws — Jerusalem. 

Jesus foretells the fall of Peter, and the dis- 
pei-sion of the twelve — Jerusalem. 

The Lord's supper — Jerusalem. 

Jesus comforts his disciples. The Holy Spirit 
promised — Jeru)<alem. 

Christ the true Vine. His disciples hated by 
the world — Jerusalem. 

Persecution foretold. Further promise of the 
Holy Spirit. Prayer in the name of Christ — 
Jerusalem. 

Christ's last prayer with his disciples — Jerusa- 
lem. 

The agony in Gethsemanc — .^[ount of Olives. 

Jesus betrayed, and made prisoner — Mount of 
Olives. 

Jesus before Caiaphas. Peter thrice denies 
him — Jerusalem. 

Jesus before Caiaphas and the Sanhedrim. 
He declares himself to be the Christ ; is con- 
demned and mocked — Jerusalem. 

The Sanhedrim lead Jesus away to Pilate — 
Jerusalem. 

Jesus before Herod — Jerusalem,. 

Pilate seeks to release Jesus. The Jews de- 
mand Barabbas — Jerusalem. 

Pilate delivers up Jesus to death. He is 
scourged and mocked — Jerusalem. 

Pilate again seeks to release Jesus — Jerusalem. 

Judas repents and hangs himself— Jent.taZem. 

Jesus is led away to be crucified — Jerusalem. 

The cruciHxionWerM5a?<*m. 

The Jews mock at Jesus on the cross. He 
forgives tlie penitent thief He commends 
his mother to John — Jem.^alem. 

Darkness prevails. Christ expires on the 
cross — Jerusalem. 

The veil of the temple rent, and graves open- 
ed. Judgment of the centurion. The wom- 
en at tlie cross — Jerusalem. 

The taking down from the cross. The buri- 
al — Jerusalem. 

The watch at the sepulchre — Jerusalem. 

PART IX. 

OCR LORD'S RESURRECTION , mS SUBSJEQCENT APPEAR- 
ANCES. AND HIS ASCENSION. 

Time : Forty days. 
The morning of the resurrection — Jerusalem. 
Visit of the women to the sepulchre. Mary 
Hagdjilese returns — Jcruadlem. 
228 



Vision of angels in the sepulchre — Jerusalem. 

The women return to the city. Jesus meets 
them — Jcrusa lem . 

Peter and John run to the sepulchre— Jen<.^a- 
Inn. 

Our Lord is seen by Mary Magdalene at the 
sepulchre — Jerusalem. 

Report of the watch— Jerusalem. 

Our Lord is seen of Peter. Then by two dis- 
ciples on the way to Emmaixs—Jerumlem ; 
Emmaus. 

Jesus appears in the midst of the apostles, 
Thomas being absent — Jerusalevi. 

Jesus appears in the midst of the apostles, 
Thomas being present — Jenisalem. 

The apostles go away into Galilee. Jesus 
shows himself to seven of them at the sea of 
Tihorias— Galilee. 

Jesus meets tlie apostles and above five hun- 
dred brethren on a mountain in Galilee — 
Galilee. 

Our Lord is seen of James ; then of all the 
apostles — Jerusalem. 

The ascension — Xear Bethany. 

Tlie divine -nisdom is conspicuous not 
only in -what is taught us respecting the 
life of Jesus, but in what is withheld. 
Curiosity, and the higher motives of 
warm affection, raise numerous questions 
to which the gospels give no reply ; and 
in proportion as men resort to dubious 
traditions, they lose the power of a pure 
and spiritual gospel. See further, con- 
cerning Christ, Messiah, Eedeemer, etc. 

Jesis was not an imcommon name 
among the Jews. It was the name of 
the fother of Elymas the sorcerer, Acts 
13:0 ; and of Justus, a fello-w-laborer and 
friend of Paul , Col . 4 : 11 . It is the G reek 
form of the Hebrew name Joshua, or 
Jeshua, borne by the high-priest in 
Ezra's time, and by the -well-known 
leader of the Jews into the promised 
land. See also 1 Sam. 6:14 ; 2 Kin. 23:8. 
The Greek form of the word. Jesus, is 
twice used in the New Testament when 
Joshua the son of Nun is intended, Acts 
7:45; Heb. 4:8. 

JETH'EO, "Moses' father-in-law," a 
shepherd-prince or priest of Midian, Ex. 
8:1; 4 : 18 ; 18. When the Hebrews 
were at mount Sinai, he visited Moses, 
gave him some wise coimsel as to the 
government of the tribes, and then re- 
turned to his own people. See Hobab 
and Raguel. Jethro was a worshipper 
of God, Ex. 18:10, 11, and some infer 
that he was a descendant of Abraham, 
through Midian. Gen. 25:2. 

JEWS, the name borne by the He- 
brews among foreign nations, especially 
after the return from Babylon ; from Ju- 
dah their ancestor. See Hebrews. 



JEZ 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOA 



JEZ'EBEL, daughter of Ethbaal king 
of Tyre and Zidon, and wife of Ahab 
king of Israel, 1 Kin. 10:31. She spent 
herself in efforts to establish idolatry in 
Samaria, and exterminate the worship of 
God and the lives of his servants. Oba- 
diah saved a hundred of them, at the 
risk of his own life. Jezebel herself 
maintained four hundred priests of As- 
tarte. When the prophets of Baal per- 
ished at Carmel, at the word of Elijah, 
she sought to avenge herself on him. 
Afterwards, she secured the vineyard of 
Naboth for her husband by perjuries and 
murder ; and her tragicaJ death, the fit- 
ting close of a bloody life, took place, 
according to the prediction of Elijah, 
near the scene of this crime, 1 Kin. 18 ; 
19 ; 21 ; 2 Kin. 9. Her name has be- 
come a proverb, and is given by John, 
probably as a descriptive epithet, to a 
certain female at Thyatira in his day 
holding a like bad preeminence in station 
and profligacy, in malice and in ruin, 
Luke 20: 18; Rev. 2:20. 

JEZ'REEL, I., a celebrated city of 
Is.sachar, Josh. 19:18, lying westward of 
Bethshean, 2 Sam. 4:4. Ahab had here 
a palace ; and this city became famous 
on account of his seizure of Naboth' s 
vineyard, 1 Kin. 21 ; and the vengeance 
executed on Ahab, 2 Kin. 9:10, 14-37; 
10 : 1-11. Jezreel was called Esdracla 
in the time of the Maccabees, and is now 
replaced by a small and ruinous Arab 
village, called Zerin, at the north-west 
point of mount Gilboa. Its elevated site 
gives one a fine view of the great plain 
of Esdraelon on the west, and the hills 
that border it; and towards the east it 
overhangs the wide and fertile ' ' valley 
of Jezreel," Josh. 17:16, Judg. 6:33, 
Hos. 1:5, which runs down east-south- 
east from the great plain to the Jordan, 
between Gilboa and little Hermon. In 
this valley, below and east of Zerin, is 
the copious " fountain of Jezreel," near 
which Saul perished, 1 Sam. 29:1 ; 31:1. 

11, The great plain lying between Jez- 
reel and Acre, called from two cities on 
its border in one part, "the valley of 
Megiddo," 2 Chr. 35:22, and in its west- 
ern part or branch the ' ' plain or valley 
of Jezreel," afterwards Esdraelon, Judith 
1:8. The body of this beautiful plain 
forms a triangle, rising gradually from 
the Mediterranean four hundred feet, and 
being about thirteen or fourteen miles , 
long on the north side, seventeen on the I 



east, and twenty on the south-west. 
The western part is level ; on the east it 
is more undulating, and is at length bro- 
ken by mount Gillsoa and "little Her- 
mon" into three valleys two or three 
miles wide, which sink down into the val- 
1 ley of the Jordan. Of these, the middle 
valley, descri))ed above, is the proper 

1 " valley of Jezreel." The river Kishon 
! traverses this plain. It was formerly 
t well Avatered and astonishingly fertile, 

but is now under the blight of tyranny 
and insecurity, comparatively unculti- 
vated and deserted. The highways are 
unoccupied, the villages have ceased in 
Israel, Judg. 5 : 6. There are a few 
small hamlets, particularly on the higher 
grounds that border it ; and the abun- 
dant crops which it yields, even with 
poor cultivation, show that it might 
again be made the granary of Syria. 
Across this plain, from Carmel to Jez- 
reel, Elijah ran before the chariot of 
Ahab, 1 Kin. 18 : 46. It has been the 
chosen battle-ground of many armies. 
Here the hosts of Sisera were swept 
away, Judg. 4; and here Josiah fell, 
fighting against Pharaoh-necho, 2 Kin. 
23 : 29. Battles were fought here in the 
later periods of the Romans, and of the 
Crusaders ; and in our own century, near 
mount Tabor, fifteen hundred French 
under General Kleber sustained the as- 
sault of twenty-five thousand Turks for 
half a day, and were succored by Napo- 
leon. 

JO'AB, son of Zeniiah, David's sister, 
and brother of Abishai and Asahel, was 
the commander of David's army during 
almost the whole of his reign, 2 Sam. 
5:6-10. He was a valiant warrior, and 
an able general ; and his great influence 
on public affairs was oft<;n exerted for 
good, as in the rebellion of Absalom, and 
the numbering of Israel, 2 Sam. 18 ; 19 ; 
24. But as a man he was imperious, 
revengeful, and unscrupulous: witness 
his treacherous assassination of Abner, 
and of his cousin Amasa, 2 Sam. 3 : 27 ; 
20 : 9, 10 ; his bearing towards David, 

2 Sam. 3:39 ; 19:5, and connivance with 
him in the matter of Uriah ; his slaying 
Absalom, and conspiring with Adonijah 
against the divinely appointed heir to 
the throne; for all which he was at 
length put to death by order of Solomon, 
1 Kin. 2. 

JOAN'NA, one of the faithful women 
who ministered to Christ while living, 
229 



JOA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOB 



and brought spices to his tomb. Her 
husband Chuza was a steward of Herod 
Antipas, Luke 8:3; 24:1-10. 

JO ASH, or Jeuo'asii, L, the father of 
Gideon, of the family of Abiezer, in Ma- 
nassch. For a long time he was a wor- 
shipper of Baal ; but when his son boldly 
attacked idolatry, he also came out on 
the Lord's side, Judg. 6:11, 25-32. 

II. An officer, appointed as keeper of 
the prophet Micaiah, during Ahab's dis- 
astrous war with Syria, 1 Kin. 22 : 26 ; 
2 Chr. 18. 

III. Tlie eighth king of Judah, b. c. 
878-838. He was the only son of Aha- 
ziah who was not slain by the usurping 
Athaliah, his grandmother. Being res- 
cued by Jehoshebah his aunt, and seclud- 
ed six years in the temple, he was raised 
to the throne when seven years of age 
through the faithful care of Jehoiada ; 
and while this venerable man survived, 
Joash served God and prospered. Idols 
ivere banished, and the temple was re- 
paired. But afterwards he followed less 
wholesome counsels ; idolatry revived ; 
and when Zechariah the high-priest re- 
buked the guilty people, the ungrateful 
Idng caused this servant of God, the son 
of his benefactor, to be stoned to death. 
Misfortunes soon multiplied on his head ; 
he Avas repeatedly humbled by the Syri- 
ans, and gave them the temple treasures 
as a ransom ; a loathsome disease imbit- 
tered his life, which was very soon cut 
short by a conspiracy of his servants, 
and he was not buried in the sepulchre 
of the kings, 2 Kin. II ; 12 ; 2 Chr. 23 ; 
24. The prophet Joel was contemporary 
with him. 

IV. The son and successor of Jehoa- 
haz, king of Israel, b. c. 840-825. There 
was much in his conduct to commend. 
He had a great regard for the prophet 
Elisha, and visited him on his death- 
bed, where by a divine oracle he was as- 
sured of three victories over the Syrians. 
He was also victorious when forced to 
give battle to Amaziah king of Judah, 
and was one of the best of the kings of 
Israel. The Avorship of the golden calf, 
however, still continued during his reign, 
2 Kin. 13:9-25 ; 14:1-8 ; 2 Chr. 25. 

JOB, a patriarch distinguished for his 
integrity and piety, his wealth, honors, 
and domestic happiness, Avhom God per- 
mitted, for the trial of his faith, to be 
deprived of friends, property, and health, 
and at once plunged into deep affliction. 
230 



I He lived in the land of Uz, lying, it is 
j generally thought, in Eastern Edom, 
probably not far from Bozrah. 

The BOOK OF Job has originated much 
criticism, and on many points a consid- 
erable diversity of opinion still exists. 
Sceptics have denied its inspiration, and 
called it a mere philosophical romance ; 
but no one Avho respects rcA'clation can 
entertain this notion, or doubt that Job 
was a real person. Inspired writers tes- 
tify to both. See Ezek. 14 : 14, James 
5:11 ; and compare I Cor. 3:19 Avith Job 
5:13. The book itself speciiies persons, 
places, and circumstances in the manner 
of true history. Moreover, the name 
and history of Job are spread through- 
out the East ; Arabian Avriters mention 
him, and many Mohammedan families 
perpetuate his name. Five different 
places claim the possession of his tomb. 

The precise period of his life cannot 
be ascertained, yet no doubt can exist 
as to its patriarchal antiquity. The 
book seems to allude to the flood, Job 
22:15-17, but not to the destruction of 
Sodom, to the exodus from Egypt, or 
the giving of the LaAv. No reference is 
made to any order of priesthood, Job 
himself being the priest . of his house- 
hold, like Noah and Abraham. There 
is allusion to the most ancient form of 
idolatry, star-Avorship, and to the earli- 
est mode of Avriting, 19:24. The lon- 
gevity of Job also places him among the 
patriarchs. He surviA-ed his trial one 
hundred and forty years, and Avas an old 
man before his trial began, for his chil- 
dren Avere established each at the head of 
his OAvn household. Job 1 :4 ; 42:16. The 
period of long lives had not Avholly pass- 
ed aAvay, 15:10. Hales places the trial 
of Job before the birth of Abraham, and 
Usher, about thirty years before the ex- 
odus, B. c. 1521. 

As to the authorship of the book, 
many opinions have been held. It has 
all the freedom of an original composi- 
tion, bearing no marks of its being a 
translation ; and if so, it Avould appear 
that its author must have been a He- 
brew, since it is Avritten in the purest 
HebrcAv. It exhibits, moreover, the 
most intimate acquaintance Avith both 
Egyptian and Arabian scenery, and is in 
the loftiest style of oriental poetry. All 
these circumstances are consistent Avith 
the vicAvs of those Avho regard Moses as 
its probable author. It hag, howeAxr, 



JOB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOH 



been ascribed to various other persons. It 
presents a beautiful exhibition of patri- 
archal religion. It teaches the being 
and perfections of God, his creation of 
all things, and his universal providence ; 
the apostasy and guilt of evil spirits and 
of mankind ; the mercy of God, on the 
basis of a sacrifice, and on condition of 
repentance and faith, 33 : 27-30 ; 42 : G, 
8 ; the immortality of the soul, and the 
resurrection of the body, 14 : 7 - 15 ; 
19:25-27. 

ITic main problem discussed in Job is, 
the justice of God in suffering the right- 
eous to be afflicted, while the wicked 
prosper. It is settled, by showing that, 
while the hand of a just Gcd is manifest 
in his providential government of hu- 
man affairs, it is his sovereign right to 
choose his own time and mode of retri- 
bution both to the evil and the good, 
and to subject the graces of his people 
to whatever trials he deems best. 

The conference of Job and his friends 
may be divided into three parts. In the 
first, Eliphaz addresses Job, and Job re- 
plies ; then Bildad and Job, and Zophar 
and Job, speak in turn. In the second 
part, the same order is observed ; and in 
the third also, except that after Job's 
reply to Bildad, the three friends have 
no more to urge, and instead of Zophar, 
a fourth friend named Elihu takes up 
the word ; and the whole is concluded 
by the decision of Jehovah himself. The 
friends of Job argue that his remarkable 
afflictions must have been sent in pun- 
ishment of highly aggravated transgres- 
sions, and urge him to confession and 
repentance. Tlie pious patriarch, con- 
scious of his own integrity and love to 
God, cast down and bewildered by his 
sore chastisements, and pained by the 
suspicions of his friends, warmly vindi- 
cates his innocence, and shows that the 
best of men are sometimes the most af- 
flicted ; but forgets that his inward sins 
merit far heavier punishment, and 
though he still maintains faith in God, 
yet he charges Him foolishly. After- 
wards he humbly confesses his wrong, 
and is cheered by the returning smile of 
God, Avhile his uncharitable friends are 
reproved. The whole book is written in 
the highest style of Hebrew poetry, ex- 
cept the two introductory chapters and 
part of the last, which are prose. As a 
poem, it is full of sublime sentiments 
and bold and striking images. 



I The DISEASE of Job is generally sup- 
posed to have been the elephantiasis, 
or black leprosy. The Avord rendered 
: "boils" does not necessarily mean ab- 
scesses, but burning and inllammation ; 
and no known disease better answers to 
the description given, Job 2:7, 8; 7:5, 
13, 14; l'J:I7 ; 30:17, than the leprosy 
referred to above, hiee Leper. 

JOCH'EBED, wife of Amram, and 
i mother of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, 
i Xum. 26 : 59. bhe was a daughter cf 
Levi, and her husband's aunt, Ex. 6:20, 
j though such marriages were afterwards 
I prohibited. Lev. 18:12. 

JO'EL, one of the minor prophets, of 
whom nothing is known beyontl the few 
I hints furnished in his brief but valuable 
; prophecy. He lived in the kingdom of 
[ Judali, and at a time when the temple 
I and temple-worship still existed, Joel 
i 1 : 14 ; 2 : 1, 15, 32 ; 3 : 1. Different au- 
i thors assign to his prophecy different 
; dates, but the prevailing opinion is that 
he prophesied in the reign of Lzziah, 
; nearly 800 b. c. 

! The EOOK or Joel opens with a most 
' graphic and powerful description of the 
devastation caused I y swarms of divers 
I kinds cf locusts, acctmpanied by a terri- 
; ble drought. The plague cf locusts, one 
! of the most dreadful scourges of the 
I East, (sec LocrsTS.) is highly suggestive 
of an invasion of hostile legions such as 
have often ravaged Judea ; and many 
have understood, by the locusts of Joel, 
the Chaldeans, Persians, Greeks, or Eo- 
) mans. The prophet, however, adheres 
to his figure, if it be one ; depicts the 
I land as stripped of its verdure and parch- 
f ed with drought, summons the stricken 
I people to fasting and penitence, and en- 
courages them by promising the removal 
of the divine judgments and the return of 
fertility. AVhile descrildng this return- 
ing plenty and prosperity, the prophet 
casts his view forward on a future still 
more lemote, and predicts the outpour- 
ing of the Holy Spirit, and the signs and 
wonders and spiritual prosperity of the 
Messiah's reign, Joel 2:28. This passage 
is quoted by the apostle Peter, in Acts 
2:16. The 'style of Joel is exceedingly 
poetical and elegant ; his descriptions 
are vivid and sublime, and his prophecy 
ranks among the gems of Hebrew poetry. 
It is well fitted to cheer the church mil- 
itant in all ages. 
JOH AN' AN, son of Kareah, a leading 
231 



JOH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOH 



captain of the Jews after the destruction 
of Jerusalem, b. c. 588, who recognized 
the authority of Gedaliah, warned him 
in vain of the plot of Ishmael, and 
avenged his murder ; but afterwards 
carried the remnant of the people to 
Egypt against the remonstrances of Jer- 
emiah, who, unable to check his rebel- 
lious and idolatrous course, foretold di- 
vine judgments, which in due time were 
fulfilled, 2 Kin. 25:23-26 ; Jer. 40-44. 

JOHN", I., THE Baptist, the forerunner 
of our Lord Jesus Christ, was the son of 
Zacharias and Elisabeth, and was born 
about six months before Christ, as Re- 
land and Robinson suppose at Juttah, 
Josh. 21 : 16, Luke 1 : 39, a towTi some 
five miles south of Hebron, but accord- 
ing to tradition at a place about four 
miles west of Jerusalem. Several Old 
Testament predictions found their fulfil- 
ment in him. See Isa. 40:3, and Matt. 
3:3; also Mai. 3:1; 4:5, and Matt. 
11:14. His birth, name, and office were 
also foretold by the angel Gabriel to his 
father Zacharias while ministering at the 
temple altar. Several other supernatu- 
ral incidents attended the visit of Mary 
to Elisabeth, and the birth and naming 
of John, Luke 1. He passed his early 
life among the crags of Eastern Judea, 
and when not far from thirty years of 
age, appeared as a prophet of the Lord. 
Being also a priest by birth, and an aus- 
tere Nazarite in appearance and mode of 
life, he was like a reproduction of Elijah 
of old. Crowds flocked from all quar- 
ters to hear the word of God from his 
lips boldly denouncing their sins, and to 
receive the baptism of repentance pre- 
paratory to the full revelation of grace 
in Christ. Among others, the Saviour 
at length came, and was baptized as an 
example of obedience to all divine en- 
joinments. John was at once satisfied 
that Jesus was the Messiah, but "knew 
him not" by any divine intimation till 
he saw the appointed sign, the descend- 
ing Spirit. He then stood forth as the 
representative of "all the law and the 
prophets," pointing the Avorld to Chi-ist 
as an atoning Saviour, and thus intro- 
duced Him to His public ministry : ' ' Be- 
hold the Lamb of God, which taketh 
away the sin of the world," John 1:29; 
Gal. 3:24. 

John enjoyed at this time a high de- 
gree of popular veneration, Luke 3:15; 
the Sanhedrim sent a deputation to ques- 
232 



! tion him, John 1 : 19-28 ; king Herod 
' ' did many things, and heard him glad- 
ly." But he laid all he had at the Sav- 
iour's feet, John 1:27 ; 3:33. We read 
several times of his "disciples," Matt. 
9:14; Luke 5:33; John 3:23-15; 4:1; 
and meet with subsequent traces of the 
wide extent of his influence. Acts 18:25 ; 
19:3. We know not why he continued 
for a time his separate ministry, instead 
of attending Christ. He persevered, how- 
ever, in his faithful labors for reforma- 
tion; and these, in the second year after- 
wards, led to his imprisonment by Herod 
Antipas. See Herod III. It was while 
in prison that he sent two of his disciples 
to Christ to inquire, "Art thou he that 
should come, or do we look for another ?' ' 
Matt. 11:3. He may have been moved 
to send this message by some lingering 
Jewish views as to a temporal Messiah, 
who would right all their national 
wrongs, or by some temporary unbeliev- 
ing haste to have Christ publicly an- 
nounce his Messiahship. It was on this 
occasion that Christ calls him greater 
than any other prophet ; because, of all 
the prophets of the Messiah, he alone 
saw Him entering on his work whom all 
"desired to see ;" yet he was less than 
the "least in the kingdom of God," in- 
asmuch as he died without seeing that 
kingdom established in the death and 
resurrection of his Lord. But his earth- 
ly work was soon done. Herod, accord- 
ing to Josephus, feared his great influ- 
ence over the people, and Herodias 
dreaded his bold fidelity to her husband. 
The dancing of her daughter Salome, 
and the vow of the besotted king, fur- 
nished a pretext. John was beheaded 
in prison ; his disciples buried his re- 
mains with honor, and "went and told 
Jesus," Matt. 14:3-12. 

II. The Apostle and Evangelist, son 
of Zebedee and Salome, was a native of 
Bethsaida in Galilee. Zebedee and his 
sons were fishermen, and appear to have 
been in easy circumstances, Mark 1 : 20 ; 
15:40; John 18:15; 19:27. In John's 
character there was an admirable mix- 
ture of gentleness and force. The pic- 
ture the Bible gives of him has a pecul- 
iar charm, so much peace, humility, char- 
ity, and brotherly love glow in it. His 
affectionate, meditative, spiritual charac- 
ter had also the elements of vigor and 
decision, Luke 9 : 54. Though amiable, 
he was firm and fearless. He was pres- 



JOH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JON 



ent at the scene of the Saviour's cruci- 
lixion, which he describes as an eye-wit- 
ness, John 19:35. He was early at the 
tomb of tlie Redeemer, and after his as- 
cension, boldly proclaimed the gospel at 
Jerusalem, Acts 4:13, though imprison- 
ed, scourged, and threatened with death. 
He was remarkable for devotion to Christ ; 
and it was this, perhaps, as much as am- 
bition, or false views of Christ's king- 
dom, that led him to request a place at 
His right hand, Matt. 20:20-24. He is 
supposed to have been the youngest of 
the apostles. He had been a disciple of 
John the Baptist ; but on being directed | 
to Christ, at once attached himself to 
him. For a time he returned to his em- 
ployment by the sea of Galilee, but was 
soon called to leave all and attend the I 
Saviour, Luke 5:5-10. Christ had a par- \ 
ticular friendship for this lovely and zeal- 
ous disciple, John 13:23; 19:26; 20:2; '. 
21:7. At the last supper, he reclined 
next to the Saviour, and to his care the [ 
dying Eedeemer committed his mother, i 
Together with Peter and James he wit- j 
nessed the transfiguration, and the ago- i 
ny in the garden. See James. After the ' 
ascension of our Lord, John continued to I 
reside at Jerusalem, where he was one of ^ 
the chief pillars of the church, Gal. 2:9. j 
About A. D. 65, it is thought, he removed 
to Ephesus, and labored to diffuse the 
gospel in Asia Minor, where for many 
years after the death of Paul his great 
personal and apostolic influence was 
widely exerted. About a. d. 95, he was 
banished, probably by Domitian, to the 
isle of Patmos, where he had the visions 
described in the Apocalypse. He after- 
wards returned to Ephesus, where he 
lived to a very great age, so that he 
could scarcely go to the assembly of the 
church without being carried by his dis- i 
ciples. Being now unable to make long j 
discourses, his custom was to say in all 
assemblies, "Little children, love one 
another;" and when they wondered at 
his frequent repetition of this concise 
exhortation, his answer was, "This is 
what the Lord commands you ; and this, 
if you do it, is sufficient. " Chrysostom, 
Clement, and Eusebius relate that on his 
return from Patmos he found that a 
young man of promise under his charge 
had been misled, and had joined a band 
of robbers; and that the aged apostle 
sought him out in his mountain haunts, 
and by the blessing of God on his fear- 



! less and faithful love, reclaimed his soul 
from death. He died at Ephesus, in the 
third year of Trajan, a. d. 100, being 
then, according to Epiphanius, ninety- 
! four years of age. He was buried near 
that city, and several of the fathers men- 
I tion his sepulchre as being there. 
I Besides the invaluable gospel and the 
: Apocalypse, which bear his name, we 
: have three epistles of John. The first 
is a catholic or general letter, designed 
apparently to go with his gospel, and 
refute certain Gnostic errors as to the 
person of Christ ; but also and chiefly to 
build up the church universal in truth 
and grace, and especially in holy love. 
The second epistle is addressed ' ' to the 
elect lady, ' ' or the excellent Kuria, who 
was probably some Christian woman em- 
inent for piety and usefulness. The third 
is directed to Gaius, the Latin Caius, 
whom John praises for his fidelity and 
hospitality, and exhorts to persevere in 
every good work. The Pvcvelation and 
epistles of John, it is generally believed, 
were written about 96-98 a. d. They 
are the latest books of the New Testa- 
ment canon, which, as the last surviving 
apostle, he must have greatly aided in 
settling. 

III. Surnamed Mark. See Mark. 

JOK'SHAN, the second son of Abra- 
ham and Keturah, ancestor of the Sabe- 
ans and Dedanites of Southern Arabia, 
Gen. 25:1-3. 

JOK'TAN, son of Eber, and by him 
connected with the Hebrews and other 
Shemite families, Gen. 10:25-30 ; 1 Chr. 
1 : 19-23. He is believed to be the Kah- 
tan, or Yektan, to whom Arabian writers 
trace their purest and most ancient gen- 
ealogies. 

JOK'-THEEL, I. , a city of Judah, Josh. 
15:38. 

II. Tlie name given by Amaziah to the 
capital of Arabia Petraea, 2 Kin. 14 : 7. 
See Sela. 

JONADAB, I., a son of Shmieah, the 
cunning and unprincipled nephew of 
David, and friend of Amnon, 2 Sam. 
13:3-5. Yet he seems to have been 
long aware of the purpose of Absalom to 
avenge his sister's dishonor upon Am- 
non, and very coolly excused the assas- 
sination of his friend, ver. 32-35. 

II. A son of Rechab, a Kenite, de- 
scended from Hobab the brother of Mo- 
ses. He was at the head of the Rechab- 
ites in the time of Jehu, and seems to 
233 



JON 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOP 



have given them a cojnniand to abstain 
from wine, 2 Kin. 10:15; 1 Chr. 2:55; 
Jer. 35:6-10. See Kechabites. 

JO'NAH, one of the minor prophets, 
was a native of Gath-hepher, in Zebu- 
lun, 2 Kin. 14 : 25. Being ordered of 
God to prophesy against Nineveh, prob- 
abl)' in or before the reign of Jeroboam 
II., which begun 825 b. c, he endeav- 
ored to avoid the command by embark- 
ing at Joppa for Tarshish, in order to tiy 
as far as possible in the opposite direction. 
But being overtaken by a storm, he was 
throwTi overboard at his own request, 
and miraculously preserved by being 
swallowed by a large fish. See Whale. 
Several Greek and lloman legends seem 
to have been borrowed from this source. 
After three days, typical of our Saviour's 
stay in the tomb, the lish cast Jonah out 
upon the shore ; the word of the Lord a 
second time directed him to go to Nine- 
veh, and he obeyed. The allusions of 
the narrative to the vast extent and 
population of this city, are confirmed by 
other ancient accounts and by modern 
investigations. See Nixeveh. At the 
warnmg Avord of the prophet, the Nin- 
evites repented, and the destruction 
threatened was postponed ; but tlie feel- 
ings of Jonah at seeing his predictions 
unfulfilled and the enemies of God's peo- 
ple spared, rendered necessary a further 
exercise of the forbearance of God. See 
Gounn. 

The literal truth of the narrative is 
established bv our Saviour's repeated 
quotations. Matt. 12:39-41; 16:4; Luke 
11:29-32. It is highly instructive, as 
showing that the providential govern- 
ment of God extends to all heathen na- 
tions, and that his grace has never been 
confined to his covenant people. 

JON'ATHAN, I., a Levite, son of Ger- 
sliom, and grandson of Moses, who after 
the death of Joshua impiously served as 
a priest, first to Micah, and then to the 
Danitcs in Laish or Dan. where his pos- 
teritv succeeded him until the captivitv, 
Judg. 17 ; 18. 

II. Tlie eldest son of Saul, and one of 
the loveliest characters in Old Testament 
history. The narrative of his brilliant 
exploit in Michmash, 1 Sam. 13 and 14, 
illustrates his pious faith, his braver3% 
(see also 1 Sam. 13:3,) and the favor 
borne him by the people, who would 
not sufler him to be put to death in con- 
sequence of Saul's foolish vow. This val- 
234 



iant and generous prince loved David as 
his own soul, 1 Sam. 18:1-4 ; 19:2 ; 20 ; 
and though convinced that his friend 
was chosen of God for the throne, nobly 
yielded his own pretensions, and recon- 
ciled fidelity to his father with the most 
pure and disinterested friendship for 
David. He perished with his father, in 
battle with the Philistines at mount 
Gilboa ; and nothing can surpass the 
beauty and pathos of the elegy in which 
David laments his friend, 2 Sam. 1, whose 
son Jlephibosheth he afterwards sought 
out and befriended, 2 Sam. 9. 

JOP'PA, Hebrew Japuo, is one of the 
most ancient seaports in the world. It 
was a border town of the tribe of Dan, 
Josh. 19:46, on the coast of the ]\Iediter- 
ranean sea, thirty miles south of Ca;sarea, 
and about thirty-live north-west of Jeru- 
salem. Its harbor is shoal and unpro- 
tected from the winds ; but on accoimt 
of its convenience to Jerusalem, it be- 
came the principal port of Judea, and is 
still the great landing-] Jace of pilgrims. 
Here the materials for building both the 
first and the second temple, sent from 
Lebanon and Tyre, were landed, 2 Chr. 
3:16 ; Ezra 3:7. Here Jonah embarked 
for Tarshish. Here, too, Peter raised 
Dorcas from the dead ; and in the house 
of Simon the tanner, by the seaside, was 
taught by a heavenly vision that salva- 
vation was for Gentiles as well as Jews, 
Acts 9-11. Joppa was twice destroyed 
by the Piomans. It was the seat of a 
Christian church for some centuries after 
Constantine. During the crusades it 
several times changed hands ; and in 
modern times, 1799, it was stormed and 
sacked by the French, and twelve hun- 
dred Turkish prisoners, said to have 
broken their parole, were put to death. 

The present town of Jaffa, or Yafa, is 

situated on a promontory jutting out 

into the sea, rising to the height of 

about one hundred and fifty feet, crown- 

[ ed with a fortress, and offering on all 

'. sides picturesque and varied prospects. 

i Towards the west is extended the open 

] sea ; towards the south are spread the 

\ fertile plains of Philistia, reaching as far 

I as Gaza ; towards the north, as far as 

Carmel, the flowery meads of Sharon 

present themselves ; and to the east, the 

hills of Ephraim and Judah raise their 

towering heads. The toAvn is walled 

round on the south and east, towards 

the land, and partially so on the north 



J R BIBLE DICTIONARY. J R 




YAFA, THE MODERN JOPPA, FROM THE NORTH. 



and west, towards the sea. Its environs, 
away from the sand-hills of the shore, 
are fall of gardens and orchards. From 
the sea, the town looks like a heap of 
buildings, crowded as closely as possible 
into a given space ; and from the steep- 
ness of its site, they appear in some 
places to stand one on the other. The 
streets are very narrow, uneven, and 
dirty, and might rather be called alleys. 
The inhabitants are estimated at about 
fifteen thousand, of whom more than half 
arc Turks and Arabs. There are several 
mosques ; and the Latins, Greeks, and Ar- 
menians have each a church, and a small 
convent for the reception of pilgrims. 

JO'RAM, or Jeiio'ram, I., son of Ahab 
king of Israel, succeeded his older broth- 
er Ahaziah in the throne, b. c. 896, and 
reigned twelve years. He discontinued 
the worship of Baal, but followed the 
"sin of Jercboam." During his reign, 
the Moabites revolted. Joram secured 
the aid of Jehoshaphat king of Judah, 
and after receiving for his allies' sake a 
miraculous deliverance from drought, 
defeated the Moabites with great slaugh- 
ter. Not long after he was involved in 
war with Ben-hadad king of Syria, and 
Hazael his successor ; and in this time 
occurred the miraculous deliverance of 



Samaria from siege and famine, and also 
various miracles of Elisha, including the 
healing of Naaman. Joram was wound- 
ed in a battle with Hazael, and met his 
death, in the suburbs of Ramoth-gilead, 
by the hand of Jehu his general. His 
body was thrown into the field of Na- 
both at Jezreel, and with him perished 
the race of Ahab, 1 Kin. 21 : 18-29 ; 2 Kin. 
1:17; 3:1; 6:9 

II. The son and successor of Jehosha- 
phat king of Judah. He reigned with 
his fiither, from b. c. 889, four years, 
and four years alone ; in all eight years. 
Unhappily he was married to xithaliah, 
daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, whose 
evil influence did much to render his 
reign a curse to the land. He slew his 
own brothers, five in number, and seized 
their possessions. He also mtroduced 
Phoenician idols and their worship into 
Judah. The divine wrath was shown in 
leaving him imaided under a successful 
revolt of the Edomites, and repeated in- 
vasions of the Philistines and Arabians. 
His country, the city, and his ovm. house- 
hold were ravaged, his body was afflicted 
with a frightful dysenteric illness, and 
after death a burial in the royal sepul- 
chres was denied him, 2 Kin. 8 : 16-24 ; 
2 Chr. 21. 

235 



JOR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOR 




JOU'DAN, the chief river of Palestine, 
running from north to south, and divid- 
ing the Holy Land into two parts, of 
■which the larger and more important 
lay on the west. There are two small 
streams, each of which claims to be its 
source. One of these, near Banias, an- 
ciently Caesarea Philippi, issues from a 
large cave in a rocky mountain side, and 
flows several miles towards the south- 
west, where it is joined by the second 
and larger stream, which originates in 
a fountain at Tell-el-Kady, three miles 
west of Banias. But besides these, there 
is a third and longer stream, which rises 
beyond the northern limit of Palestine, 
near Hasbeia on the west side of mount 
Hermon, flows twenty-four miles to the 
south, and unites with the other streams 
before they enter the "waters of Me- 
rom," now lake Huleh. This marshy 
lake, when full, is about seven miles 
long, and receives several other but 
smaller streams, chiefly from the west. 
See Merom. Issuing from lake Huleh, 
the Jordan flows about nine miles south- 
ward to the sea of Tiberias, through 
which its clear and smooth course may 
be traced twelve miles to the lower end. 
Hence it pursues its sinuous way to the 
south, till its pure waters are lost in the 
bitter sea of Sodom. 

Between these two seas, that of Tibe- 
rias and the Dead sea, lies the great val- 
236 



ley or plain of the Jordan, 2 Kin. 25:4; 
2 Chr. 4:17. It is called by the Arabs 
El-Ghor. Its average width is about 
five miles, but near Jericho it is twelve 
or fifteen miles. It is terminated on 
both sides, through its whole length, by 
hills, which rise abruptly on the western 
border 1,000 or 1,200 feet high, and more 
gradually on the east, but twice as high. 
This valley is excessively hot, and except 
where watered by fountains or rivulets, 
is sandy and destitute of foliage. It is 
covered in many parts with innumerable 
cone-like mounds, and sometimes con- 
tains a lower and narrow terrace of sim- 
ilar character, perhaps an eighth of a 
mile wide. Through this valley the 
river takes its serpentine course in a 
channel from fifteen to fifty feet below 
the general level. Its immediate banks 
are thickly covered with trees and 
shrubs, such as the willow, tamarisk, 
and oleander ; and often recede, and 
leave a larger space for vegetation. In 
the lower Jordan, the stream is bordered 
by numerous canebrakes. The thickets 
adjoining the river were formerly the 
retreat of wild beasts, which of course 
would be driven out by a freshet ; hence 
the figure, ' ' He shall come up like a 
lion from the swelling of Jordan," Jer. 
49 : 19 ; 50 : 44. The channel of the river 
may be deeper sunk than of old, but 
even now not only the intervales within 



J OK 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOR 



the banks are overflowed in spring, but [ 
in many places the banks themselves, i 

1 Chr. 12: 15. Lieut. Lynch of the Unit- 
ed States navy, who traversed the Jor- ' 
dan in 1848, ascertained that, although ] 
the distance from the sea of Galilee to 
the Dead sea is but sixty miles in a i 
straight line, it is two hundred miles by ' 
the course of the river, which has innu- 1 
merable curves. Its width varies at dif- \ 
ferent points from seventy-five to two | 
hundred feet, and its depth from three 
to twelve feet. Its volume of water dif- ' 
fers exceedingly at different seasons and 
from year to year. The current is usu- j 
ally swift and strong ; and there are nu- i 
merous rapids and falls, of Avhich no less ! 
than twenty-seven are specified by Lieut, i 
Lynch as dangerous even to his metallic i 
boats. The sea of Tiberias lies 312 (ac- | 
cording to Lynch, 653) feet below the ! 
level of the Mediterranean, and the ' 
Dead sea 1,316 feet ; hence the fall of j 
the Jordan between the two seas is 1,000 ' 
feet. The waters of the Jordan are coc 1 : 
and soft, and like the sea of Galilee, it 
abounds in fish. It is crossed by a stone 
bridge, below lake Huleh, (see Gesiiur ;) 
and the fragments of another, just south 
of the sea of Tiberias, still remain. Sev- 
eral fords, available in ordinary seasons, 
are mentioned in Scripture, Judg. 3:28 ; 
12 : 5 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 22-24. Ferry-boats 
were also used, 2 Sam 19 : 17, 18, 39. 
See Sea IV. 

It Avas during the annual "swelling of 
the Jordan" that Joshua and the Israel- 
ites crossed it, Josh. 3:15. Yet the swift 
and swollen current was arrested in its 
course, opposite to Jericho ; and while 
the waters below the city rolled on to 
the sea, those above it were miracu- 
lously stayed, and left in the river bed 
a wide passage for the hosts of Israel. 
Twice afterwards the Jordan was mirac- 
ulously crossed, by Elijah and Elisha, 

2 Kin. 2 : 8, 14. In its waters the lep- 
rosy of Namaan was healed, and the lost 
axc-head floated, at the word of Elisha, 
2 Kin. 5:14; 6:6. Here, too, our Sav- 
iour was baptized, Matt. 3:13 ; and this 
event is commemorated, in the middle of 
April of each year, by thousands of pil- 
grims of various sects of nominal Chris- 
tians, who on a given day, and under 
the protection of a strong Turkish escort, 
vi-sit the sacred river, drink and bathe in 
its waters, and after an hour or two re- 
turn to Jerusalem. 



The principal branches of the Jordan 
are the Yermak, anciently Hieromax, a 
large stream, and the Jabbok, both on 
the east. There are several small rivu- 
lets and many mountain brooks, which 
dry up more "or less early in the sum- 
mer. The phrase, "beyond Jordan," 
usually indicates the east side of the 
river, but before the conquest by Joshua 
it meant the west side. 

At the present day, the Jordan is lost 
in the Dead sea ; but many have sup- 
posed that in very ancient times, before 
the destruction of the cities in the vale 
of Sodom, the Jordan passed through 
the Dead sea and the vale of Siddim, 
and continued its course southward to 
the Elanitic gulf of the Ked sea. The 
southern end of the Dead sea is found to 
be connected with the Elanitic gulf, or 
gulf of Akaba, by the great valley, called 
El-Arabah, forming a prolongation of El- 
Ghor, the valley of the Jordan. See map 
in Exodus. The course of this valley 
is between south and south-south-west. 
Its length, from the Dead sea to Akaba, 
is about one hundred miles in a direct 
line. From the extremity of the Dead 
sea, a sandy plain extends southward be- 
tween hills, and on a level with the sea, 
for the distance of eight or ten miles, 
where it is interrupted by a chalky clift', 
from sixty to eighty feet high, which 
runs nearly across the valley, but leaves 
at its western end the opening of a val- 
ley nearly half a mile wide, which runs 
up for many miles to the south uiihin 
the broad and desert valley El-Arabah, 
upon which it at length emerges, and 
the water of which it conveys to the 
Dead sea. llie cliff' above referred to, 
probably the Akrabbim of the Bible, 
marks the termination of El-Ghor and 
the commencement of El-Arabah, which 
is thence prolonged without interruption 
to Akaba. It is skirted on each side by 
a chain of mountains ; but the streams 
which descend from these, are in sum- 
mer lost in their gravelly beds before 
they reach the valley below ; so that 
this lower plain is in summer entirely 
without water, which alone can produce 
verdure in the Arabian deserts and ren- 
der them habitable. There is not the 
slightest appearance of a road, or of any 
other work of human art, in any part of 
the valley. The opinion that the Jor- 
dan formerly traversed this great valley 
is rendered untenable by the fact that 
237 



JOS 



BIBLE DICTIONAKV. 



J OS 



the Dead sea lies nearly 1,300 feet lower 
than the gulf of Akaba, and that most 
of the intervening region now pours its 
streams north into the Dead sea. Of 
course the Jordan must also have stop- 
ped there of old, as it docs now, unless, 
according to the somewhat startling the- 
ory of Lieut. Lynch and others, the Dead 
sea— and with it, though less deeply, the 
whole valley to the north and south- 
sunk down from a higher level into its 
present deep chasm, perhaps long before 
that appalling catastrophe from which 
Lot found refuge in "the mountain," 
Gen. 19:17-28, 80. See Sea III. 

JO'SEPH, L. the son of Jacob and his 
beloved Rachel, born in Mesopotamia, 
Gen. 30:22-24, b. c. 1747 Ho is mem- 
orable for the wonderful providence of 
God which raised him from a prison to 
be the grand-vizier of Egypt, and made 
him the honored means of saving count- 
less human lives. Ilis history is one of 
the most pleasing and instructive in the 
Bible ; and is related in language inim- 
itably natural, simple, and touching. It 
is too beautiful for abridgment, and too 
familiar to need rehearsal. It throws 
much light on the superintending provi- 
dence of God, as embracing all things, 
great and small, in the perpetual un- 
folding of his universal plan. No narra- 
tive in the Bible more strikingly illus- 
trates the protective and elevating power 
of the fear of God, and its especial value 
for the young. To behold this lovely 
image of lilial piety and unwavering 
faith, of self-control in youth and pa- 
tience in adversity, of discretion and 
fidelity in all stations of life, serenely 
walking with God through all, and at 
death intrusting soul and body alike 
into his hands, Hcb. 11 : 22, may well 
lead the young reader to cry, Oh that 
the God of Joseph were my God, Gen. 
37 and 39-50. Joseph died, aged one 
hundred and ten, b. c. 1G37 ; and when 
the Israelites, a century and a half later, 
went up from Egypt, they took his bones, 
and at length buried them in Shechem, 
Ex. 13:19; Josh. 24:32. A Mohamme- | 
dan wely or tomb covers the spot regard- 
ed generally, and it may be correctly, as I 
the place of his burial. It is a low stone | 
enclosure, and stands in quiet seclusion 
among high trees, at the western entrance 
of the valley of Shechem, at the right of 
the traveller's path and nearer mount I 
Ebal than mount Gerizim. I 

238 



I II. The husband of Mary, Christ's 
! mother. His genealogy is traced in 
• Matt. 1 : 1-15, to David, Judah, and 
I Abraham. See Genealogy. His resi- 
dence Avas at Nazareth in Galilee, where 
I he followed the occupation of a carpen- 
j ter, to which Christ also was trained, 
Mark 6:3. He was a pious and hon- 
I orable man, as appears from his whole 
I course towards Mary and her son. They 
j both attended the Passover at Jerusalem 
when Christ was twelve years of age, 
j Luke 2:41-51 ; and as no more is said of 
I him in the sacred narrative, and Christ 
committed Mary to the care of one of his 
disciples, he is generally supposed to 
have died before Christ began his public 
ministry. He seems to have been well 
known among the J ews, Mark 0:3; John 
G:42. 

III. A native of Arimathea, but at the 
time of Christ's crucilixion a resident at 
Jerusalem. He was doubtless a believer 
in the Messiah-, and "waited for the 
kingdom of God." He was a member of 
the Jewish Sanhedrim, and opposed in 
vain their action in condemning the Sav- 
iour, Luke 23:51. When all was over, 
he ' ' went in boldly unto Pilate, and 
craved the body of Jesus." It was now 
night, and the Jewish Sabbath was at 
hand. He therefore, with the aid of 
Nicodemus, wrapped the body in spices, 
for the time, and laid it in his own tomb, 
Mark 15:43-46; John 19:38-42. 

IV. A disciple of Christ, also named 
Justus, and Barsabas. See Barsabas. 

JO'SES, I., one of the brethren of our 
Lord, Matt. 13 : 55 ; Mark 6 : 3 His 
brethren did not at first believe on him, 
but after his resurrection they are found 
among his disciples, John 2:12; 7:5; 
Acts 1:14. 

II. A son of Cleophas and Mary, iden- 
tified by some with the above, Matt. 
27:56. See James III. 

HI. See Barnabas. 

JOSH'UA, I., the son of Nun. a dis- 
tinguished leader of the Hebrews, and 
the successor of Moses. His name at 
iirst was Oshea, Num. 13 : 8, 16 ; and in 
the New Testament he is called Jesus, 
Acts 7:45 ; Heb. 4:8. Both the names, 
Joshua and Jesus, signify saviour, deliverer. 
See Jesus. Joshua led Israel over the 
Jordan, and took possession of the prom- 
ised land ; he conquered the Canaanites, 
and then distributed the country among 
the tribes. He is first mentioned as the 



.10; 



BIBLE I>ICT10NAliY. 



JUB 



leader of Israel against the Amalekites 
at Rephidim, Ex. 17 : 8-16. See also 
Num. 14:6. At the passage over Jordan 
he was eighty-four years of age ; and 
after about twenty-six years employed 
in his appointed work, and then judging 
Israel at liis possession atTimnath-serah, 
he died, b. c. 1426. His last grand convo- 
cation of all Israel, at Shechem, and his 
solemn address to them and renewal of 
tlieir covenant with God, form the wor- 
thy close of a life on which in the sacred 
records no blot rests. He seems to have 
served the Lord with singular fidelity. 
No man witnessed more or greater mir- 
acles than he ; and in his life may be 
found many points of resemblance to 
that of the greater ' ' Captain of the 
Lord's host," who establishes his people 
in the true promised land. 

The BOOK OF JosuuA contains the nar- 
rative of all these transactions, and was 
written by Joshua himself, or under his 
direction, b. c. 1427. From chap. 24:27 
on, was of course added by a later hand ; 
but all was done under the inspiration of 
the Holy Spirit, 2 Tim. 3:16. 

II. The son of Josedech. See Jeshua. 

JOSIAH, son of Amon and great- 
grandson of Hezekiah, a pious king of ! 
Judah, who introduced great reforms in j 
the temple worship, and in the religious 
character of the nation in general. No 
king set himself more earnestly to de- 
stroy every vestige of idolatry out of the 
land. Among other things, he defiled ^ 
the altars of the idols at Bethel by burn- 
ing upon them the bones from the tombs [ 
of their deceased priests ; as had been I 
foretold more than three centuries be- 
fore, 1 Kin. 13:2. While cleansing and 
repairing the temple at his command, 
the priests foimd the temple copy of the j 
five books of the law, perhaps the origi- 
nal copy from Moses' own hand. The 
sacred book was too much neglected in 
those days of declension; and even the i 
pious Josiah seems to have been impress- 
ed by the closing chapters of Deuterono- 
my as though he had never read them 
before. To avert the judgments there 
threatened, he hiunbled himself before 
God, and sought to bring the people to [ 
repentance. He caused them to renew 
their covenant with Jehovah, and cele- 
brated the Passover with a solemnity ; 
like that of its first institution. The 
repentance of the people was heartless, ! 
and did not avert the divine judgments. , 



Josiah, however, was taken away from 
the evil to come. He met death in bat- 
tle with Pharaoh-necho, whose passage 
across his territory to attack the king of 
Assyria, Josiah felt obliged to resist. The 
death of this wise and pious king was 
deeply lamented, by the prophet Jere- 
miah and all the people, Zech. 12:11. 
He began to reign b. c. 641, at the ago 
of eight years, and reigned thirty-one 
years, 2 Kin. 22 ; 23 ; 2 Chr. 34 ; 35. 

JOT, a word which comes from the 
name of the Greek letter iota ( i ) and the 
Hebrew yod ( -i). It is the smallest let- 
ter of these alphabets ; and is therefore 
put for the smallest thing or particle ; 
which is also its meaning in English, 
Matt. 5:18. See Tittle. 

JO'THAM, I , the youngest son of 
Gideon, who escaped the massacre of his 
brethren by Abimelech, and afterwards 
boldly and prophetically denounced the 
Shechemites in the beautiful parable of 
the bramble and the other trees. He 
escaped to Beer, and probably lived to 
see his threatenings fulfilled, Judg. 9. 
See Abimelech III. 

II. The son and successor of UZziah, 
or Azariah, king of Judah, b. c. 758. 
He appears to have been for some years 
regent before the death of Uzziah his 
leprous father, but ascended the throne 
at the age of twenty-five years, and 
reigned sixteen years in the fear of God. 
The history of his wise and prosperous 
reign, and of his useful public works, is 
found in 2 Kin. 15 : 5, 32-38 ; 2 Chr. 
26:21; 27:9. 

JOUR'NEY. A " sabbath-day's jour- 
ney," among the Jews, seems to have 
been reckoned at about seven furlongs, 
or nearly one mile. Matt. 24:20; Acts 
1 : 12. An ordinary day's journey is 
about twenty miles. Persons starting on 
a journey in the East frequently make 
their first stage a short one, that they 
may the more easily send back for any 
forgotten articles or necessary supplies. 
This may perhaps apply to the '"day's 
journey" of the parents of Jesus, men- 
tioned in Luke 2 : 44. 

For the journey ings of the Israelites, 
see Exodus, and Wanderings. 

JU'BAL, music, son of Lamcch and 
Adah, and a descendant of Cain. He 
invented the lyre, and the shepherd' s- 
pipe. Gen. 4:21. 

JU'BILEE, a Hebrew festival, cele- 
brated in every fiftieth year, which of 
239 



JUD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY, 



JVD 



course occurred after seven weeks of 
years, or seven times seven years, Lev. 
2b : 10. Its name Jubilee, sounding or 
flowing, was significant of the joyful 
trumpet-peals that announced its arri- 
val. During this year no one sowed or 
reaped ; but all were satisfied with what 
the earth and the trees produced spon- 
taneously. Each resumed possession of 
his inheritance, whether it were sold, 
mortgaged, or otherwise alienated ; and 
Hebrew servants of every description 
were set free, with their wives and chil- 
dren, Lev. 25. The first nine days were 
spent in festivities, during which no one 
worked, and every one wore a crown on 
his head. On the tenth day, which was 
the day of solemn expiation, the sanhe- 
drim ordered the trumpets to sound, and 
instantly the slaves were declared free, 
and the lands returned to their heredi- 
tary owners. This law was mercifully 
designed to prevent the rich from op- 
pressing the poor, and getting possession 
of all the lands by purchase, mortgage, 
or usurpation ; to cause that debts should 
not be multiplied too much, and that 
slaves should not continue, with their 
wives and children, in perpetual bond- 
age. It served to maintain a degree of 
equality among the Hebrew families ; to 
perpetuate the division of lands and 
households according to the original 
tribes, and secure a careful registry of 
the genealogy of ever}'^ family. They 
were also thus reminded that Jehovah 
was the great Proprietor and Disposer of 
all things, and they but his tenants. 
' ' The land is mine ; for ye are strangers 
and sojourners with me," Lev. 25:23. 
And this memento met them constantly 
and pointedly ; for every transfer of 
land was valuable in proportion to the 
number of years remaining before the 
jubilee. Isaiah clearly refers to this 
peculiar and important festival, as fore- 
shadowing the glorious dispensation of 
gospel grace, Isa. 61:1, 2 ; Luke 4:17-21. 

See also the notice of a similar institu- 
tion under Sabbatical Year. 

JU'DAH, the fourth son of Jacob and 
Leah, born in Mesopotamia, b. c. 1755, 
Gen. 29:35. His name appears honora- 
bly in the history of Joseph, Gen. 37 :26, 
27 ; 44:16-34; but disgracefully in that 
of Tamar his daughter-in-law. Gen. 38. 
The dying benediction of Jacob foretells 
the superior power and prosperity of the 
family of Judah, and their continuance 
240 



as chief of the Jewish race until the time 

of Christ, Gen. 49 : 8-12. Though not the 
first-born, Judah soon came to be consid- 
ered as the chief of Jacob's children, and 
his tribe was the most powerful and nu- 
merous. The south-eastern part of Pal- 
estine fell to their lot. See Judea. On 
the border of their territory was Jeru- 
salem, the seat of the Jewish worship ; 
and from Judah sprung David and his 
royal race, from which descended the 
Saviour of the world. 

After the return from the captivity, 
this tribe in some sort united in itself 
the whole Hebrew nation, who from that 
time were known only as Judasi, Jews, 
descendants of Judah. Judah — when 
named in contradistinction to Israel, 
Ephraim, the kingdom of the ten tribes, 
or Samaria — denotes the kingdom of Ju- 
dah, and of David's descendants. See 
Hebrews and Kings. One of the princi- 
pal distinctions of this tribe is, that it 
preserved the true religion, and the pub- 
lic exercise of the priesthood, with the 
legal ceremonies in the temple at Jeru- 
salem ; while the ten tribes gave them- 
selves up to idolatry and the worship of 
the golden calves. 

JU'DAS, I., IscARiOT, that is, man of 
Carioth or Kerioth, a city of Judah, 
Josh. 15 : 25. Being one of the twelve 
apostles of our Lord, Judas seems to 
have possessed the full confidence of his 
fellow-apostles, and was entrusted by 
them with all the presents which were 
made them, and all their means of sub- 
sistence ; and when the twelve were sent 
out to preach and to work miracles, Ju- 
das appears to have been among them, 
and to have received the same powers. 
He was accustomed, however, even at 
this time, to appropriate part of their 
common stock to his own use, John 
12 : 6 ; and at length sealed his infamy 
by betraying his Lord to the Jews for 
money. For the paltry sum of about 
$15, he engaged with the Jewish Sanhe- 
drim to guide them to a place where 
they could seize him by night without 
danger of a tumult. But when he learn- 
ed the result, a terrible remorse took 
possession of him ; not succeeding in un- 
doing his fatal work with the prie.sts, he 
cast doAvn before them the price of blood, 
crossed the gloomy valley of Hinnom, 
and hung himself, Matt. 27 : 3-10. Luke, 
in Acts i : 18, adds that he fell headlong 
and burst asunder, probably by the 



JUD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JOB 



breaking of the rope or branch. The 
steep hill-side south of the valley of Hin- 
nom might well be the scene of such a 
twofold death. See Aceldama. The 
remorseful confession of Judas was a sig- 
nal testimony to the spotless innocence 
of Christ, Matt. 27 :4 ; and his awful end 
i.s a solemn warning against avarice, 
hypocrisy, and all unfaithfulness, Matt. 
26:34; John 17:12; Acts 1:25. 

II. One of the apostles, called also 
Jude, Lebbeus, and Thaddeus, Matt. 
10 : 3, Mark 3:18, Jude 1, the son of 
Alpheus and Mary, and brother of James 
the Less. See James II. and III. He 
was the author of the epistle which bears 
his name, Mark 6:3; Luke 6:16; Acts 
1:13. 

III. The brother of our Lord, Matt. 
27:56. Supposed by many to have been 
only a cousin, and the same as Judas II. 
the apostle. But his "brethren" did 
not believe in him until near the close 
of his ministry. See James III. 

IV. A Christian teacher, called also 
Barsabas, sent from Jerusalem to Anti- 
och with Paal and Barnabas, Acts 15:22, 
27, 32. 

V. Surnamed "the Galilean," called 
also, by Josephus, the Gaulonite. He 
was born at Gamala, a city of Gaulonitis 
near the south-eastern shore of the lake 
of Tiberias. In company with one Sa- 
doc, he attempted to excite a sedition 
among the Jews, but was destroyed by 
Qairinus, or Cyrenius, at that time gov- 
ernor of Syria and Judea, Acts 5:37. 

VI. A Jew at Damascus, with whom 
Paul lodged, Acts 9:11. 

JUDE. See Judas II. 

The epistle of Jude, assigned conjec- 
turally to the year 66 a. d., is a fervid 
and vehement voice of warning against 
following certain false teachers in their 
errors and corruptions, and so sharing 
their awful doom. It resembles the sec- 
ond epistle of Peter. As to the quota- 
tion in ver. 14, 15, see Enoch II. 

JUDEA, or land of the Jews, a name 
sometimes given to the southern part of 
the Holy Land ; and sometimes, especial- 
ly by foreigners, to the whole country. 
In the general division of Canaan among 
the tribes, the south-east part fell to the 
lot of the tribe of Judah. With the in- 
creasing ascendency of that tribe the 
name of Judah covered a more extended 
territory, 2 Sam. 5:5; and after the 
recession of the ten tribes, the kingdom 
11 



of Judah included the territory of the 
tribes of Judah and Benjamin, with a 
part of that of Simeon and Dan. Judah 
thus occupied all the southern portion of 
Palestine, while the northern part was 
called Galilee, and the middle Samaria. 
After the captivity, as most of those 
who returned were of the kingdom of 
Judah, the name Judah, or Judea, was 
applied generally to the whole of Pales- 
tine, Hag. 1:1, 14 ; 2:2 ; and this use of 
the word has never wholly ceased. When 
the whole country fell into the power of 
the Romans, the former division into 
Galilee, Samaria, and Judea seems to 
have again become current, Luke 2:4; 
John 4:3, 4. Jcsephus describes Judea 
in his day as bounded north by Samaria, 
east by the Jordan, west by the Mediter- 
ranean, and south by the territory of the 
Arabs. These boundaries seem to in- 
clude a part of Idumjea. Judea in this 
extent constituted part of the kingdom 
of Herod the Great, and afterwards be- 
longed to his son Archelaus. When the 
latter was banished for his cruelties, Ju- 
dea was reduced to the form of a Roman 
province, annexed to the proconsulate of 
Syi'ia, and governed by procurators, un- 
til it was at length given as part of his 
kingdom to Herod Agrippa II. During 
all this time, the boundaries of the prov- 
ince were often varied, by the addition or 
abstraction of different towns and cities. 
The original territory of the tribe of 
Judah was an elevated plain, much bro- 
ken by frequent hills, ravines, and val- 
leys, and sinking into fine plains and 
pasture-grounds on the west and south, 
Zech. 7:7. It was a healthy, pleasant, 
and fruitful land. Tlie valleys yielded 
large crops of grain ; and the hills were 
terraced, watered, covered with \ines. 
Gen. 49 : 11, 12, and rich in olives, figs, 
and many other fruits. See Canaan. 
The ' ' hill-countiy ' ' of Judah lay south 
and south-east of Jerusalem, Luke 1:39, 
65, including Bethlehem, Hebron, etc. 
"Tbe plain" refers usually to the low 
ground near the Jordan, 2 Sam. 2 : 29 ; 
2 Kin. 25:4, 5. 

The "wilderness of Judea," in which 
John began to preach, and where Christ 
was tempted, seems to have been in the 
eastern part of Judah, adjacent to the 
Dead sea, and stretching towards Jeri- 
cho, 2 Sam. 15:28. It is still one of the 
most dreary and desolate regions of the 
whole country. Matt. 3:1 ; 4:1. 
241 



J I'D BIBLE DICTIUXARY. J CD 

JUDG'ES, in Hebrew Shophetim, were i naanites, Midianites, Ammonites, and 
the rulers, chiefs, or leaders of Israel, Philistines, in turn to oppress by their 
from Joshua to Saul. They were very exactions a part of the tribes, and some- 
diiierent from the ordinary administra- times the whole nation. But erelong, 
tors of justice among the Hebrews, re- in pity for their sulierings, he would 
Rpecting whom, see Justice. The Cartha- raise up one of the military and civil 
ginians, a colony of the Tyrians, had ^ dictators above described. Fifteen judges 
likewise governors, whom they called are named in the Bible, beginning wiih 
Suii'etes, or ISophetim, with authority | Othniel, some twenty years after Joshua, 
almost equal to that of kings. ' j and continuing till the coronation of 

The dignity of judge was for life; but ' Saul. The recorded succession of the 
the succession was not always constant. I judges, and of the periods of oppression, 
There were anarchies, or intervals, dur- I is the following : 
ing which the commonwealth w\rs with- I ^ . . ^ , tears. 

out rulers. There were likewise long : ^^^^^^^def^glo'a -•:::::::::::::" S 

intervals of foreign servitude and op- Ehud, etc. 80 

pression, under which the Hebrews Under the Philistines unknown 

groaned without deliverers. Although ^^^™5der" Jabin' . V VW \ ""*'" ""'" 

God alone regularly appointed the judges. Dehor" h and Barak ---'------- ----- ^u 

yet the people, on some occasions, chose Under 31 idian 7 

that individual who appeared to them Gideon - 4u 

mostproper to deliver them from oppres- ^^^!^^![V^//^^V^^/.'.V^'^'^ .'..'.'.'.'. 23 

sion : and as it often happened that the jair--------- 22 

oppres-sions which occasioned recourse to | Under the Ammonites 18 

the election of a jtidge were not felt over Jephthah - 6 

all Israel, the power of such judge ex- }r^i[\[[[[[[^[i^im][].[[[V.[[[['.[[[ 10 

tended onlv over that province which he i Abdon - 8 

had delivered. Thus it was chieflv the l^'nder the Philistines 40 

land e.ist of the Jordan that Ehud, jeph- l^f^"*" }::::::::::::::::.::::::::::".: iS 

thah. Elon, and Jair delivered and gov- Under the Philistines -20 

erned ; Barak and Tola governed the Samuel, about — 12 

northern tribes : Abdon the central ; and -^auL the first king. u. c. 1095. 
Ibzan and Samson the southern. The The time from Othniel to Saul, accord- 
authority of judges was little inferior to ing to the above table, would be some 
that of kings : it extended to peace and 500 years ; according to the received 
war ; they decided causes with absolute chronology, it is about 310 years. It is 
authority ; but had no power to make supposed that some of the above periods 
new laws, or to impose new burdens on overlap each other ; but chronologists 
the people. They were protectors of the are not agreed as to the mode of recon- 
lav,-s, defenders of religion, and aven- ciling the accounts in Judges with other 
gers of crimes, particularly of idolatry; kno^\^l dates, and Avith 1 Kin. 6:1, and 
they were without salary, pomp, or splen- Acts 13 : 20, though several practicable 
dor ; and without guards, train, or equi- methods are proposed, the examination 
page, other than that their own wealth , of which would exceed the limits of this 
afforded. ' work. 

Tlie command of Jehovah to expel or The book of Judges contains the an- 
destroy all the Canaanitcs, was but im- nals of the times in which Israel was 
perfectly executed ; and those who Avere : ruled by judges, and is often referred to 
spared infected the Hebrews with the in the New Testament and other parts 
poison of their idolatry and vice. The of the Bible. It appears to have been 
affair of Micah and the Levite, and the written before David captured Zion. 1:21, 
crime at Gibeah which led to the ruin- and yet after a regal government was 
ous war against the Benjamites, though introduced, 17 : 6 ; 18 : 1 ; 21:25. Who 
recorded at the close of the book of was its author is imknoAATi ; the major- 
Judges, chap. 17-21, occuiTcd not long ity of critics ascribe it to Samuel, b. c. 
after the death of Joshua, and show how 1403, but many regard it as a compila- 
fioon Israel began to depart from God. tion by Ezra. It illustrates God's care 
To chastise them, he suffered the people over his people, mingling his long-siif- 
of Mesopotamia and of Moab, the Ca- fering wdth timelv chastisements. The 
242 



JUD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



JUS 



period of the judges was, on the whole, 
one of prosperity ; and while the provi- 
dence of God confirmed his word, "If 
ye refuse and rebel, ye shall be devoured 
by the sword," it no less faithfully as- 
sured them, '"If ye be williag and obe- 
dient, ye shall eat of the good of the 
land. ' ' 

JUDG'MEXT is put, in Matt. 5 : 21, 
22, for a court of judgment, a tribunal, 
namely, the tribunal of s^ven judges, 
which Josephus mentions as existing in 
every city, and which decided causes of 
minor importance. See under Syna- 
gogue. 

For the expression, "judgment-hall," 
see Pretokium. 

The DAY of judgment, for which the 
word "judgment" alone is sometimes 
used, is that great day, at the end of the 
world and of time, when Christ shall sit 
as judge over all the universe, and when 
every individual of the human race will 
be judged and recompensed according to 
his works, whether they be good or evil. 
The time of its coming and its duration 
are loiown only to God. It will break 
upon the world suddenly, and Arith a 
glorious but awful majesty. It will wit- 
ness the perfect vindication of all the 
ways of God. The revelation of his jus- 
tice, appalling but unstained, will fill 
the universe with approving wonder ; 
but the revelation of his yet more amaz- 
ing goodness will crown him with unut- 
terable glory, llie Redeemer especially 
will then receive his reward, and be glo- 
rified in his saints, who shall be raised 
from the dead in his likeness. He will 
di\-idc all mankind into two classes : all 
the righteous will be in one. and all the 
wicked in the other ; all that love God 
in the one, and all that hate him in the 
other ; all that penitently believed in 
Christ while they lived in the one. and 
all that died impenitent and unbelieving 
in the other. And this judgment and 
separation will be eternal ; the former 
will rise in holiness and joy, and the lat- 
ter sink in sin and woe for ever, Eccl. 
11:9: Dan. 12:2: Matt. 10:15; 12:36; 



' Paul. He suffered him to land at Sidon, 
and to visit his friends there ; and in a 
subsequent part of the voyage he op- 
posed the violence of the soldiers, direct- 

, ed against the prisoners generally, in or- 
der to save the apostle. Acts 27. ' 

JU'NIPEll is found in the English Bi- 

'■ ble, 1 Kin. 19:4. 5 ; Job £0:4 ; Psa. 120:4. 
The Hebrew word, however, signifies the 



25:31-40; 2G:64: John 5 



Acts 



17 : 31 ; Rom. 14 : 10-12 ; 2 Thess. 1:7- 
10: 2 Pet. 2:9; 3:7; 1 John 4:17; Rev. 
20:12-15. 

JU'LIUS, a centurion of the cohort of 
Augustus, to whom Festus, governor of 
Judea, committed Paul to be conveyed 
to Rome. Julius had great regard for 




plant Genista, or Spanish broom, which 
is common in the desert regions of Ara- 
bia, and has yellowish blossoms and a 
bitter root. 

JUPITER, the supreme god of the 
heathen Greeks and Romans. He was 
called the son of Saturn and Ops, and 
was said to have been born in Crete. 
The character attributed to him in pa- 
gan mytliology was a compound of all 
that is wicked, obscene, and beastly in 
the catalogue of human crime. Still he 
was ever described as of noble and dig- 
nified appearance and bearing. Barna- 
bas was supposed by the people of Lys- 
tra to represent him, Acts 14 : 12, 13 ; 
19:35. 

JUS'TICE, a principle of righteousness 
and equity, controlling our conduct, and 
securing a due regard to all the rights 
of others — their persons, property, char- 
acter, and interests. It has to do, not 
with pecuniary transactions alone, hxit 
with all our intercourse with society. It 
forms a chief element of the character 



JUS 



BIBLE DlCTIONAliy. 



JL'S 



approved in God's word ; and a truly 
just man has but to "love mercy, and 
■walk humbly with God," to fultil all 
righteousness. Justice in magistrates, 
rulers, and judges, must be fearless and 
impartial, and all its decisions such as 
will bear revision before the court of 
heaven, Deut. 1 : 16-17 ; 2 Sam. 23 : 3 ; 
2 Chr. 19:6-10. Judgment is peculiarly 
the prerogative of God, and every earth- 
ly tribunal lies under the shadow of the 
"great white throne." A just judg- 
ment is the voice of God ; and hence 
an unjust one is doubly hateful in his 
Bight. 

The justice op God is that essential 
and infinite attribute which makes his 
nature and his ways the perfect embod- 
iment of equity, and constitutes him 
the model and the guardian of equity 
throughout the universe, Deut. 32 : 4 ; 
Psa. 89 : 14. The justice of God could 
not leave the world without laws, and 
cannot fail to vindicate them by exe- 
cuting their penalties ; and as all man- 
kind perpetually break them, every hu- 
man soul is under condemnation, and 
must perish, unless spared through the 
accepted ransom, the blood of Christ. 

The administration of justice, among 
the Hebrews, was characterized by sim- 
plicity and promptitude. In early times 
the patriarch of each family Avas its 
judge. Gen. 38 : 24. Afterwards, in the 
absence of more formal courts, the elders 
of a household, tribe, or city, were its 
judges by natural right. In the wilder- 
ness, Moses organized for the Jews a reg- 
ular system of judges, some having ju- 
risdiction over ten families, others over 
fifty, one hundred, or one thousand. 
The difficult cases were referred to Mo- 
ses, and he often sought divine direction 
concerning them, Ex. 18 : 21-26 ; Lev. 
24:12. Tliese judges were perhaps the 
"princes of the congregation," and the 
chiefs of the families and tribes of whom 
we afterwards read. Num. 27:3. In the 
land of Canaan, local magistrates were 
appointed for every city and village ; and 
these M'ere instructed to cooperate with 
the priests, as being all together under 
the theocracy, the actual government of 
Jehovah, the supreme Judge of Israel, 
Deut. 16:18; 17:8-10; 19:17 ; 21:1-6. 
Tlieir informal courts were held in the 
gate of the city, as the most public and 
convenient place, Deut. 21 : 9 ; 22 : 15 ; 
25 : 7 ; and in the same place contracts 
244 



were ratified, Ruth 4:1, 9 ; Jer. 32:7-15, 
Deborah the prophetess judged Israel 
beneath a palm-tree, Judg. 4 : 5. Sam- 
uel established virtually a circuit court, 

1 Sam. 7:16; 8:1; and among the kings, 
Jehoshaphat made special provision for 
the faithful administration of justice, 

2 Chr. 19. The kings themselves were 
supreme judges, with almost unlimited 
powers, 1 Sam. 22:16 ; 2 Sam. 4:9, 10 ; 
1 Kin. 22:26. They were expected, how- 
ever, to see that justice was everywhere 
done, and seem to have been accessible to 
all who were wronged. Frequent com- 
plaints are on record in the sacred books 
of the maladministration of judges, of 
bribery and perjury, 1 Sam. 8:3 ; 1 Kin. 
21 : 8-14 ; Isa. 1: 23 ; 10 : 1 ; Mic. 3:11 ; 
7:3. 

There was no class among the Jews 
exactly corresponding to our lawyers. 
The accuser and the accused stood side 
by side before the judge, with their wit- 
nesses, and pleaded their own cause. 
The accuser is named in several places, 
Satan, that is, the adversary, Psa. 109 : 6 ; 
Zech. 3 : 1-3. No one could be con- 
demned without the concurring testi- 
mony of at least two witnesses. Num. 
35 : 30 ; and these failing, he was obliged 
to make oath of his innocence, Ex. 22 : 11 ; 
Heb. 6 : 16. The sentence of the judge 
was instantly executed ; and in certain 
cases the witnesses cast the first stone, 
Deut. 17:5,7; 25:2; Josh. 7: 24; ISam. 
22:18; 1 Kin. 2:24; Prov. 16:14. The 
same frightful celerity still marks the 
administration of justice in the East. 
Tiie application of torture to extract ev- 
idence is only once mentioned, and that 
under the authority of Rome, Acts 22:24. 
See Sanhedrim and Synagogue. 

JUSTIFICA'TION, the being regarded 
and treated as if innocent ; or acquittal 
from the consequences of guilt before 
the tribunal of God. "Justification by 
faith" means that a person, on accomit 
of true and living faith in Christ as man- 
ifested by good works, Avill be delivered 
from condemnation on account of his 
sins ; that is, his sins will be forgiven, 
and he be regarded and treated as if 
innocent and holy. Thus, besides the 
remission of sins and their penalty, it 
includes the restoration and everlasting 
enjoyment of the favor of God. 

We obtain justification by faith in 
Christ. Yet neither this nor any other 
act of ours, as a work, is any ground of 



KAD 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



KEI 



our justification. lu acquitting us be- 
fore his bar, God regards not our works, 
in wliole or in part, but the atoning 
work and merits of Christ. He was 
treated as a sinner, that we might be 
treated as righteous. ' ' There is there- 
fore now no condemnation to them which 
are in Christ Jesus;" the moment we 
believe, our justification is as perfect as 
the infinite worthiness of our Redeemer. 
Its validity does not depend on the meas- 
ure of our assurance of hope, nor on spot- 
less holiness of life. Sanctilication, in- 
deed, or progressive growth in holiness, 
commences simultaneously with justifi- 
cation, and must in the end reach the 
same perfectness. Yet it is important 
to distinguish between the two, and to 
observe that, could the believer's holi- 
ness become as perfect as an angel's, it 
could not share with the atoning merits 
of Christ in entitling him to admission 
to heaven. 

" The best obedience of my hands 

Dares not appear before thy throne ; 
But faith can answer thy demands. 
By pleading wliat my Lord liath done." 

True justification, by the gratuitous 
gift of the Saviour, furnishes the most 
powerful motive to a holy life. It is 
followed by adoption, peace of con- 
science, and the fruits of the Spirit in 
this life ; and by final sanctification, ac- 
quittal in the day of judgment, and ad- 
mittance to heaven, Rom. 3 : 20-31 ; 5 ; 
8:1-4; 10 : 4-10 ; Gal. 2 : 16-21 ; Eph. 
2:4-10. 



K. 



KA'DESH, or Ka'desh-B-vr'nea, called 
also En-Mishpat, Gen. 14:7, the name of 
a fountain, a city, and the desert around, 
Psa. 29:3, in the southern border of the 
promised land. It is said, in Num. 20: 16, 
to lie in the ' ' uttermost border of Edom, ' ' 
and was probably situated very near the 
great valley El-Arabah, south of the Dead 
sea. Dr. Robinson found a watering- 
place answering well to the indications 
in Scripture, on the western border of 
El-Arabah, about twenty-seven miles 
from the Dead sea. Kadesh was twice 
visited by the Israelites in their wander- 
ings ; once soon after they left mount 
Sinai, and again thirty-eight years after. 
At the first visit the mission and return 
of the twelve spies took place, the rebel- 



lion of the people, and their presumptu- 
ous eflbrt to enter Canaan by the pass 
Zephath, immediately north of Kadesh, 
Num. 13 and 14. At their second visit 
occurred the death of Miriam, the mur- 
muring of the people for water, the mi- 
raculous supply, the sin of Aaron and 
Moses in smiting the rock, and the fruit- 
less request for a passage through Edom, 
Num. 20:1-22. The southern border of 
Judah reached to Kadesh-barnea, Josh. 
12:22; 15:3. 

KAD'MONITES, Gen. 15 : 19, a tribe 
of Canaanites who inhabited the prom- 
ised land east of the Jordan, about mount 
Hermon. Some have fancied that Cad- 
mus, the supposed inventor of the Greek 
alphabet, and who came from the East, 
was a Kadmonite. If so, he only intro- 
duced into Greece the alphabet of his 
own country, since the Greek letters are 
obviously derived from the Phoenician or 
ancient Hebrew letters. 

KA'NAH, I., a brook which separated 
Ephraim and Manasseh, and fell into the 
jMediterranean north of Joppa, Josh. 16:8; 
17:9. 

II. A town in the tribe of Asher, Josh. 
19:24,28. See Cana. 

KE'DAR, a son of Ishmael, Gen. 25: 13, 
the father of the Kedarenians or Cedrei, 
mentioned by Pliny, who dwelt in the 
neighborhood of the Nabatheans, in Ara- 
bia Deserta. They were a numerous and 
powerful tribe, not of the best reputa- 
tion, Psa. 120:5, and their name is some- 
times put for the whole of Arabia Deserta 
and its wandering inhabitants, Isa. 21 :16, 
17 ; 42 : 11. Their black camel' s-hair 
tents are a picturesque feature in a land- 
scape. Song 1:5. 

KEDE'MOTH, a city in the border of 
Sihon king of Heshbon, whence Moses 
sent him an embassage of peace. A des- 
ert lay near it, Deut. 2:26. It was after- 
wards a Levitical city of Reuben, Josh. 
13:18; 21:37. 

KE'DESH, I. , a city of refuge, in Naph- 
tali ; now Kedis, three miles north-west 
of lake Merom, Josh. 19:37 ; 20:7. Ba- 
rak the judge of Israel was born there, 
Judg. 4:6. 

II. A city in the south of Judah, Josh. 
15:23. 

III. A city in Issachar, 1 Chr. 6:72. 

KE'DRON. See Kidron. 

KEI'LAH, a city in the plains of Ju- 
dah, which David once relieved from a 
siege by the Philistines, but which after* 

245 



KEN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



KID 



wards sought to deliver him up to Said, 
1 Sam. 23.1-13; Neh. 3:17. 

KEN'ITES, a people who dwelt west 
of the Dead sea, ami extended them- 
selves far into Arabia Petnea. Jethro, 
the father-in-law of Moses, was a Kenite, 
and his family accompanied the Israel- 
ites, and settled with other Kenites in 
various parts of the Holy Land, Judg. 
1.16; 4:11; 1 Sam. 30. 2y; 1 Chr. 2:55. 
Heber and the Eechabites were their de- 
scendants. The Kenites of whom we read 
appear to have known and served Jeho- 
vah, and the whole tribe were friendly 
to the Hebrews. Saul spared them, 
when sent to destroy the Amalekites 
among whom they dwelt, Niun. 2-1.20, 
21; ISam. 15:6. 

KEN'IZZITES, an ancient people of 
Canaan, whose land God promised to the 
descendants of Abraham, Gen. 15 ' 19. 
They appear to have mingled with other 
Canaanites, and lost their distinctive 
name before the time of Joshua. They 
should be distinguished from the Kc nez- 



ites, the children of Kenaz. Two men 
so named are mentioned in Bible history, 
both subsequent to the Kenizzites, Gen. 
36:15, 42; Josh. 14:6; 15:17. 

KETU'EAH, the wife of Abraham, 
after the death of Sarah, Gen. 25 • 1-6. 
Though she is called a '"concubine," 
this may have been to distinguish her 
sons as well as Ishmael from Isaac the 
son of promise. Gen. 25' 6 ; 1 Chr. 1:32 ; 
Gal. 4:22, 30. Her sons were the ances- 
tors of manv Arabian tribes. 

KIB'EOTH-HATTAA'YAH, the graves 
of lust, one of the encampments of Israel 
in the wilderness, where they desired of 
God flesh for tbeir sustenance, declaring 
they were tired of manna. Num. 11:34, 
35 ; 33 . 16. Quails were sent in great 
quantities ; but while the meat was in 
'■■ their mouths, God smote so great a num- 
, ber of them, that the place was called 
{ ■' the graves of those who lusted," Psa. 
1 78 . 30, 31, a monim^ent to warn man- 
kind against the sm of discontent, 1 Cor. 
, 10:6. 




JERUSALEM AXD ITS VALLEYS, FROM THE SOrTH ; THE KTDRON VALLEY OPENING ON THE RIGHT, AND 

HINNOM ON THE LEFT. 



KID'EON, or Ce'dron, a winter tor- " 
rent, and the valley in which it flowed, ! 
east of Jerusalem. This valley begins a I 
little north-west of the city, passes some , 
two hundred rods north of the present j 
wall, and turns to the south. Here it is , 

24a 



wide and open ; but as it runs south 
between the city and mount Olivet, it 
becomes narrow and deep. Opposite 
mount Moriah, it is a mere torrent's bed, 
one hundred and fifty feet below the city 
wall. It sinks still deeper as it passes 



KIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



KIN 



8Doam, the valley of Hinnom, and the 
\vell of Nehcmiah, and then winds south- 
east, in a narrow and precipitous gorge, 
through the horrid wilderness of !St. Sa- 
bx, to the Dead sea. The bed of the 
Kidron is now dry most of the year : 
even in the rainy season it has no con- 
stant stream, though heavy and contin- 
ued rains may create an impetuous but 
short-lived torrent. It is crossed by a 
causeway and a bridge of a single arch, 
between St. Stephen s gate and the gar- 
den of Gethsemane. By this route prob- 
ably David fled from Abs dom, 2 Sam. 
13:23 ; and the Saviour often passed this 
way in going to Bethany, mount Olivet, 
and Gethsemane, John 18:1, 2. In this 
valley and in that of Hinnom, at their 
confluence, kings Asa, Josiah, and Heze- 
Iciah destroyed the idols and abomina- 
tions bv which Jerusalem was defiled, 
1 Kin. 15:13 ; 2 Kin. 23-4, G, 12 ; 2 Chr. 
2D:li3. See HixxoM, and Jerusalem. A 
part of the waters of the ancient Kidron 
were derived from the temple itself, flow- 
ing down by several channels to the 
deep bed of the brook. The prophet 
Ezckicl makes use of this fact in a beau- 
tiful and cheering allegory, foretelling 
the rivev of divine grace that shall j-et 
renovate the world. The stream he 
describes issues from the temple, beside 
the altar of God; it flows with an ever 
increasing volume ; it carries with it 
into the dreary wilderness verdure, fruit- 
fulness, and melody ; and even heals the 
bitter waters of the Dead sea itself, Ezek. 
47:1-12. 

KING, KINGS. In Scripture, the 
word king does not always imply either 
a high degree of power or great extent of 
territory. Many single towns, or towns 
with their adjacent villages, are said to 
have had kings ; and many persons are 
called kings in Scripture, whom we 
should rather denominate chiefs or lead- 
ers. Somewhat in this sense, Moses is 
said to have been "king in Jeshiu-im," 
or Israel, Deut. 33:5 ; he was the chief, 
the leader, the guide of his people, 
though not king in the same sense as 
David or Solomon. These remarks will 
remove the surfirise which some persons 
have felt at seeing that so small a coun- 
try as Canaan contained thirty-one kings 
who were conquered. Josh. 12:9-24, be- 
sides many who no doubt escaped the 
arms of Joshua. Adonizeciek, himself 
no very powerful king, mentions seventy 



kings whom he had subdued and muti- 
lated. See also 1 Kin. 4.21. These kings, 
in many cases, were no doubt like the 
sheikhs of Arab tribes at the present day. 

The Israelites had no kings till Saul: 
having been governed, first by elders, as 
in Egypt ; then by rulers of God's ap- 
pointment, as Moses and Joshua ; then 
by judges, as Othniel, Ehud, Gideon, 
Samuel ; and lastly by kings, as Saul, 
David, Solomon. Being peculiarly the 
people of God, their form of government 
was essentially a theoci'acy. God i)re- 
scribed for them a code of laws ; he des- 
ignated their rulers ; these laws and 
rulers the people were to obey ' ' in the 
Lord ;" and in all cases of doubt, he, as 
the actual head of the government, was 
to be consulted, in the spirit of the 
words, ''The Lord is our Judge, the 
Lord is our Lawgiver, the Lord is our 
King." Their demand for a king was 
offensive to him, as an unbelieving and 
rebellious departure from the more imme- 
diate headship of Jehovah, 1 Sam. 8:7. 
Yet even under the regal government, 
they were still to regard him as their 
king. Idolatry was treason against the 
throne. Their code of laws was still his 
holy book. It was a prophet or high- 
priest of Jehovah who anointed the king, 
and placed the crown upon his head and 
the sceptre in his hand, Deut. 17 • 15, 
18-20; 1 Sam. 10:1; 12:12-15; 2 Sam. 
1 : 14, 21 ; 1 Kin. 1 : 39 ; 2 Kin. 9:1-0; 
11 . 12 ; Psa. 21 : 3. By the instrumen- 
tality of his sacred ministers, God gave 
such directions concerning public affairs 
as were needed and sought for ; and 
these agents of God, with their instruc- 
tions and warnings, performed a most 
important part in the national history. 
So far as people and kings looked to God 
as their Head, they prospered ; and it 
was for lack of this, that they were ru- 
ined. Of the two kingdoms. Judah and 
Israel, the latter most rapidly and fully 
threw off its allegiance. 2 Chr. 13:4-12 ; 
and therefore it was the first to per- 
ish, having continued two hundred and 
fifty-four years from the death of Solo- 
mon. B. c. 975-721, with nineteen kings 
of nine difterent dynasties. Tlie king- 
dom of Judah continued three hundred 
and eighty-seven years after the separa- 
tion, B c' 975-588, having been held by 
nineteen successive kimrs of the line of 
David. 

The followmg table presents in one 
247 



KIN- 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



KIN 



view the kings of Judah and Israel, as 
given in the Bible, with the year when 
each one began to reign, and the length 
of his reign. The chronology is that of 
Usher and Winer, who nearly coincide. 

KI.XGS OF THE ENTmB NATIOX. 

Faul--- E. c 1095 reigned 40 years. 

David " 1055 " 40 '' 

Solomon " 1015---. " 40 " 



OF JUDAH. 

Kehoboam- 



OF ISSAEL. 



• Jeroboam--- 



Abijah- 
Asa 



-9T5- 
-975- 

-058- 



Jehoshaphat- 



-Nadab 

-liaasha 

-Elah 

-Zimri 

-Omri 

-Ahab 



Jehoram--- 
Ahaziah --- 
(Athaliah, 
usurper ) 
Joasli 



-Ahaziali 
-Joram- 



-955- 
-951- 
-e53- 
-930- 
-929- 
-929- 
-918- 
-914- 
-897- 
-896- 
-892- 
-885- 



- Jchoahaz 
-Joash 



Amaziali 



Uzziah- 



- Jeroboam II. 



-(Interregnum.) 

-Zachariah 

-hhallum 

-Mena^Uem 

-Pekahiah 

-Pekah 



Jotham 
Aliaz - - - 



-878- 
-856- 
-840- 
-8C8- 

-8-;5- 

-810- 
-784- 
■772- 
-772- 
-771- 
-7C0- 
-758- 
-753- 
-741- 



Hezekiah 



- (Interregnu 
-Hosea 



m.)-7C8- 



(Samaria cap- 
tured.) 



(29- 
-726- 



REIGXED 

-17 years. 

-22 " 

- 3 " 
-41 " 

- 2 " 
-23 " 

- 1 " 

- 7 days. 
-12 years. 
-22 " 
-25 " 

- 2 " 
-12 " 



-40 " 
-17 " 
-16 " 
-20 " 
-41 " 
-52 " 
-12 " 

- 6 mos. 

- 1 mo. 
-10 years. 

- 2 " 
-20 ■■' 
-16 " 
-16 " 
-10 " 
-19 " 
-29 " 



-642 
-640 
-609 
-609 
-598 
-5C8 



---55 


years. 


... 2 


" 


---31 


u 


- - - 3 mos. 


---11 


yeai*s. 


--- 3 


mos. 


---11 


years. 



Manasseh--- 

Amon 

Josiah 

Jehoahaz -- 
Jehoiakim • 
Jehoiachin 
Zedekiah --■ 
(Jerusalem 
captured) / """ 

Tire two books of Kings contain a his- 
tory of the kings of Judah and Israel in- 
termingled, commencing with Solomon 
and ending with Zedekiah ; unlike the 
books of Chronicles, which give an ac- 
count only of the kings of Judah. In 
the Septuagint and Vulgate, our two 
books of Samuel are also called books of j 
Kings. The various histories comprising 
the two books of Kings were evidently ! 
the work of a single inspired writer, and i 
not a mere collection. Tliev are belie v- ! 
248 



ed to have been written before the books 
of Chronicles, and Jewish tradition makes 
the prophet Jeremiah their author, b. c. 
620. The writer probably drew a part of 
his materials from the records of each 
reign left by contemporary prophets and 
priests, 1 Kin. 11 ; 41. See Chronicles. 
All these sacred annals are highly m- 
structive. They show us the perfect ful- 
filment of the divine promises and warn- 
ings by Moses ; and every page confirms 
the inspired declaration, "The fear of the 
Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 

KINGDOM OF Heaven is an expres- 
sion used in the New Testament to sig- 
nify the reign, dispensation, or adminis- 
tration of Jesus Christ. The ancient 
prophets, when describing the character 
of the Messiah, Dan. 2 : 44 ; 7 : 13, 14 ; 
Mic. 4 : 1-7, and even when speaking of 
his humiliation and suflerings, were 
wont to intersperse hints of his power, 
his reign, and his divinity. The Jews, 
overlooking the spiritual import of this 
language, expected the Messiah to appear 
as a temporal king, exercising power over 
his enemies, restoring the throne of Da- 
vid to all its splendor, subduing the 
nations, and rewarding his friends and 
faithful servants in proportion to their 
fidelity and services. Hence the contests 
among his disciples, ere they had fully 
learned Christ, about precedency in his 
kingdom ; and hence probably the sons of 
Zebedee desired the two chief places in it, 
or those nearest to their endeared Master 
and Lord. They afterwards learned that 
his kingdom was not of this world, John 
18 : 36, 37 ; that its origin, spirit, means, 
and ends Avere spiritual and heavenly. 
It has indeed its outward form, the visi- 
ble church. Matt. 13:47, and bestows on 
the world the richest of temporal bless- 
ings; but its true dominion is in the 
souls of men. It embraces all who by 
the Spirit of Christ are united to him as 
their divine Head and King, to love, 
serve, and enjoy him for ever. His work 
on earth was to establish it. Matt. 8:2. 
He introduced his disciples into it while 
on earth, and more fully after his resur- 
rection and ascension, John 20:22 ; Acts 
2:32-36; is "head over all things," in 
order to make it triumphant an(i su- 
preme even on earth, Dan. 7 : 27 ; Eph. 
1 : 20-22. It will be perfected in heaven, 
Matt. 8: 11, and will never cease, Luke 
1:33, even when the mediatorial reign of 
the Saviour is accomplished, 1 Cor. 15: 28. 



KIR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



KOR 



KIR, I. , a strong city of Moab ; called 
also Kir-hareseth, Kir-haresh, and Kir- 
heres, Isa. 15 : 1; 16 ; 7, 11 ; Jer. 48; 31. 
It was once nearly destroyed by Joram 
king of Israel, 2 Kin. 3 : 25. It is now 
called Kerak, and is a town of three hun- 
dred families, on a steep hill at the head 
of a ravine rimning up fifteen miles into 
the mountains of Moab. Three-fourths 
of its present inhabitants are nominal 
Christians, greatly oppressed by the Mo- 
hammedan Arabs around them. 

II. A region to which Tiglath-pileser 
transported the captive people of Damas- 
cus, 2 Kin. 16:9 ; believed to have been 
in the vicinity of the river Kur or Cyrus, 
on the north-east of Armenia. The Kur 
flows south-east, unites with the Araxes, 
and empties into the Caspian sea. 

KIRJATHA'IM, I., the dual form of 
Kirjath, a city. It was an ancient city of 
the Emim, east of the Jordan ; after- 
wards inhabited by the Moabites, Amo- 
rites, and Israelites in turn, Gen. 14:5; 
Deut. 2:9-11 ; Ezek. 25:9. It fell with- 
in the limits of the tribe of Reuben, 
Num. 32:37; Josh. 13:19. 

11. A Levitical city in Naphtali, I Chr. 
6:76 ; called Kartan, in Josh. 21:32. 

KIR'JATH-AR'BA. See Hebron. 

KIR'JATH-JEARIM, or Kirjath-ba- 
AL, Josh. 15:9, 60, a city of the Gibeon- 
ites, afterwards given to Judah. It was 
on the confines of Benjamin, Josh. 18:14, 
15, about nine miles from Jerusalem in 
the way to Lydda. Here the ark was 
lodged for many years, in the house of 
Abinadab, till David removed it to Jeru- 
salem, 1 Sam. 7:2; 2 Sam. 6:2; 1 Chr. 
13. 

KIR'JATH-SAN'NAH, and Kir'jath- 
SEPn'ER. See Debir. 

KI'SHON, now the Mukutta, a brook 
which rises in the plain of Esdraelon, 
near the foot of mount Tabor. After 
passing through the great plain and re- 
ceiving the waters of various smaller 
streams, it flows along the foot of mount 
Carmel, and discharges itself into the 
Mediterranean, a short distance south of 
Acre. The supplies it receives from the 
Carmel ridge, see Carmkl II., make it a 
perennial sti-eam for about seven miles 
from its mouth. But all the eastern 
part of its channel, now that the great 
plain through which it flows is un wood- 
ed, is dry throughout the summer sea- 
son ; and yet, in the winter, and after 
heavy rains, it swells to a full and rapid 



torrent. The drowning of Sisera's host, 
Judg. 4:13 ; 5:21, is paralleled by a sim- 
ilar destruction of Arabs fleeing from the 
French after the battle of mount Tabor 
April 18, 1799. 

KISS. This salutation was customary 
in the East, to express regard and rever- 
ence, as well as affection. Gen. 29 ; 13 ; 
Ruth 1:14; Acts 20 : 37 . Sometimes the 
beard was kissed, 2 Sam. 20 : 9 ; and, in 
token of humble afi'ection, the feet, Luke 
7 : 38. Images and the heavenly bodies 
w^ere worshipped by kissing the hand 
towards them, 1 Kin. 19:18 ; Job 31:27 ; 
Hos. 13 : 2. The expression, "Kiss the 
Son," Psa. 2 : 12, may be illustrated by 
1 Sam. 10 : 1, where king Saul receives 
the kiss of allegiance from Samuel. This 
salutation being customary in those days 
between man and man, was used in the 
early church as a pledge of Christian 
peace and charity, Rom. 16 : 16 ; 1 Pet. 
5:14. 

KITE, a bird of prey, and therefore 
placed by Moses among the unclean birds. 
Lev. 11:14. See Birds. 

KIT'TIM, son of Javan, and grandson 
of Noah, Gen. 10:4. See Chittim. 

KNEAD'ING-TROUGHS. In the de- 
scription of the departure of the Israel- 
ites from Egypt, Exod. 12 : 34, we read 
that "the people took their dough be- 
fore it was leavened, their kneading- 
troughs being bound up in their clothes 
upon their shoulders." These were 
either small wooden bowls, or circular 
pieces of leather which might be drawn 
up like a bag, by a cord encircling the 
edge. The Arabs of the present day use 
both. 

KO'HATH, son of Levi, Gen. 46:11, 
and father of the Kohathites, who were 
appointed to carry the ark and sacred 
utensils of the tabernacle during the 
journeyings of the Israelites in the des- 
ert, Ex. 6:16-24; Num. 4:4-15. 

KO'RAH, a Levite, who rebelled 
against Moses and Aaron, and so against 
Jehovah. He was a cousin of Moses; 
for their fathers Izhar and Amram were 
brothers, Ex. 6:16-21. He was jealous 
of the civil authority and priestly dig- 
nity conferred by God upon Moses and 
Aaron, his own cousins, while he was 
simply a Levite ; and to obtain a part at 
least of their power for himself, he stir- 
red up a factious spirit in the people. 
Too much, alas, of what may seem to be 
zeal for the honor of God, has its true 
249 



LAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LAM 



character displayed in the pride and am- 
hition of this rebellious Levite. The two 
hundred and fifty Levites whom he had 
enticed to join him were destroyed by 
lire from the Lord ; while Korah, Da- 
than, and Abiram were swallowed up by 
the miraculous opening of the earth, 
Num. 16. But Korah's children escap- 
ed, Num. 26 : 11 ; and the Korahites or 
"sons of Korah," were a celebrated fam- 
ily of singers and poets in the time of 
David, 1 Chr. 9: 19 ; 26: 1. To them are 
inscribed several Psalms, Psa. 42, 44, 49, 
84, 85, 87, 88. 



LA'BAN, a rich herdsman of Mesopo- 
tamia, son of Bethuel, and grandson of 
Nahor, Abraham's brother, Gen. 24:28- 
31. His character is shown in the glad- 
ness with which he gave his sister Re- 
bekah in marriage to the only son of his 
rich uncle, Abraham, Gen. 24 : 30, 50 ; 
and in his deceitful and exacting treat- 
ment of Jacob his nephew and son-in- 
law, against which Jacob defended him- 
self by cunning as well as fidelity. When 
the prosperity of the one family and the 
jealousy of the other rendered peace im- 
possible, Jacob, at the command of God, 
secretly departed, to go to Canaan. La- 
ban pursued him ; but being warned by 
God to do him no harm, returned home 
after making a treaty of peace. He 
seems to have known and worshipped 
God, Gen. 24 : 50 ; 30 : 27 ; 31 : 53 ; but 
the "gods" or teraphim which Rachel 
stole from her father. Gen. 31 : 30, 34, 
show that he was not without the taint 
of idolatry. 

LA'CHISH, a city in the south-west 
part of Judah, Josh. 10 : 3, 5, 31 ; forti- 
fied by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11 : 9, and 
strong enough to resist for a time the 
whole army of Sennacherib, 2 Kin. 
18:17; 19:8; 2 Chr. 32:1, 9, 21; Mic. 
1:13. It was here that king Amaziah 
was slain, 2 Kin. 14:19. For a wonder- 
ful confirmation of the truth of Scrip- 
ture, see Sexnacherib. 

LAD'DER, Gen. 28:12-17. The com- 
forting vision of the heavenly ladder 
shown to the fugitive Jacob, assured him 
of the omnipresent providence of God, 
and of his communication of all needed 
good to his people in the desert of this 
woxld, Heb. 1:14. It was also an assur- 
250 



ance that there was a way open from 
earth to heaven, as well as from heaven 
to earth ; and we may see in it an illus- 
tration of the nature of Christ, in which 
heaven and earth meet ; and of his work, 
which brings man home to God. 

LAISH. See Dan. 

LAKE. See Merom and Sea. That 
most terrible description of hell, as a 
lake biirning with fire and brimstone. 
Rev. 19 : 20 ; 21 : 8, recalls the fire and 
sea in which Sodom was consumed and 
swallowed up. 

LAMB, the young of the sheep, and 
also the kid of the goat, Ex. 12 : 5. 
Christ is the Lamb of God, John 1 : 29, 
as being the accepted sacrifice for hu- 
man sin. The sacrifices of the Old Tes- 
tament were an ordained and perpetual 
foreshadowing not only of his expiatory 
death, but of his spotless holiness and 
his unresisting meekness, Isa. 53:4-9. 
He is described in Rev. 5:6; 12 : 11, as 
wearing the form of a sacrificial lamb in 
heaven itself. See Passover and Sac- 
rifices. 

LA'MECH, I., Gen. 4:18-24, a descend- 
ant of Cain, in the fifth generation, and 
ancestor of a numerous posterity distin- 
guished for skill in agriculture, music, 
and several mechanic arts. He is the 
first polygamist on i-ecord. His address 
to his two Avives is the oldest specimen 
of poetry extant, and is a good illustra- 
tion of Hebrew parallelism. 

"Adah and Zillah, 

Hear my voice ; 
Ye wives of Lamech, 

Hearken unto my speech. 
I have slain a man 

To my wounding, 
And [or even] a young man 

To my hurt. 
If Cain shall be avenged 

Seven-fold, 
Truly Lamech 

Seventy and seven fold." 

Many explanations of this abrupt frag- 
ment have been suggested. The most 
satisfactory, perhaps, is that Lamech had 
accidentally or in self-defence killed a 
man, and was exposed to the vengeance 
of "the avenger of blood;" but qmets 
the fears of his wives by saying, that as 
God had prohibited the slaying of Cain 
under heavy penalties, Gen. 4:15, much 
more would he guard the life of Lamech 
who was comparatively innocent. 

II. The Fon of Methuselah, and father 
of Noah ; he lived seven hundred and 



LAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



LAN 



seventy-seven years, and died only five 
years before the flood, Gen. 5:25-31. 

LAMENTATIONS of Jeremiah, an 
elegiac poem, composed by the prophet 
on occasion of the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem by Nebuchadnezzar. The first two 
chapters principally describe the calami- 
ties of the siege of Jerusalem ; the third 
deplores the persecutions which Jeremiah 
himself had suffered ; the fourth adverts 
to the ruin and desolation of the city and 
temple, and the misfortune of Zedekiah ; 
and the fifth is a kind of form of prayer 
for the Jews in their captivity. At the 
close, the prophet speaks of the cruelty 
of the Edomitcs, who had insulted Jeru- 
salem in her misery, and threatens them 
with the wrath of God, b. c. 586. 

The first four chapters of the Lamenta- 
tions are in the acrostic form ; every 
verse beginning with a letter of the He- 
brew alphabet, in regular order. The 
first, second, and fourth chapters contain 
twenty-two verses each, according to the 
letters of the alphabet ; the third chap- 
ter has three successive verses beginning 
with the same letter, making sixty-six 
in all. Moreover, all the verses in each 
chapter are nearly of the same length. 
The fifth chapter is not acrostic. See 
Letters. The style of Jeremiah's Lam- 
entations is lively, tender, pathetic, and 
affecting. It was the talent of this 
prophet to write melancholy and moving 
elegies, 2 Chr. 35 . 25 ; and never was a 
subject more worthy of tears, nor treat- 
ed with more tender and affecting sen- 
timents. One would think, as it has 
often been said, that everj'- letter was 
written with a tear, and every word was 
the sob of a broken heart. Yet he does 
not forget that a covenant God still 
reigns. 

LAMP. Tlie lamps of the ancients, 
sometimes called "candles" in our Bible, 
were cups and vessels of many conven- 
ient and graceful shapes ; and might be 
carried in the hand, or set upon a stand. 
See Candlestick. The lamp was fed 
with vegetable oils, tallow, wax, etc., 
and was kept burning all night. The 
poorest families, in some parts of the 
East, still regard this as essential to 
health and comfort. A darkened house ! 
therefore forcibly told of the extinction 
of its former occupants. Job 18 : 5, 6 ; 
Prov. 13 : 9 ; 20: 20; Jer. 25 : 10, 11 ; 
while a constant light was significant of 
prosperity and perpetuity, 2 Sam. 21 :17 ; 




IKin. 11:30; Psa. 132:17. Lamps to he 
carried in the streets presented a large 
surface of wicking to the air, and need- 
ed to be frequently replenished from a 
vessel of oil borne in the other hand, 
Matt. 25 : 3, 4. Torches and lanterns, 
John 18' 3, were very necessary in ancient 
cities, the streets of which were never 
lighted. 

LAND'MARK. Fences and walls seem 
to have been little used in Judea, Mark 
2 : 23, though gardens were sometimes 
inclosed. The ancient and permanent 
limits, therefore, of individual property 
in the open field, Ruth 2: 3, were marked 
by trees or heaps of stones at the corners ; 
and as it was easy, by removing these, 
to encroach on a neighbor's ground, a 
peculiar form of dishonesty arose, requir- 
ing a severe punishment, Deut. 19:14; 
Prov. 22:28; Hos. 5:10. 

LAN'GUAGE, one of the distinguish- 
ing gifts of God to man, essential to all 
high enjoyment and improvement in so- 
cial life, and to be prized and used in a 
manner worthy of its priceless value fur 
the glory of God and the benefit of man- 
kind. The original language was not 
the growth of a mere faculty of speech 
in man, but a creation and gift of God. 
Adam and Eve when created knew how 
to convei-se with each other and with the 
Creator. For some two thousand years, 
"the whole earth was of one language 
and of one speech," Gen. 11:1. But 
2.1 1 



LAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LAN 



about one hundred years after the flood, 
according to the common chronology, 
and later according to others, God mi- 
raculously "confounded the language" 
of the Cushite rebels at Babel ; and peo- 
pling the earth by these scattered fam- 
ilies of diverse tongues. He frustrated 
their designs and promoted his own. 
There are now several hundreds of lan- 
guages and dialects spoken on the earth, 
and infidels have hence taken occasion 
to discredit the Bible doctrine of the 
imity of the human race. It is found, 
however, that these languages are dis- 
tributed in several great classes, which 
have striking affinities with each other ; 
and as comparative philology extends its 
researches, it finds increasing evidence 
of the substantial oneness of the human 
race and of the truth of Scripture. 

The miracle performed at Jerusalem 
on the dav of Pentecost was the reverse 
of that at 'Babel, Acts 2:1-18, and beau- 
tifully illustrated the tendency of the 
gospel to introduce peace and harmony 
where sin has brought discord, and to 
reunite all the tribes of mankind in one 
great brotherhood. 

To the student of the Bible, one of the 
most important subjects is the character 
and history of the original languages in 
which that holy book was written. In 
respect to the original Greek of the New 
Testament, some remarks have been 
made under the article Greece. The He- 
brew language, in which the Old Testa- 
ment was written, is but one of the clus- 
ter of cognate languages which anciently 
prevailed in Western Asia, commonly 
called the Shemitic languages, as belong- 
ing particularly to the descendants of 
Shem. A proper knowledge of the He- 
brew, therefore, implies also an acquaint- 
ance with these other kindred dialects. 

The Shemitic languages may be di- 
vided into three principal dialects, name- 
ly, the Aramtean, the Hebrew, and the 
Arabic. 1. The Aramaean, spoken in 
Syria, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia, is 
subdivided into the Syriao and Chaldee 
dialects, sometimes called also the West 
and East Aramnean. 2. The Hebrew 
or Canaanitish dialect, Isa. 19 : 18, was 
spoken in Palestine, and probably with 
little variation in Phoenicia and the Phoe- 
nician colonies, as for instance, at Car- 
thage and other places. The remains of 
the Phoenician and Punic dialects are too 
few and too much disfigured to enable 



us to judge with certainty how exten- 
sively these languages were the same as 
the dialect of Palestine. 3. The Arabic, 
to which the Ethiopic bears a special re- 
semblance, comprises, in modem times, 
a great variety of dialects as a spoken 
language, and is spread over a vast ex- 
tent of country ; but so far as we are ac- 
quainted with its former state, it appears 
more anciently to have been limited prin- 
cipally to Arabia and Ethiopia, 

These languages are distinguished from 
European tongues by several marked pe- 
culiarities : they are all, except the Ethi- 
opic, written from right to left, and their 
books begin at what we should call the 
end ; the alphabet, with the exception of 
the Ethiopic which is syllabic, consists 
of consonants only, above or below which 
the vowel-points are written ; they have 
several guttural consonants very difficult 
of pronunciation to Europeans ; the roots 
of the language are, in general, verbs of 
three letters, and pronounced, according 
to the various dialects, Avith one or more 
vowels ; the verbs have but two tenses, 
the past and the future ; and the pro- 
nouns in the oblique cases are generally 
united in the same word with the noun 
or verb to which they have a relation. 
These various dialects form substantially 
one language, of which the original home 
was Western Asia. That they have all 
diverged from one parent stock is mani- 
fest, but to determine which of them has 
undergone the fewest changes would be 
a difficult question. The language of 
Noah and his son Shem was substantially 
that of Adam and all the antediluvians. 
Shem and Heber were contemporary with 
Abraham, and transmitted, as we have 
good reason to believe, their common 
tongue to the race of Israel ; for it is not 
to be assumed that at the confusion of 
Babel no branch of the human family 
retained the primitive language. It 
does not appear that the descendants of 
Shem were among the builders of Ba- 
bel, Gen. 10 : 8-10. The oldest records 
I that are known to exist are composed 
in the Hebrew language. It flourished 
in its purest form in Palestine, among 
the Phoenicians and Hebrews, until the 
period of the Babylonish exile ; soon 
after which it declined, and finally was 
succeeded by a kind of Hebra?o- Aramnean 
dialect, such as was spoken in the time 
of our Saviour among the Jews. The 
West Aramaan had flourished before 



LAO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LAP 



this for a long time in the east and 
north of Palestine ; but it now advanced 
farther west, and during the period that 
the Christian churches of Syria flour- 
ished, it was widely extended. It is at 
present almost a dead language, and has 
been so for several centuries. The He- 
brew may be regarded as having been a 
dead language, except among a small 
circle of literati, for about the space of 
two thousand years. Our knowledge 
of Arabic literature extends back very 
little beyond the time of Mohammed. 
But the followers of this pretended 
prophet have spread the dialect of the 
Koran over vast portions of the world. 
Arabic is now the vernacular language 
of Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and in a great 
measure of Palestine and all the north- 
ern coast of Africa ; while it is read and 
understood wherever the Koran has 
gone, in Turkey, Persia, India, and Tar- 
tary. 

The remains of the ancient Hebrew 
tongue are contained in the Old Testa- 
ment and in the few Phoenician and 
Punic words and inscriptions that have 
been here and there discovered. The 
remains of the Aramaean are extant in a 
variety of books. In Chaldee, we have 
a part of the books of Daniel and Ezra, 
Dan. 2:4 to 7:28; Ezra 4:8 to 6:18, and 
7:12-26, which are the most ancient of 
any specimens of this dialect. The Tar- 
gum of Onkelos, that is, the translation 
of the Pentateuch into Chaldee, affords 
the next and purest specimen of that 
language. In Syriac, there is a consid- 
erable number of books and manuscripts 
extant. The oldest specimen of this lan- 
guage that we have, is contained in the 
Peshito, or Syriac version of the Old and 
New Testament, made perhaps within a 
century after the time of Christ. A mul- 
titude of writers in this dialect have 
flourished, many of whose writings are 
probably still extant, although but few 
have been printed in Europe. In Ara- 
bic, there exists a great variety of man- 
uscripts and books, historical, scientific, 
and literary. A familiar knowledge of 
this and its kindred dialects throws much 
valuable light on the Old Testament 
Scriptures. 

LAODICEA, a large and opulent city 
of Asia Minor, the metropolis of Phrygia 
Pacatiana. It was situated on the river 
Lycus, not far above its junction with 
the Meander, and in the vicinity of Co- 



losse and Hierapolis. Its earlier name 
was Diospolis ; but after being enlarged 
by Antiochus II., it was called Laodicea, 
from his wife Laodice. About a. d. 65 
or 66, this city, together with Hierapolis 
and Colosse, was destroyed by an earth- 
quake, but was quickly rebuilt by Mar- 
cus Aurelius. It is now in ruins, and the 
place is called Eski-hissar, or the old cas- 
tle. A Christian church was early gath- 
ered here. It was addressed by Paul in 
his letter to Colosse, and in another now 
lost. Col. 2 : 1 ; 4 : 13-16, though some 
think the "Epistle to the Ephesians" is 
the one alluded to. The church at La- 
odicea was probably visited by Paul, 
A. D. 63, and is one of the seven which 
received special messages from Christ 
after his ascension. Rev. 1:11; 3 : 14- 
22. We know little of its after-history, 
except that an important council was 
held there near the middle of the fourth 
century, and that some form of Chris- 
tianity lingered there until the time of 
the Turks. 




LAP'WING, supposed to mean the 
hoopoe, a beautiful migratory bird, of 
filthy habits and a loud, hoarse voice; 
pronounced unclean by Moses, Lev. 
11 : 19. It is about the size of a thrush ; 
its beak is long, black, thin, and a little 
hooked ; its legs gray and short. On its 
head is a tuft of feathers of different col- 
ors, which it raises or lowers as it pleases. 
253 



LAS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LAW 



Its neck and breast arc somewhat red- 
dish, and its wings and tail black, with 
white streaks. 

LASEA, a city near Fair-Havens, on 
the south side of Crete. Paul passed it 
on his voyage to Rome, Acts 27:8. 

LAT'TICE. See House. 

LAUD, to extol, by Avords of praise or 
in song, Rom. 15:11. 

LA'VER, a large circular vessel, cast 
from the polished brass mirrors contrib- 
uted by the Hebrew women, and placed 
between the door of the tabernacle and 
the altar of burnt-oft'ering, with water 
for the necessary sacred ablutions, Ex. 
30:18-21; 38:8 ; 40:7, 30-32. 

For the temple of Solomon, besides the 
vast brazen sea for the use of the priests, 
(see Sea,) ten layers were made for 
cleansing the sacrifices, 2 Chr. 4:6. Each 
layer contained about three hundred gal- 
lons, and was supported above a highly 
elaborate and beautiful base, IKin. 7:27- 
39. They were stationed within the 
court of the priests, in front of the tem- 
ple, five on each side. See Temple. 

LAW, in the Bible, signifies sometimes 
the whole word of God. Psa. 19 : 7-11 ; 
119; Isa. 8:20; sometimes the Old Tes- 
tament, John 10 : 34 ; 15 : 25, and some- 
times the five books of Moses, which 
formed the first of the three divisions of 
the Hebrew Scriptures, Luke 24:44 ; Acts 
13 : 15. The Pentateuch was probably 
"the law," a copy of vyhich every king 
was to transcribe for himself and study, 
and which was to be made known to 
young and old, in public and in private, 
Deut. 6:7; 17:18, 19; 31:9-19, 26. In 
other places the Mosaic institutions as a 
whole are intended by "the law," in 
distinction from the gospel, John 1 : 17 ; 
Acts 25:8. 

When the -word refers to the law of 
Moses, careful attention to the context 
is sometimes requisite to judge whether 
the civil, the ceremonial, or the moral 
law is meant. The ceremonial or ritual 
laws, concerning the forms of worship, 
sacrifices, priests, pi;rifications, etc. , were 
designed to distinguish the Jewish nation 
from the heathen, and to foreshadow the 
gospel dispensation. They were annulled 
after Christ's ascension. Gal. 3:24 ; Eph. 
2:15 ; Heb. 9 ; 10:1-22. The civil laws. 
Acts 23 : 3 ; 24 : 6, were for the government 
of the Jews as a nation, and included the 
ten commandments. Tlie whole code was 
adapted with consummate wisdom to the 
254 . 



I condition of the Jews, and has greatly 
\ influenced all wise legislation in later 
I years. Its pious, humane, and just spirit 
I should characterize every code of humiui 
: laws. The vioral law, Deut. 5:22, Matt. 
I 5 : 17, 18, Luke 10 : 26, 27, is more im- 
I portant than the others, from its bear- 
; ings on human salvation. It was writ- 
I ten by the Creator on the conscience of 
j man, and sin has never fully erased it, 
Rom. 1:19; 2:12-15. It was more fully 
j taught to the Hebrews, especially at 
I mount Sinai, in the ten commandments, 
; and is summed up by Christ in loving 
I God supremely and our neighbor as our- 
selves. Matt. 22 : 37-40. It was the off- 
j spring of love to man, Rom. 7 : 10, 12 ; 
required pei-fect obedience, Gal. 3 : 10 ; 
I James 2:10; and is of universal and per- 
! petual obligation. Christ confirmed and 
enforced it. Matt. 5 : 17-20, showing its 
I demand of holiness in the heart, apply- 
ing it to a variety of cases, and supply- 
ing new motives to obedience, by reveal- 
I ing heaven and hell more clearly, and 
the gracious guidance of the Holy Spirit. 
Some have argued from certain passages 
of Scripture that this law is no longer 
binding upon Christians; that they "are 
not under the law, but under grace," 
Rom. 6 : 14, 15 ; 7:4, 6 ; Gal. 3 : 13, 25 ; 
5 : 18 ; and the perversion of these pas- 
sages leads men to sin and perish because 
grace abounds. Rightly imderstood, they 
harmonize with the declarations of the 
Saviour, Matt. 5:17. To the soid that is 
in Christ, the law is no longer the arbiter 
of his doom ; yet it still comes to him 
as the divinely appointed teacher of that 
will of God in which he now delights, 
Psa. 119:97; Matt. 5:48; 11:30. 

The word " law " sometimes means an 
inward guiding and controlling power. 
The ' ' law in the mind ' ' and the ' ' law 
in the members," mean the holy im- 
pulses of a regenerated soul and the per- 
verse inclinations of the natural heart, 
Rom. 7:21-23. Compare also Rom. 8:2; 
9:31; James 1:25; 2:12. 

LAW'YERS, men who devoted them- 
selves to the study and explanation of 
the Jewish law, particularly of the tra- 
ditionary or oral law. They belonged 
mostly to the sect of the Pharisees, and 
fell under the reproof of our Saviour for 
having taken from the people the key 
of knowledge. They were as the blind 
leading the blind. Matt. 32 : 35 ; Luke 
10:25: 11:52. See Scribes. 



LAZ 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LEB 



LAZ'AEUS, I. , a friend and disciple of 
Christ, brother of Martha and Mary, with 
whom he resided at Bethany near Jeru- 
salem. Our Saviour had a high regard 
for the family, and often visited them ; 
and when Lazarus was dangerously ill, 
word was sent to Christ, "Lord, behold, 
he whom thou lovest is sick." The Sav- 
iour reached Bethany after he had lain 
four days in his grave, and restored him 
to life by a word, "Lazarus, come forth." 
This public and stupendous miracle drew 
so many to Christ, that his enemies 
sought to put both him and Lazarus to 
death, John 11; 12: 1-11. The narra- 
tive displays Christ as a tender and com- 
passionate friend, weeping for and with 
those he loved, and at the same time as 
the Prince of life, beginning his triumph 
over death and the grave. Happy are 
they who, in view of their own death, or 
that of friends, can know that they are 
safe in Him who says, " I am the resur- 
rection and the life;" and, "because I 
live, ye shall live also." 

II. The helpless beggar who lay at the 
rich man's gate in one of Christ's most 
solemn and instructive parables. The 
one, though poor and sorely afflicted, : 
was a child of God. The other, describ- 
ed as self-indulgent rather than vicious 
or criminal, was living without God in I 
the enjoyment of every earthly luxury. 
Their state in this life was greatly in : 
contrast with their real character before ! 
God, which was revealed in the amaz- ] 
ing changes of their condition at death, 1 
Luke 16 : 19-31. See Abraham's Bosom. 
Our Saviour plainly teaches us, in this 
parable, that both the friends and the 
foes of God know and begin to experi- 
ence their doom immediately after death, ; 
and that it is in both cases unchangeable i 
and eternal. | 

LEAD. There are early allusions to 
this well-known metal in Scripture. The 
Egyptians "sank as lead" in the Red ' 
sea, Exod. 15 : 10 ; Num. 31 : 22 ; Ezek. i 
27:12. Job refers to its use in preserv- 
ing a permanent record of events, by 
being melted and poured into letters 
deeply cut in a rock. Job 19:24. Leaden 
tablets also were used by the ancients for 
similar records. This metal was em- 
ployed, before the use of quicksilver was 
known, in purifying silver ; and the pro- 
cess by which these metals are purged from 
their dross, illustrates God's discipline of ; 
his people, Jer. 6:29, 30 ; Ezek. 22: 17-22. ! 



! LEAH, the elder daughter of Laban, 
: and the first wife of Jacob, though less 
beloved than her sister Rachel. She 
I had, through life, the remembrance of 
I the deceit by which her father had im- 
' posed her upon Jacob. She was the 
mother of seven children, among whom 
I were Reuben — Jacob's first-born — and 
; Judah, the ancestor of the leading tribe 
I among the Jews, of the royal line, and 
I of our Lord, Gen. 29 : 16-c5 ; SO : 1-21. 
She is supposed to have died before the 
removal of the family into Egypt, Gtn. 
49:31. 
I LEASING, falsehood, Psa. 4:2 ; 5:6. 
; LEAVEN, is sour dough which is kept 
over from one baking to another, in or- 
der to raise the new dough. Leaven was 
forbidden to the Hebrews during the 
seven days of the Passover, in memory 
of what their ancestors did when they 
went out of Egypt, they being then 
I obliged to carry unleavened meal with 
them, and to make bread in haste, the 
Egyptians pressing them to be gone, Ex, 
12 : 15, 19. They were very careful in 
cleansing their houses from it before this 
feast began, 1 Cor. 5 : 6. God forbade 
either leaven or honey to be offered to 
him in his temple, Lev. 2:11. The per- 
vading and transforming effect of leaven 
is used in illustration of the like influ- 
ence on society, exerted by the purify- 
ing principles of the gospel, or by false 
doctrines and corrupt men. Matt, 13:23 ; 
16:6-12; 1 Cor. 5:6-8. 

LEBANON, u-Jnte, a long chain of 
mountains on the north of Palestine, so 
named from the whitish limestone of 
which they are composed, and in part 
perhaps from their snowy whiteness in 
winter. It consists of two main ridges 
running north-east and south-west, near- 
ly parallel with each other and with the 
coast of the Mediterranean. See view in 
SiDON. The western ridge was called 
Libanus by the Greeks, and the eastern 
Anti-Libanus. Between them lies a long 
valley called Coele-Syria, that is. Hollow 
Syria, and the "valley of Lebanon," 
Josh. 11:17, at present Bukkah. It opens 
towards the north, but is exceedingly 
narrow towards the south, where the 
river Litany, anciently Orontes, issres 
from the valley and floAvs west to the 
sea, north of Tyre. The western ridge 
is generally higher than the eastern, and 
several of its peaks are thought to bo 
towards 10,000 feet high. One summit, 
255 



LEK 



BIBLE DICTIO^'ARY. 



LEG 



however, in the eastern range, namely, 
mount Hermon, now called Jebel-esh- 
Sheikh, is higher still, and rises nearly 
into the region of perpetual ice. See 
Hermon. An Arab poet says of the high- 
est peak of Lebanon, "The Sannin bears 
winter on his head, spring upon his 
shoulders, and autumn in his bosom, 
Avhile summer lies sleeping at his feet." 

The Hebrew writers often allude to 
this sublime mountain range, Isa. 10:34 ; 
35:2, rising like a vast barrier on their 
north, Isa. 37:24. They speak of its sea 
of foliage agitated by the gales, Psa. 
72 : 16 ; of its noble cedars and other 
trees, Isa. 60:13; Jer. 22:23; of its in- 
numerable herds, the whole of which, 
however, could not atone for one sin, 
Isa. 40 : 16 ; of its excellent wine, Hos. 
14:7, its snow-cold streams, Jer. 18:14, 
and its balsamic perfume, Hos. 14 : 5. 
Moses longed to enter the Holy Land, 
that he might ' ' see that goodly moun- 
tain and Lebanon," Deut. 3:24, 25; 
and Solomon says of the Beloved, the 
type of Christ, "his countenance is as 
Lebanon," Song 5:15. "The tower of 
Lebanon which looketh towards Damas- 
cus, ' ' Song 7 : 4, is brought to recollection 
by the accounts given by modern travel- 
lers of the ruins of ancient temples, built 
of stones of vast size. Many such ruinous 
temples have been discovered in differ- 
ent parts of Lebanon, several of them on 
conspicuous points, high up in the moun- 
tains, where the labor of erecting them 
must have been stupendous. 

At present, Lebanon is inhabited by a 
hardy and turbulent race of mountain- 
eers. Its vast wilderness of mountains 
forms almost a world by itself. Its west- 
ern slopes particularly, rising by a suc- 
cession of terraces from the plain of the 
coast, are covered with vines, olives, 
mulberries, and figs ; and occupied, as 
well as the valleys among the mountains, 
by numberless villages. Anti-Lebanon 
is less populous and cultivated. The 
chief inhabitants of Lebanon are Druses 
and Maronites ; the former Mohamme- 
dan mystics, and the latter bigoted Ro- 
manists. Among them ai-e interspersed 
many Greeks and Armenians. 

For "cedar of Lebanon," see Cedar. 

LEBBE'US. See Judas II. 

LEBO'NAH, Judg. 21 : 19, a to^vn of 
Ephraim, near Shiloh, between Bethel 
and Shechem. Its name and site are pre- 
served in the present village of Lubban. 
25 G 




LEEK, a bulbous vegetable resembling 
the onion. The Hebrews complained in 
the wilderness, that manna grew insipid 
to them ; they longed for the leeks and 
onions of Egypt, Num. 11 : 5. Hassel- 
quist says the karrat, or leek, is surely 
one of those after which the Israelites 
pined ; for it has been cultivated in 
Egypt from time immemorial. The He- 
brew word is usually translated " grass ' ' 
in the English Bible. Its original mean- 
ing is supposed to be greens or grass. 

LEES, or dregs, the refuse and sedi- 
ment of wine. Wines that have been 
allowed to stand a long time on the 
lees, thereby acquire a superior color and 
flavor. Hence such wines are used as a 
symbol of gospel blessings, Isa. 25 : 6 ; 
also of a nation or community that, 
from long quiet and prosperity, has be- 
come rich and luxurious, and has settled 
down in carnal security, Jer. 48:11; 
Zeph. 1 : 12. To drink the dregs of the 
cup of God's wrath, Psa. 75:8, Isa. 
51:17, is to drink it to exhaustion ; that 
is, to suffer God's wrath without mitiga- 
tion or end. 

LE'GION. The number in a Roman 
legion varied at different periods, from 
three thousand to more than twice that 
number. In the time of Christ a legion 
contained six thousand, besides the cav- 
alry. Tliere were ten cohorts in each 
legion; which were divided each into 
three maniples or bands, and these into 
two centuries containing one hundred 
men each. In the Bible a legion means 
a number indefinitely large. The Sav- 
iour cured a demoniac who called him- 
self "Legion," as if possessed by myri- 
ads of demons, Mark 5:9. The expres- 
sion, "twelve legions of angels," Matt. 



LEII 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LEF 



26 : 53, illustrates the immensity of the 
heavenly host, and their zealous devotion 
to Christ. 

LEHA'BIM. See Libya. 

LE'HI, jaio-hone, a place in Judah, 
where Samson was enabled to slay one 
thousand Philistines with the jaw-bone \ 
of an ass, and where, in answer to his I 
petition, a fountain sprung up to relieve 
his thirst, Judg. 15:9-19. Probably the 
Hebrew word Lehi in ver. 19, should be 
left untranslated, as in the marginal 
reading: "God clave a hollow place that 
Avas in Lehi, and there came water there- 
out." This spring he called En-hakkore, 
the fountain of him that prayed. It con- 
tinued to flow, and may even to this day 
be testifying that God hears the cry of 
his people, and can turn a dry land into 
springs of water for their use, Gen. 21 : 19 ; 
Num. 20:11. 

LEM'UEL, the author of Proverbs 31. 
Some suppose it to be an enigmatical 
name for Solomon. 





LEN'TILE, a species of pulse or bean. 
We find Esau longing for a mess of pot- 
tage made of lentiles. Gen. 25 : 34. Au- 
gustine says, ' ' Lentiles are used as food 
in Egypt, for this plant grows abundant- 
ly in that country, Avhich renders the 
lentiles of Alexandria so valuable that 
they are brought from thence to us, as 
if none were grown among us." In 
Barbary, Dr. Shaw says, "Lentiles are 
dressed in the same manner as beans, 
dissolving easily into a mass, and mak- 
ing a pottage of a chocolate color. ' ' See 
2 Sam. 17:28; 23:11. 

LEOPARD, a fierce wild beast of the 
feline genus, beautifully spotted with a 
diversity of colors ; it has small eyes, 



wide jaws, sharp teeth, round ears, a 
large tail; five claws on the fore feet, 
and four on those behind. It is swift, 
crafty, and cruel ; dangerous to all do- 
mestic cattle, and even to man, Jer. 5:6 ; 
13:23; Dan. 10:6; Hos. 13:7; Hab. 1:8. 
Its name, leo-pard, implies that it has 
something of the lion and of the pan- 
ther in its nature. It seems from Scrip- 
ture that the leopard could not be rare 
in Palestine. Its Hebrew name occurs 
significantly in several names of places ; 
as Beth-nimrah, the haunt of leopards. 
Num. 32 : 36. So in Nimrah, Nimrim, 
and perhaps Nimrod the mighty hunter. 
Isaiah, describing the happy leign of the 
Messiah, says, chap. 11:6, "The leopard 
shall lie down with the kid, and the 
calf and the young lion and the fatling 
together." The spouse in the Canticles 
speaks of the mountains of the leopards, 
Song 4:8; that is to say, such as Leba- 
non and Hermon, w^here wild beasts 
dwelt. 

LEP'ER, a person afflicted with lepro- 
sy. As it now exists, leprosy is a scaly 
disease of the skin, occurring in several 
distinct forms and with many degrees of 
severity ; beginning with slight reddish 
eruptions, followed by scales of a greyish 
white color, sometimes in circles an inch 
or two in diameter, and at other times 
much larger ; in many cases attacking 
only the knees and elbows, in others the 
whole body ; usually not affecting the 
general health, but considered impossible 
of cure. It is said not to be infectious ; 
but is communicated from father to son 
for several generations, gradually becom- 
ing less noticeable. It corresponds in 
the main with the disease the symptoms 
and treatment of which are so fully de- 
scribed in Lev. 13 ; 14. There is little 
doubt, however, that the ancient lep- 
rosy, in its more aggravated form, is to 
be regarded as a plague or judgment 
257 



LES 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LET 



from God, Deut. 24:8. It was peculiar- 
ly dreaded among the Jews as unclean 
and infectious ; and also as being a spe- 
cial inrliction from Jehovah, as we know 
it to have been in the cases of Miriam, 
Num. 12 : 10, Gehazi, 2 Kin. 5 : 27, and 
Uzziah, 2 Chr. 2b: 16-23. No remedies 
were effectual. 'Ihe sufferer was com- 
mended to the priest, not to the physi- 
cian ; and was separated from many of 
the privileges of sucicty. We find that 
lepers associated chieliy with each other, 
2 Kin. 7:8; Luke 17 : 12. The term, 
"the plague of leprosy," is applied not 
only to this disease in men, but to a sim- 
ilar infection sometimes sent into houses 
and garments, Lev. 14. The exact na- 
ture of this latter cannot be ascertain- 
ed ; but it bears the marks of a special 
aggravation, as a judgment from God, 
of some evil not unknown in that cli- 
mate. It illustrates the awful result of 
moral corruption in society, uncounter- 
acted by the grace of God. The disease 
in all its forms is a lively emblem of sin. 
This malady of the soul is also all-per- 
vadiug, unclean, contagious, and incur- 
able ; it separates its victim from God 
and heaven ; it proves its existence by 
its increasing sway and its fatal termina- 
tion. But the Saviour has shown his 
power to heal the worst maladies of the 
soul by curing the leprosy with a word, 
Luke 17:12-19, and to admit the restor- 
ed soul to all the privileges of the sons 
of God. 

Elepiianti'asis, supposed by some to 
have been the disease of Job, and the 
"botch " or ulcer of Egypt, Deut. 28:27, 
35, is a tuberculous malady somewhat 
akin to the leprosy, but more dreadful. 
Its name is derived from the dark, ha,rd. 
and rough appearance of the skin ; and 
from the form of the feet, swollen, and 
despoiled of the toes. This horrid mal- 
ady infects the whole system ; ulcers and 
dark scales cover the body ; and the hair, 
beard, fingers, and all the extremities 
drop off. It is still met with in tropical 
countries, and was introduced into Eu- 
rope by the crusaders ; but after occa- 
sioning dreadful havoc, and the building 
of thousands of "hospitals for lepers," 
it disappeared or changed its form. 

LES'BOS. See Mttylexk. 

LET, sometimes used in the Bible in 
the old English sense, that is, to hinder, 
Isa. 43:13; Rom. 1:13. 
^ LET'TEBS. Luke 23:38. The Hebrews 
2.>S 



have certain acrostic poems which begin 
with the letters of the alphabet, ranged 
in order. Ihe most considerable of these 
is Psalm 1 19, which contains lAventy-two 
stanzas of eight verses each, all acrostic ; 
that is, the first eight begin M'ith Aleph, 
the next eight with Beth, and so on. 
Psalms 25, 34, have but twenty-two verses 
each, beginning with the twenty-two 
letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Others, 
as Psalms 111, 112, have one-half of the 
verse beginning with one letter, and the 
other half with the next. Thus, 

Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord, 
Who delighteth greatly in his commandments. 

The first half of the verse begins in tl;e 
Hebrew with Aleph ; the second with 
Beth. Psalms 37 and 145 are acrostic. 
The Lamentations of Jeremiah are also in 
acrostic verse, as well as the thiity-first 
chapter of Proverbs, from the eighth 
verse to the end. In John 7 : 15, the 
word "letters" means learning; the 
Jews said of Christ, Whence this man's 
qualifications to teach us the Scriptures, 
since he has not learned of the doctors cf 
the law ? 

Paul speaks of "the letter" in dis- 
tinction from "the spirit," Bom. 2:27, 
29 ; 7:6; 2 Cor. 3:6; contrasting the 
mere word of the law and its outward 
observance, with its spiritual meaning, 
and cordial obedience to it through the 
Spirit of Christ. 




AN ANOiENT EPISTLE. 

Epistolary correspondence seems to 
have been little practised among the an- 
cient Hebrews. Some few letters are 
mentioned in the Old Testament, 2 Sam. 
11:14; Ezra 4:8. They were conveyed 
to their destination by friends or travel- 
lers, Jer. 29 : 3 ; or 1 y roval couriers, 
2 Chr. 30:6 ; Esth. 8:10. Ihe letter was 
usually in the form of a roll, the last 
fold being pasted down. They were seal- 
ed, 1 Kin. 21:8, and sometimes wrapped 
in an envelope, or in a bag of costly ma- 
terials and highly ornamented. To send 
an open letter was expressive of con- 
tempt, Neh. 6:5. In the New Testa- 
ment we have numerous examples of 
letters, from the pens of the apostles. 



LEV 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LEV 



LE'VI, I., the third son of Jacob and 
Leah, born in Mesopotamia ; and father 
of three sons, and of Jochebed the niotli- 
er of Moses, Gen. 29 : 84 ; Ex. G : 16-20. 
For his share in tlie treacherous massa- 
cre of the Shechemites, Gen. 34, his 
father at deatli foreboded evil to his pos- 
terity, Gen. 49 : 5-7 ; but as they after- 
wards stood forth on the Lord's side, 
Moses was charged to bless tliem, Ex. 
32 : 26-29 ; Deut. 33:8-11. The tribe of 
Levi was, according to Jacob's predic- 
tion, scattered over all Israel, having no 
share in the division of Canaan, but cer- 
tain cities in the portions of other tribes. 
It was not the worse provided for, how- 
ever, since God chose this tribe for the 
service of the temple and priesthood, 
and bestowed on it many privileges above 
the other tribes. All the tithes, tirst- 
fruits, and offerings, presented at the 
temple, as well as several parts of all the 
victims that were offered, belonged to 
the tribe of Levi. See Levites. 

II. The apostle Matthew was also 
called Levi. See MAxmEw. 




LEVIATHAN, Psa. 74:14; 104:26, 
an aquatic monster described in the book 
of Job, ch. 41. Probably the animal de- 
noted is the crocodile, the terror of the 
Nile ; as Behemoth, in Job 40, is the hip- 
popotamus of the same river. 

The crocodile is a native of the Nile, 
and other Asiatic and African rivers ; in 
some instances even thirty feet in length ; j 
of enormous voracity and strength, as | 
well as fleetness in swimming ; attacks ' 
mankind and the largest animals, with 
most daring impetuosity ; when taken | 
by means of a powerful net, will often I 
overturn the boats that surround it ; has ' 
proportionally the largest mouth of all j 



I monsters whatever ; moves both its jaws 
alike, the upper of which has not less 
I than thirty-six, and the lower thirty 
I sharp, but strong and massy teeth ; and 
is furnished with a coat of mail so scaly 
and callous as to resist the force of a 
musket-ball in every part, except under 
the belly. The general character of the 
LEVIATHAN, in fact, seems so well to ap- 
ply to this animal, in modern as well as 
in ancient times the terror of all the 
coasts and countries about the Nile, that 
it is unnecessary to seek further. In sev- 
eral passages in the Bible, the king of 
Egypt appears to be addressed as levia- 
than, Isa. 27:1; Ezek. 29:3. 

The following extract of a letter from 
an American gentleman in Manilla gives 
a graphic view of the strength and size 
of the crocodile : ' ' My last operation in 
the sporting line, was no less than kill- 
ing a crocodile, which for a year or two 
before had infested a village on the bor- 
ders of the lake, taking off horses and 
cows, and sometimes a man. Having 
understood that he had killed a horse a 
day or two before, and had taken him 
into a small river, I proceeded to the 
spot, accompanied by my host, closed 
the mouth of the river with strong nets, 
and attacked the huge brute with guns 
and spears. After something of a des- 
perate battle, we succeeded in driving 
him against the nets, where, being con- 
siderably exhausted by the wounds he 
had received from balls and lances, he 
got entangled, was dragged on shore, 
and the coup de grace given to him. He 
measured twenty feet in length, and 
from eleven to thirteen feet in circum- 
ference, the smallest part being eleven 
and the largest thirteen. The head 
alone weighed two hundred and seventy- 
five pounds. He had nearly the whole 
of the horse in him, and the legs, with 
the hoofs, were taken out entire." 

LE'VITES. All the descendants of 
Levi may be comprised under this name, 
Ex. 6:16, 25; Josh. 3:3, (see Levi ;) but 
chiefly those who were employed in 
the lower services in the temple, by 
which they were distinguished from the 
priests, who were of the race of Levi by 
Aaron, and were emploved in higlier 
offices, Num. 3 : 6-10 ; 18 : 2-7. God 
chose the Levites for the service of his 
tabernacle and temple, instead of the 
first-born of all Israel, to whom such 
duties naturally belonged, and wlio were 
259 



LEV 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LEV 



already sacred to God in memory of the 
great deliverance in Egypt, Ex. IS ; 
Num. 3 : 12, 13, 39-51. In the wilder- 
ness, the Levites took charge of the tab- 
ernacle and its contents ; and conveyed 
it from place to place, each of the three 
families having a separate portion, Num. 
1:51; 4; IChr. 15:2, 27. After the build- 
ing of the temple they took charge of 
the gates, of the sacred vessels, of the 
preparation of the show-bread and other 
offerings, and of the singing and instru- 
mental music, 1 Chr. 9 ; 23 ; 2 Chr. 29. 
They brought wood, water, etc., for the 
priests ; aided them in preparing the 
sacrilicss, and in collecting and disburs- 
ing the contributions of the people, 
2 Chr. 30:16, 17; 35:1. They were 
also the temple guards, Neh. 13:13, 22; 
and the salutation and response in Psalm 
134, are thought by Bishop Lowth to have 
been their song in the night. But be- 
sides their services in the temple, they 
performed a very important part in teach- 
ing the people, 2 Chr. 30 : 22, Neh. 8:7, 
among whom they were scattered, bind- 
ing tiie tribes together, and promoting 
virtue and piety. They studied the law, 
and were the ordinary judges of the 
country, but subordinate to the priests, 
2 Chr. 17:9; 19 : 8-11 . God provided for 
the subsistence of the Levites, by giving 
to them the tithe of corn, fruit, and cat- 
tle ; but they paid to the priests the 
tenth of their tithes ; and as the Levites 
possessed no estates in land, the tithes 
which the priests received from them 
were considered as the first-fruits which 
they were to offer to the Lord, Num. 
18 : 21-32. The payment of tithes to the 
Levites appears not to have been en- 
forced, but depended on the good- will 
of the people ; hence the special charges 
laid on their brethren, not to forget 
them, Deut. 12:12, 18, 19. 

God assigned for the habitation of the 
Levites forty-eight cities, with fields, 
pastures, and gardens. Num. 35. Of 
these, thirteen were given to the priests, 
all in the tribes near Jerusalem. Six of 
the Levitical cities were appointed as 
cities of refuge. Josh. 20; 21. While 
the Levites were actually employed in 
the temple, they were supported out of 
the provisions kept in store there, and 
out of the daily offerings. The same 
privilege was granted to volunteers, 
drawn to Jerusalem by the fervor of their 
love to God's service, Deut. 12 : 18, 19 ; 
260 



1 8 : 6-8 . The consecration of Levites was 
without much ceremony. See Num. 
8:5-22; 2 Chr. 29:34. 

The Levites wore no peculiar dress to 
distinguish them from other Israelites, 
till the time of Agrippa. His innova- 
tion in this matter is mentioned by Jo- 
sephus, Avho remarks that the ancient 
customs of the country were never for-' 
saken with impunity. ^ 

The Levites were divided into different 
classes : the Gershomites, Kohathites, 
and Merarites, Num. 3 : 17-20. They 
were still further divided into courses, 
like the priests, 1 Chr. 23-26. At first, 
they entered in full on their public du- 
ties at thirty years of age. Num. 4:3; 
8 : 25 ; but David fixed the age for com- 
mencing at twenty years ; and at fifty 
they were exempt, 1 Chr. 23 : 24-27. 
The different courses of porters, singers, 
guards, etc., were on duty in succession, 
one week at a time, 1 Chr. 28-26 ; 2 Chr. 
23 : 4, 8 ; 31 : 17 ; Ezra 3 : 8-12. After 
the revolt of the ten tribes, a large por- 
tion of the Levites abandoned their cit- 
ies in Israel, and dwelt in Judah, 2 Chr. 
11 : 12-14 ; 13 : 9-11. After the captivity, 
numbers of them returned from beyond 
the Euphrates to Judea, Neh. 11:15-19 ; 
12:24-31. In the New Testament they 
are not often mentioned, Luke 10 : 32 ; 
John 1:19; Acts 4:36. The "scribes" 
and "doctors," however, are supposed 
to have belonged chieflv to this class. 

LEVIT'ICUS, the third book in the 
Pentateuch ; called Leviticus, because it 
contains principally the laws and regula- 
tions relating to the Levites, priests, and 
sacrifices. The Hebrews call it "the 
priests' law." In the first section, the 
various bloody and unbloody sacrifices 
are minutely described : the burnt-offer- 
ing, the meat, sin, peace, ignorance, and 
trespass offerings ; the sins for which 
and the mode in which they were to be 
offered. The fulness of these details not 
only signified the importance of God's 
worship, but forbade all human addi- 
tions and changes, that might lead to 
idolatry. The whole scheme was "a 
shadow of good things to come," typi- 
cal of the Lamb * ' who through the eter- 
nal Spirit offered himself without spot 
unto God. ' ' Its best commentary is the 
epistle to the Hebrews. 

A full account of the consecration of 
Aaron and his sons as priests, is followed 
by the instructive narrative of Nadab 



LIB 



BIJJLE DICTIOXARV. 



LIG 



and Abihu. Then are given the laws 
respecting personal and ceremonial puri- 
fications, a perpetual memento of the 
defilement of sin, and of the holiness of 
God. Next follows a description of the 
great day of Expiation ; after which the 
Jews are warned against the supersti- 
tions, idolatry, impurity, etc., of the 
Canaanites; and laws are given guard- 
ing their morals, health, and civil order. 
The observance of their distinguishing 
festivals is enjoined upon them; and 
laws are given respecting the Sabbath 
and the jubilee, vows and tithes. The 
warnings and promises in the latter part 
of the book point their attention to the 
future, and aim to unite the whole na- 
tion in serving their covenant God. The 
book is generally held to be the work 
of Moses, though he was probably assist- 
ed by Aaron. Its date is b. c. 1490. It 
contains the history of the first month of 
their second vear after leaving Egypt. 

LIB'ERTINES, Acts 6:9. This word 
is from the Latin libertinus, wliich signi- 
fies a freedman, that is, one who, having 
been a slave, either by birth or capture, 
has obtained his freedom ; or one born 
of a parent who was a freedman. The 
"synagogue of the Libertines" stands 
connected with the Cyrenians and Alex- 
andrians, both of whom were of African 
origin ; it is therefore supposed by some, 
that the Libertines were of African ori- 
gin also. It is, however, most probable 
that this word denotes Jews who had 
been taken captive by the Romans in 
war, and carried to Italy ; and having 
there been manumitted, were accustom- 
ed to visit Jerusalem in such numbers as 
to erect a synagogue for their particular 
use ; as was the case with Jews from 
other cities mentioned in the context. 
They originated the persecution against 
Stephen, wliich resulted in his martyr- 
dom. See Synagogue. 

LIB'NAH, a city in the western part 
of Judah, not far from Lachish, conquer- 
ed by Joshua from the Canaanites, and 
assigned to the priests, Josh. 10:29, 30; 
15:42; 21:13; 1 Chr. 6:57. Its inhab- 
itants revolted against the idolatrous 
and cruel Jehoram, 2 Chr. 21 : 10. It 
was a strongly fortified place, and under 
its walls the Assvrian army was miracu- 
lously cut off, 2 kin. 19:8, 9, 35. 

LIB'YA, a country in the north of 
Africa, stretching along on the Mediter- 
ranean between Egypt and Carthage, and 



running back somewhat into the interior. 
The part adjoining Egypt was sometimes 
called Libya Marmarica ; and that around 
Cyrene, Cyrenaica, from its chief city ; or 
Pentapolitana, from its five cities, Cyrene, 
Apollonia, Berenice, Arsinoe, and Ptol- 
emais. In these cities great numbers of 
Jews dwelt in the time of Christ ; and 
they, with their Libyan proselytes, re- 
sorted to Jerusalem to worship. Acts 
2 : 10. Libya received its name from the 
Lehabim or Lubim, Gen. 10:13 ; a war- 
like people, who assisted Shishak king 
of Egypt, and Zerah the Ethiopian, in 
their wars against Judea, 2 Chr. 12 : 3 ; 
14 : 9 ; 16 : 8 ; Dan. 11 : 43. They were 
also allies of ancient Thebes, Nah. 3 : 9. 
Compare Jer. 46:9; Ezek. 80:5. Libya 
fell at length under the power of Car- 
thage ; and subsequently, of the Greeks, 
Romans, Saracens, and Turks. 

LICE, the third plague of Egypt, Ex. 
8:16; Psa. 105:31; peculiarly ofiensive 
to the priests, who were obliged to shave 
and wash, their entire body every third 
day, lest they should carry any vermin 
into the temples. According to many 
interpreters, they were the small sting- 
ing gnats which abound in Egypt. 

LIFE, in the Bible, is either natural, 
Gen. 3:17 ; spiritual, that of the renew- 
ed soul, Rom. 8:6; or eternal, a holy 
and blissful immortality, John 3 : 36 ; 
Rom. 6 : 23. Christ is the great Author 
of natural life. Col. 1 : 16 ; and also of 
spiritual and eternal life, John 14 : 6 ; 
6:47. He has purchased these by laying 
down his own life ; and gives them free- 
ly to his people, John 10 : 11, 28. He is 
the spring of all their spiritual life on 
earth, Gal. 2 : 20; will raise them up at 
the last day ; and make them partakers 
for ever of his own life, John 11 : 25 ; 
14:19. 

LIGHT, one of the most wonderful, 
cheering, and useful of all the works of 
God ; called into being on the first of 
the six days of creation, by his voice : 
"Let there be light;" and there was 
light. No object better illustrates 
whatever is pure, glorious, spiritual, joy- 
ful, and beneficent. Hence the beauty 
and force of the expressions, "God is 
light," 1 John 1:5, and "the Father of 
lights," Jas. 1 : 17 ; Christ is the " Sun 
of righteousness," and "the light of the 
world," John 1 : 9; 8 : 12. So also the 
word of God is " a light," Psa. 119:105 ; 
truth and Christians are lights, John 
261 



LIG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LIO 



8 : 19 ; 12 : 36 ; prosperity is "light," 
Esth. 8-. 16 ; and heaven is full of light, 
Ptev. 21 : 23-25. The opposite of all 
these is ' ' darkness. ' ' 

LIGN-ALOES. See Aloes. 

LIG'URE, probably the same with the 
jacinth, a stone in the high -priest's 
breastplate, Ex. 28 : 19 ; 39 : 12, said to 
have been of a deep and brilliant red 
color, with a tinge of yellow, and trans- 
parent. 



all his glory was not arrayed like one of 
these. If God so clothe the grass of the 
field, shall he not much more clothe 



you 



Matt. 6 : 28. We must be care- 




LILIUM CU.\LCEDOXICUM, 

LIL'Y. Of this queenly plant, several 
varieties are found among the wild flow- 
ers of Palestine, the profusion, beauty, 
and fragrance of which are the delight 
of travellers. The lily is a spring flower, 
and appears early in all parts of the Holy 
Land. It was introduced in the orna- 
mental work of the temple. 1 Kin. 7 : 19- 
26 ; 2 Chr. 4:5. In Canticles it is often 
employed as a symbol of loveliness. More 
commonly it is applied to the bride and 
her various perfections: chap. 2:1, 2, 
where the bride speaks, ver. 1, the 
bridegroom answers, ver. 2, and the 
bride again responds, ver. 3. The bride- 
groom's lips are compared to lilies in 
chap. 5:13, and he is described as feed- 
ing among the lilies, chap. 2 : 16 ; 6:3; 
which typically represents Christ as de- 
lighting liimself with the graces of his 
people. From tlie lily our Saviour has 
also drawn one of his most striking fig- 
ures: "Consider the lilies of the field, 
how they grow;" "even Solomon in 
262 



ful not to confound the lily of the valleys. 
Song 2:1, which means simply the lily 
growing in valleys, with our "lily of the 
valley," which belongs to another class 
of flowers. 

LIX'EN, as is well known, is made of 
the fine fibi-es of flax, and Avas much used 
by the ancients. Four diflerent words 
in Hebrew are translated in our Bible, 
"linen," "fine linen," and "silk:" 
piSHTAH, Judg. 15:14; Ezek. 44:17, 18; 
BAD, worn by the priests, Ex. 28 : 42 ; 
39 : 28, and by king David, etc., 2 Sam. 
6:14; shesii, worn by Joseph when gov- 
ernor of Egypt, Gen. 41 : 42, and by the 
virtuous woman in Prov. 31 : 22, (see 
Silk ;) and butz, of which the veil of the 
temple and David's outer mantle were 
made, 1 Chr. 15:27; 2 Chr. 2:14; 3:14; 
5:12. These words may indicate differ- 
ent qualities of linen, but are thought to 
mean in part cloth of different materials, 
particularly the two last. Some think 
BUTZ, in Latin bi/ssus, denotes cotton 
cloth, and shesu that made of hemp. 
See Cotton, and Flax. Fine linen was 
sometimes made of snowy whiteness, 
and was a symbol of the purity of an- 
gels and of the redeemed church, Rev. 
15:6; 19:8. 

LINES, the cords used in measuring 
and settling the bounds of landed prop- 
erty, Psa. 16:6; Isa. 34:17. 

LI'NUS, a Christian at Rome, whose 
salutation Paul sent to Timothy, 2 Tim. 
4:21. 

LI'ON, the well-known and noble king 
of beasts, frequently spoken of in Scrip- 
ture. He often exceeds eight feet in 
length and four feet in height ; and his 
majestic and dauntless aspect, his pro- 
digious strength and agility, and his pe- 
culiar roar, make him the terror of the 
forests. Lions were common in Pales- 
tine, (see Jordan,) and the Hebrews 
had seven different names for them, to 
distinguish the different ages, etc. Five 
of these occur together in Job 4 : 10, 11. 
See also Nah. 2 : 11, 12. The psalmist 
alludes to the stealthy creeping of the 
lion till he can spring upon his prey, 
when he says of the crafty wicked man, 
"He lieth in wait secretly as a lion in 
his den ; .... he croucheth, and hum- 
bleth himself, that the poor may fall by 



LIT 



BIBLE BlCTlONARr. 



LOG 




^.^V 



his strong ones." The Bible reader will 
remember the exploits of Samson and of 
David, Judg. 14:5, 6; 1 Sam. 17:34-36, 
the story of the disobedient prophet slain 
by a lion, 1 Kin. 13:28, and of the obe- 
dient Daniel, safe in the lions' den, Dan. 
6 ; also the sublime image of Jehovah's 
care for his people, in Isa. 31:4. 

"The Lion of the tribe of Judah," 



Rev. 



is Jesus Christ, who sprung 



from the tribe of Judah and the race of 
David, and overcame death, the world, 
and the devil. It is supposed that a lion 
was the device of the tribe of Judah ; 
whence this allusion. Gen. 49:fl. 



LIT'TER, a light, covered conveyance, 
resembling a sedan-chair, or a palanquin ; 
borne by men, but oftener at the present 
day in Syria between two mules or cam- 
els. Solomon's chariot. Song 3:9, or 
bed as in the margin, is supposed to have 
been an elegant mule-litter. The He- 
brew word translated litters in Isa. 
66:20, is rendered wagons in Num. 7:3. 

LIVER, Lev. 3:4. This organ in man 
was regarded by the ancients as the seat 
of the passions Idolaters consulted the 
liver of the victim offered in sacrifice, for 
purposes of divination, Ezek. 21:21. 

LIZ'ARD, a cold-blooded animal, with 
much resemblance to the serpent, but 
having four feet. Large numbers arc 




found in Syria, varying greatly in size, 
appearance, and place of abode ; some 
d\\elhng partly in water, and others on 
the locks of the desert, or among old 
ruins. Lizards were unclean by the Le- 
vitical law, Lev. 11:30. 

LOANS. Jehovah, as the sole pro- 
prietor of the land occupied by the Jews, 
required them, as one condition of its 
use, to grant liberal loans to their poor 
brethren ; and every seven years, the 
outstanding loans were to become gifts, 
and could not be reclaimed. If a pledge 
was taken on making a loan, it must be 
done with mercy and under certain be- 
nevolent restrictions, Exod. 22 : 25. 27 ; 
Deut. 15:1-11; 23:19, 20; 24:6. 10-13, 
17. The great truth so prominent in 
this and similar features of the Mosaic 
laws, ought to be restored to its funda- 
mental place in our theories of prop- 
erty ; and no one who believes in God 
should act as the owner, but only as the 
steward of what he possesses, all of which 
he is to use as required by its great Own- 
er. In the same spirit, our Saviour en- 
joins the duty of loaning freely, even to 
!! enemies, and without hope of reward, 
Luke 6:34, 35. 

LO'CUST, a voracious wdnged insect, 
belonging to the genus known among 
naturalists as the Grylli, closely resem- 
bling the grasshopper, and a great 
scourge in oriental countries in both an- 
cient and modern times. There are ten 
different names in the Hebrew Bible for 
insects of this kind ; but some of these 
probably designate different forms or 
stages in life of the same species. The 
Bible represents their countless swarms 
as directed in their flight and march by 
I God, and used in the chastisement of 
guilty nations, Deut. 28 : 38-42 ; 1 Kin. 
8:37 : 2 Chr. 6:28. A swarm of locusts 
was among the plagues of Egypt ; they 
covered the whole land, so that the earth 
263 



LOC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LOC 




was darkened, and devoured every green 
herb of the earth, and the fruit of every 
tree which the hail had left, Ex. 10:4-19. 
But the most particular description of 
this insect, and of its destructive career, 
in the sacred %vritings, is in Joel 2:3-10. 
This is one of the most striking and ani- 
mated descriptions to be met with in the 
whole compass of prophecy; and the 
double destruction to be produced by 
locusts and the enemies of which they 
were the harbingers, is painted with the 
most expressive force and accuracy . We 
see the destroying army moving before us 
as we read, and see the desolation spread- 
ing. It slaould also be mentioned, that 
the four insects specified in Joel 1 : 4, 
the palmer- worm, the locust, the canker- 
worm, and the caterpillar, are strictly, 
according to the Hebrew, only different 
forms of locusts, some perhaps without 
wings, as mentioned below. The follow- 
ing extracts from Dr. Shaw and Mr. Mo- 
rier, which are also corroborated by Nie- 
buhr, Burckhardt, and other travellers, 
may serve as a commentary upon this 
and other passages of Scripture. 

Dr. Shaw remarks, "Those which I 
saw, were much bigger than our com- 
mon grasshoppers, and had brown spot- 
ted wings, with legs and bodies of a 
bright yellow. Their first appearance 
was towards the end of March, the wind 
having been some time from the south. 
In the middle of April, their numbers 
were so vastly increased, that in the 
heat of the day they formed themselves 
into large and numerous swarms, tlew 
in the air like a succession of clouds, and 
as the prophet Joel expresses it, they 
darkened the sun. When the wind blew 
briskly, so that these swarms were crowd- 
ed by others, or thrown one upon anoth- 
er, we had a lively idea of that compari- 
264 



son of the psalmist, Psa. 109:23, of being 
tossed up and down as the locust. In 
the month of May, these swarms gradu- 
ally retired into the Metijiah and other 
adjacent plains, where they deposited 
their eggs. These were no sooner hatch- 
ed, in June, than each of the broods col- 
lected itself into a compact body of a fur- 
long or more square, and marching after- 
wards in a direct line towards the sea, 
they let nothing escape them ; eating up 
every thing that was green and juicy, 
not only the lesser kinds of vegetables, 
but the vine likewise, the fig-tree, the 
pomegranate, the palm, and the apple- 
tree, even all the trees of the field, Joel 
1:12; in doing which, they kept their 
ranks like men of war, climbing over, as 
they advanced, every tree or wall that 
was in their way ; nay, they entered into 
our very houses and bedchambers like 
thieves. The inhabitants, to stop their 
progress, made a variety of pits and 
trenches all over their fields and gar- 
dens, which they filled with water ; or 
else they heaped up therein heath, stub- 
ble, and such like combustible matter, 
which were severally set on fire upon 
the approach of the locusts. But this 
was all to no purpose, for the trenches 
were quickly filled up and the fires ex- 
tinguished by infinite swarms succeeding 
one another, while the front was regard- 
less of danger and the rear pressed on 
so close that a retreat was altogether 
impossible. A day or two after one of 
these broods was in motion, others were 
already hatched to march and glean after 
them, gnaAving ofl" the very bark and the 
young branches of such trees as had be- 
fore escaped Avith the loss only of their 
fruit and foliage. So justly have they 
been compared by the prophet to a great 
army ; who further observes, that the 
land is as the garden of Eden before 
them, and behind them a desolate wil- 
derness." 

Mr. Morier saj's, "On the 11th of 
June, while seated in our tents about 
noon, we heard a very unusual noise, 
that sounded like the rustling of a great 
wind at a distance. On looking up, we 
perceived an immense cloud, here and 
there semi-transparent, in other parts 
quite black, that spread itself all over 
the sky, and at intervals shadowed the 
sun. These we soon found to be locusts, 
whole swarms of them falling about us. 
These were of a red color, and I should 



LOC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LOR 



suppose are the red predatory locusts, 
one of the Egyptian plagues. As soon 
as they appeared, the gardeners and hus- 
bandmen made loud shouts, to prevent 
their settling on their grounds. They 
seemed to be impelled by one common 
instinct, and moved in one body, which 
had the appearance of being organized 
by a leader, Joel 2:7." 

The locust was a "clean" animal for 
the Jews, Lev. 11:22, and might be used 
for food. In Matt. 3:4, it is said of John 
the Baptist, that ' ' his meat was locusts, 
and wild honey." They are still eaten 
in the East, and regarded by some as a 
delicacy, though usually left to the poor- 
est of the people. Niebuhr remarks, 
' ' Locusts are brought to market on 
strings, in all the cities of Arabia, from 
Babelmandel to Bassorah. On mount 
Sumara I saw an Arab who had collect- 
ed a whole sackful of them. They are 
prepared in different ways. An Arab in 
Egypt, of whom we requested that he 
would immediately eat locusts in our 
presence, threw them upon the glowing 
coals, and after he supposed they were 
roasted enough, he took them by the 
legs and head, and devoured the remain- 
der at one mouthful. When the Arabs 
have them in quantities, they roast or 
dry them in an oven, or boil them and 
eat them with salt. Tlie Arabs in the 
kingdom of Morocco boil the locusts, 
and then dry them on the roofs of their 
houses. One sees there large baskets full 
of them in the markets." 

Burckhardt also relates the fact in a 
similar manner : "The Bedaween eat 
locusts, which are collected in great 
quantities in the beginning of April, 
when they are easily caught. After 
having been roasted a little upon the 
iron plate on which bread is baked, they 
are dried in the sun, and then put into 
large sacks, with the mixture of a little 
salt." 

In Rev. 9 : 7-10, there is a terrific de- 
scription of symbolical locusts, in which 
they are compared to war-horses, their 
hair to the hair of women, etc. Niebuhr 
heard an Arab of the desert, and another 
in Bagdad, make the same comparison. 
They likened ' ' the head of the locust to 
that of the horse ; its breast to that of 
the lion ; its feet to those of the camel ; 
its body to that of the serpent ; its tail 
to that of the scorpion ; its antennae, if 
I mistake not, to the locks of hair of a 
12 



I virgin ; and so of other parts." In like 
manner, the Italians still call locusts lit- 
tle horses, and the Germans hay-horses. 

I LOD. See Lydda. 
LODGE. See Garden. 

' LOG, a Hebrew measure for liquids, 
containing five-sixths of a pint, Lev. 
14:10, 12, 24. 

I LOINS. See Girdle. 

I LOTS, a pious Jewess, whose "un- 
feigned faith" Paul traces in her daugh- 
ter Eunice, and her grandson Timothy, 
2 Tim. 1:5. 




LOOK'ING-GLASS'ES, or rather, mir- 
rors, were anciently made of metal, 
chiefly copper, Ex. 38 : 8 ; Job 37 : 18, 
melted and cast in a circular form, high- 
ly polished, and attached to an orna- 
mental handle. Similar mirrors have 
been found in the ruins of ancient 
Egypt. 

LORD. This name belongs to God by 
preeminence ; and in this sense ought 
never to be given to any creature. Je- 
sus Christ, as the Messiah, the Son of 
God, and equal with the Father, is often 
called Lord in Scripture, especially in 
the writings of Paul. The word Lord, 
in the English Bible, when printed in 
small capitals, stands always for Jeho- 
vah in the Hebrew. See Jehovah. 

LORDS-DAY. See Sabbath. 

LORD'S SUPPER, called also "the 
breaking of bread," Acts 2 : 42 ; 20 : 7, 
and the communion of the body and 
blood of Christ, 1 Cor. 10 :16, is one of 
the two simple ordinances of the Chris- 
tian church ; instituted by our Saviour 
in the most affecting circumstances on 
the Passover night in which he was be- 
265 



LOT 



JjIBLE DICTIONARY. 



LOT 



trayed, to be observed by his followers 
until his second coming. Bread and 
wine, the symbols of his body broken 
and his blood shed for our reclcmption, 
are to be tasted by each communicant, 
to keep in mind that great sacrifice, the 
foundation of all our hopes and the 
strongest motive to a holy and devoted 
life. In the Lord's supper the covenant 
is renewed between Christ and his peo- 
ple. It is also the visible token of 
C^hristian fellowship ; and all true be- 
lievers, and none but they, should claim 
to partake of it, 1 Cor. '5 : 6-8. In it 
Christians may expect and should seek 
to receive of the fulness of Christ, grace 
for grace, 2 Cor. 1 : 21, 22 ; Eph. 4 : 15, 
16 ; while those who partake heedlessly 
incur great guilt, and may look for chas- 
tisement, 1 Cor. 1 1 : 20-34. The dogma 
of the Romish church, that the bread is 
changed into the very body and soul of 
Christ, which the priest offers anew in 
sacrifice, is contrary to the Scripture and 
to all the senses, as it is also to common- 
sense. 

LOT, the son of Haran, and nephew 
of Abraham, followed his uncle from Ur, 
and afterwards from Haran, to settle in 
Canaan, Gen. 11 : 31 ; 12 : 4-6 ; 13 : 1. 
Abraham always had a great affection for 
him, and Avhen they could not continue 
longer together in Canaan, because they 
both had large flocks and their shep- 
herds sometimes quarrelled. Gen. 13:5- 
7, he gave Lot the choice of his abode. 
Lot chose the plain of Sodom, which ap- 
pears then to have been the most fertile 
part of the land. Here he continued to 
dwell till the destruction of Sodom and 
the adjacent cities. He was a righteous 
man even in Sodom, 2 Pet. 2:7 ; but the 
calamities consequent upon his choice of 
this residence — his capture by eastern 
marauders, the molestation caused by 
his ungodly and vicious neighbors, the 
loss of his property in the burning city, 
the destruction of his sons-in-law and of 
his wife — if they do not prove that he 
regarded ease and profit more than duty, 
show that the most beautiful and fruit- 
ful land is not always the best ; the prof- 
ligacy of its citizens may sink it into the 
abyss of perdition, and endanger all who 
have any concern with it. Lot's Avife, 
looking back with disobedient regrets, 
and arrested by the threatened judg- 
ment midway in her flight to the moun- 
tain, is an awful warning to all who 
266 



turn their faces Zionward, but are un- 
willing to leave all for Christ, Gen. 19 ; 
Luke 17:32. 

LOTS were often cast by the Jews, as 
well as other ancient nations, with the 
expectation, when God was appealed to, 
that he would so control them as to 
give a right direction in doubtful cases, 
Psa. 22:18; Prov. 16:33; 18:18. They 
were often used by the divine appoint- 
ment. The portions of the twelve tribes 
were thus assigned to them ; and hence 
each tribe's portion was called "the lot 
of its inheritance," Num. 26:55, 56 ; Psa. 
125:3; Acts 8:21. The scape-goat was 
to be selected, and the order of the 
priests' service determined by lot, Lev. 
16:8 ; 1 Chr. 24:5; 25:8. By the same 
means Achan, Jonathan, and Jonah were 
discovered. Josh. 7 : 14 ; 1 Sam. 14 : 41, 
42 ; Jonah 1:7; and thus Matthias was 
designated by Christ to be an apostle in 
the place of Judas, Acts 1 : 26. A com- 
mon mode of casting lots was by the use 
of pebbles, one or more of them being 
marked, and all of them being shaken 
together in some fold of a garment, an 
urn, or a helmet, before drawing, Prov. 
16:33 ; John 19:24. As the use of lots 
by one who believes in the particular 
providence of God involves a solemn ap- 
peal to the Disposer of all events, they 
should never be used on trivial occa- 
sions ; and in this day, a case can hardly 
occur when such an appeal would be 
v/arranted. See Purim. 

LOVE. GoD IS LOVE ; and he that 

DWELLETII IN LOVE DWELLETII IN GOD, AND 

G OD IN HIM, 1 John 4 : 16. Love is a chief 
attribute of Jehovah, the length and 
breadth and height and depth of which 
are beyond comprehension, for they are 
infinite, Eph. 3 : 18, 19. Between the 
three Persons of the Godhead, love is 
unutterably full, perfect, and blissful ; 
towards holy angels and Christians, God's 
love is an infinite fatherly complacency 
and affection ; towards sinners, it is im- 
measurable compassion. It is shown in 
all his works and ways, and dictated his 
holy law, but is most signally displayed 
in the gospel, John 3 : 16. "Herein is 
love." 

Holy love in man would make the 
whole heart and soul supremely delight 
in and obey God, and cordially and prac- 
tically love all beings according to their 
character — the good with fellowship of 
goul, and the evil with a Christ-like be- 



LOW 



BIBLE DICTION AKY, 



LYC 



nevolence. Such a love would meet and 
fulfil all the ends of the law, Matt. 
22:37-40; Kom. 13:8-10. Without it, 
none can enter heaven ; and as the affec- 
tions of every unrenewed heart are all 
mixed with sin, being given to forbidden 
objects, or selfishly and unduly given to 
objects not forbidden, we must be "born j 
again ' ' in order to see God, John 3:8; ' 
lJohn4:7, 19; 5:4. | 

LOWER PARTS OF THE EARTH, | 
valleys, Isa. 44 : 23 ; also the grave, or ; 
the abode of disembodied spirits secluded , 
from our view, I 

" That undiscovered country trom whose ; 
bouruG 
No traveller returns."' 

Psa. G3:9; 139:15: Eph. 4:9. 

LU'BIM. See Libya. 

LU'CAS, the same with Luke. 

LU'CIFER, light-hringer, the Latin 
name of the morning-star, or ' ' son of 
the morning." In the figurative lan- 
guage of Scripture, a brilliant star de- 
noted an illustrious prince. Num. 24:17. 
Christ was given to men as the ' ' bright 
and morning Star," Rev. 2 : 28 ; 22 : 16. 
The word Lucifer is used once only in 
the English Bible, and then of the king 
of Babylon, Isa. 14:12. It is now com- 
monly, though inappropriately, given to 
the prince of darkness. 

LU'CIUS of Cyrene, mentioned Acts 
i3:l, was one of the ministers and teach- 
ers of the Christian church at Antioch, 
and probably a kinsman of Paul, Rom. 
16:21. He is supposed by some to be 
the same with the evangelist Luke ; but 
of this there is no evidence. 

LUD, a son of Shem, Gen. 10:22, and 
ancestor, it is thought, of the Lydians in 
Asia Minor. 

LU'DIM. descendants of Mizraim, Gen. 
10:13, dwelling in Africa, probably near 
Ethiopia; they were famous bowmen, ! 
Isa. 66:19, and are mentioned as soldiers | 
with the Ethiopians, Libvans, and Tyr- i 
ians. Jer. 46:9; Ezek. 27:10; 30:5. I 

LUKE, the evangelist, probably the I 
same person who is called by St. Paul, ! 
"the beloved physician," Col. 4:14. [ 
The name Luke, or Lucas. Phile. 24, is ' 
the same as Lucanus in Latin. Luke ! 
was the writer of the gospel which bears ! 
his name, and of the Acts of the Apos- ! 
ties, having been the friend and com- 
panion of St. Paul in most of the jour- 
neys recorded in the latter book. Thus, I 



in Acts 16 : 11, he first uses the word 
'• we," and shows that he was with Paul 
at Troas and in his first Macedonian 
tour. After they reach Philippi, an in- 
terval of separation occurs ; but they are 
again together at Philippi when Paul 
sails thence for Jerusalem, and from that 
time he continues with the apostle in his 
labors, voyages, and sufi'erings, to the 
close of his first imprisonment at Rome, 
Acts 17:1 ; 20:5, 6, 13-16 ; 21-28; Phile. 
24; 2 Tim. 4:11. His personal history 
before and after this period of his com- 
panionship with Paul, is unknown, or 
rests on uncertain traditions. His own 
narrative contains the least possible men- 
tion of himself; yet we cannot doubt 
that he was eminently useful to the early 
church, by his learning, judgment, fidel- 
ity, and even his medical skill, besides 
leaving to the church universal the in- 
valuable legacy of his writings. 

LU'NATIC, a word formed from the 
Latin luna, the moon, and thus corre- 
sponding to the original Greek word 
and to the English "moonstruck;" ap- 
plied to a class of persons mentally and 
often corporally diseased, who were 
believed to sufier most when the moon 
was full. Insanity, epilepsy, and mor- 
bid melancholy were among the frequent 
eflects of demoniac possession, yet this 
possession existed independently of these 
effects, and was a more dreadful calam- 
ity. Lunatics are expressly mentioned 
in distinction from men possessed by evil 
spirits, Matt. 4:24 ; 17:15. See Devils. 

LUST originally meant any longing 
desire, however innocent, Deut. 12 : 15 ; 
14 : 26. But, in tacit acknowledgment 
of the depravity of man's passions, gen- 
eral usage soon attached the idea of guilt 
to the word ; and now it usually denotes 
carnal, lascivious desire. In Gal. 5:17, 
we see that the aspirations of the heart 
renewed by the Holy Spirit, oppose and 
will subdue the native evil desires, 1 Cor. 
15:57 ; but in the unrenewed heart these 
reign uncontrolled, lead to greater and 
greater outward sins, and secure eternal 
death, James 1:14, 15. 

LUZ, the ancient name of a part at 
least of Bethel, Gen. 28:19; Josh. 16:2; 
18 : 13 ; afterwards given to a smaller 
place founded by a refugee from Bethel, 
Judg. 1:26. See Bethel. 

LYCAO'NIA, a small province of Asia 
Minor, bounded north by Galatia, east 
by Cappadocia, south by Isauria and 
267 



LYC 



BIBLE DICTIONARV. 



MAC 



Cilicia, and west by Plirygia. It appears 
to have been within the limits of Phry- 
gia Major, but was erected into a Roman 
province by Augustus. The country is 
level, but not fertile, though peculiarly 
adapted to pasturage. Of its cities, Ico- 
nium, Derbe, and Lystra are mentioned 
in the New Testament, Acts 14:6. The 
"speech of Lycaonia," ver. 11, is gener- 
ally supposed to have been a dialect of 
Greek, corrupted by a large mixture of 
Syriac. Lycaonia now forms part of the 
Turkish province of Caramania. 

LY'CIA, a province in the south-west 
of Asia Minor, bounded west by Caria, 
east by Pamphylia, north by Phrygia 
and Pisidia, and south by the Mediterra- 
nean. The country is somewhat moun- 
tainous, though not barren. Of its cit- 
ies, only Patara and Myra are mention- 
ed in the New Testament, Acts 21:1, 2 ; 
27:5. 

LYD'DA, in Hebrew Lud or Lod, 
1 Chr. 8 : 12 ; Ezra 2 : 33, and by the 
Greeks called Diospolis, was a city nine 
miles east of Joppa, on the way to Jeru- 
salem. Here Peter healed Eneas, Acts 
9 : 33, 34. It was destroyed not long 
after Jerusalem ; but was soon rebuilt, 
and became the seat of a famous Jewish 
school. A Christian church was here 
orgtinized, and was in existence a. d. 
518. Lydda is often mentioned in the 
history of the crusades. It was situated 
in the midst of fine and extensive plains, 
the soil of which is a rich black mould, 
that might be rendered exceedingly fer- 
tile. It is at present only a miserable 
village called Ludd. The ruins of a 
stately church of the middle ages, called 
the church of St. George, preserve the 
name of a saint and martyr said to have 
been buried here in the third century. 
Ilie English crusaders adopted him as 
the "patron" of England, and many 
fabulous legends are told of his exploits. 

LYDTA, a woman of Thyatira, resid- 
ing at Philippi in Macedoiua, and deal- 
ing in purple cloths. She was not a Jew- 
ess by birth, but had become a proselyte 
to Judaism and "worshipped God." 
She was led by the grace of God to re- 
ceive the gospel with joy ; and having 
been baptized, with her household, con- 
strained Paul and his fellow-laborers to 
make her house their home while at 
Philippi, Acts 16:14, 40. See Philippi, 

LYSA'NIAS. See Abilene. 

LYS'IAS, or Claudius Lysias, com- 
268. 



mander of the Eoman guard at Jerusa- 
lem during Paul's last visit there. In 
the honorable discharge of his duty, he 
repeatedly saved Paul from the malice 
of the Jews, Acts 21:27-40 ; 22 ; 23. 

LYS'TPxi, a city of Lycaonia, near 
Derbe and Iconium, and the native place 
of Timothy. Paul and Barnabas preacJi- 
ed the gospel here ; and having healed a 
cripple, were almost worshipped. Socn 
after, however, Paul was stoned there, 
Acts 14 : 6, 21 ; 16 : 1 ; 2 Tim. 3:11. It 
is now a small place called Latik. 



M. 



MAACAH, or Maachah, I., a city and 
region of Syria or Aram, 1 Chr. 19:6; 
somewhere near the foot of mount Her- 
mon, and Geshur. The portion of Ma- 
nasseh beyond Jordan reached to this 
country, like that of Og king of Bashan, 
Deut. 3 : 13, 14 ; but it does not appe;ir 
to have become subject to Israel, Josh. 
12:4-6; 13:13, except during the reign 
of David, Solomon, and Jeroboam 11. 
The king of Maachah, Avitli other Syii- 
ans, joined the Ammonites in a war with 
David, and were defeated and made trib- 
utary,' 2 Sam. 10:6-8, 19. 

II. A wife of David, and the mother 
of Absalom. She was a daughter of Tal- 
mai, king of Geshur in Syria, 2 Sam. 
3 : 3. 

III. The wife of Rehoboam and moth- 
er of Abijah, kings of Judah. She is 
called the ' ' dauc:hter ' ' of Abishalom or 
Absalom, 1 Kin.^l5:2; 2 Chr. 11:20-22. 
In 2 Chr. 13:2, she is called Michaiah, 
and is said to be the daughter of Uriel. 
She appears to have exerted a great in- 
tiuence over the members of the royal 
family ; but was degraded from her high 
position, by Asa her grandson, for pro- 
moting idolatry, 2 Chr. 15:16. 

Six others of the same name are men- 
tioned, in Gen. 22 : 24 ; 1 Kin. 2 : 39 ; 
IChr. 2:48; 7:16; 11:43; 27:16. 

MACEDO'NIA, a large country lying 
north of Greece proper, bounded south 
by Thessaly and Epirus, east by Thrace 
and the ^gean sea, west by the Adri- 
atic sea and Illyria, and north by Darda- 
nia and Mcesia. Its principal rivers 
were the Strymon and Axius. Its most 
celebrated mountains were Olympus and 
Athos : the former renowned in heathen 
mythology as the residence of the gods, 



MAC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MAG 



lying on the confines of Thessaly, and 
principally within that state ; the latter 
being at the extremity of a promontory 
\vhicli juts out into the ^gean sea, and 
noted in modern times as the seat of sev- 
eral monasteries, in which are many 
manuscripts supposed to be valuable. 
1'iiis region is believed to have been peo- 
pled by Kittim, Gen. 10:4 ; but little is 
known of its early history. The Mace- 
donian empire is traced back some four 
lumdred years before the famous Philip, 
under whom, and especially under his 
son Alexander the Great, it reached the 
summit of its power. Alexander, b. c. 
83G-323, at the head of Macedonians and 
(xreeks united, conquered a large part of 
Avestern and southern Asia. This poAver 
Avas foretold by Daniel, 8:3-8, under the 
symbol of a goat with one horn ; and it 
is worthy of note that ancient Macedo- 
nian coins still exist, bearing that na- 
tional symbol. After the death of Alex- 
ander, the power of the Macedonians 
declined, and they were at length con- 
quered by the Romans under Paul us 
.^milius, B. c. 158, who divided their 
country into four districts. The Ro- 
mans afterwards divided the whole of 1 
Greece and Macedonia into two great I 
provinces, which they called Macedonia j 
and Achaia, b. c. 142, Rom. 15 : 26 ; 
2 Cor. 9 : 2. See Greece. In the New 
Testament the name is probably to be 
taken in this latter sense. Of the cities 
of Macedonia proper, there are mention- 
ed in the New Testament, Amphipolis, 
Apollonia, Berea, Neapolis, Philippi, and 
Thessalonica. This country early receiv- 
ed the gospel, a. d. 55, Paul having been 
Bummoncd to labor there by a supernat- 
ural vision, Acts 16:9 ; 20:1. Its fertile 
soil is now languishing under the Turk- 
ish sway. 

MA'CHIR, I., a son of IManasseh, Gen. 
60:23. His posterity were active in the 
conquest of Gilead, Num. 32 : 39 ; Josh. 
17 : 1 ; and in the Avar with Jabin and 
ijisera, Judg. 5:14. 

II. A friend of Mephibosheth, the son 
of Jonathan, 2 Sam. 9:4, 5. 

MACHPE'LAH, the field and cave pur- 
chased by Abraham for a family tomb. 
Sarah was first buried there. Gen. 23 ; 
and afterwards Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, 
with Rebekah, Leah, etc., Gen. 49:80; 
50:13. See Hebrox. 

MA'DAI, the third son of Japheth, an- 
cestor of the Medes, etc., Gen. 10:2. 



MADMAN'NAH, a city near Gaza, first 
assigned to Judah, and afterwards to 
Simeon, Josh. 15:31; 1 Chr. 2:49. 

MAD']\ffiN, an unknown place in 
Moab, Jer. 48:2. 

MADME'NAH, a town not far from 
Jerusalem, site not known, Isa. 10:31. 

MAG'DALA, the ancient Migdal-el, in 
the border of Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 38 ; 
now a small Turkish village called Med- 
jel. It lay near the shore of the sea of 
Galilee, at its most westerly point, three 
miles north-west of Tiberias; in the 
southern part of a small plain on which 
stood also Capernaum at the other end, 
and Dalmanutha in its immediate vicin- 
ity, Matt. 15 : 39 ; Mark 8 : 10. Mary 
Magdalene w^as born, or resided, at Mag- 
dala; and it was the seat of a Jewish 
school after Jerusalem was destroyed. 

MA'GI, or Wise Men, an appellation 
given among the Medes and Persians to 
a class of priests, wise men, philosophers, 
etc., who devoted themselves to the 
study of the moral and physical sciences, 
and particularly cultivated astrology and 
medicine. They alone performed the re- 
ligious rites, and pretended to communi- 
cate to men secret things, future events, 
and the will of the gods. See Media. 
As they thus acquired great honor and 
influence, they were introduced into the 
courts of kings and consulted on all oc- 
casions. They also accompanied the 
army in Avarlike expeditions; and so 
much importance Avas attached to their 
advice and opinions, that nothing Avas 
attempted Avithout their approbation. A 
similar class of men existed in Babylon, 
Egypt, Arabia, etc. The book of Daniel 
shows in Avhat high estimation they 
Avere held in Babylon. Daniel Avas ap- 
pointed master of the Avise men ; but 
their jealousy of his Avisdom and their 
hatred of his religion, as Avell as the 
terms in Avhich they are spoken of in 
Isa. 47:13, 14, Dan. 2 : 9, 27, shoAv that 
as a class they were destitute of true 
Avisdom. 

Not so those AA^ho came "from the 
East" to salute and adore the inftmt 
Jesus, Matt. 2 : 1-12. The captivity of 
the Jews beyond the Euphrates liad dis- 
persed through the East much know- 
ledge of the true God ; and these philos- 
ophers and astronomers, in their search 
after Avisdom, had found and believed the 
prophecies respecting the Messiah, and 
Avere divinely guided to his presence at 
269 



MAG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MAM 



Bethlehem. See Star. In them, the 
science and philosophy of the heathen 
world laid their homage at the feet of 
Christ. Compare Fsa. "72 : 10, 11 ; Isa. 
60:l-:3. 

MAG'IC means, in the Bible, all the 
superstitious ceremonies of magicians, 
sorcerers, enchanters, necromancers, spir- 
itualists, exorcists, astrologers, soothsay- 
ers, interpreters of dreams, fortune-tell- 
ers, casters of nativities, etc., -which are 
all forbidden by the law of God. whether 
practised to hurt or to benefit mankind. 
It was also forbidden to consult magi- 
cians on pain of death. Lev. 19 : 31 ; 
20:6. See K\chaxt>u:nts and SoncEKEBS. 

MAGOG. See Gog. 

MAHALATH, in the title of P.salms 
53 and SS. is conjectured to refer to the 
tune or the instrument used in chanting 
these Psalms ; or as Hengstenberg and 
Alexander suggest, to the spiritual mal- 
' adv which thcv lament. 

MAHAXA'Dl, tico hosts, a place so 
named because a host of angels here met 
the host of Jacob, on his return from 
Padan-aram. Gen. 32 :1, 2. It lay north 
of the Jabbok and near Penuel, and 
afterwards became a Levitical city in the 
tribe of Gad, Josh. 21:38. It was appar- 
ently a town of some strength : for Ish- 
boslieth lived there during his short 
reign, and David took refuge there dur- 
ing Absalom's rebellion, 2 Sam. 2:8: 
17^24. 27. 

JIA'HEPt-SHA'LAL-HASH-BAZ, haste. 
spoil, speed to the prey, the name given by 
Isaiah to one of his sons, for a prophetic 
intimation of the speedy victory of the 
Assvrians over Svria and Israel, Isa. 
8:1-3. 

5L\H'L0X. a son of Elimelech and 
Naomi, and the first husband of Ruth 
the Moabitess. Paith 1. 

MAKKE'DAH, a chief city of the Ca- 
naanites, near which five confederate 
kings were defeated, taken in the cave 
to which they had fled, and executed. 
It lay in the vicinity of Libnah, Azekah. 
and Lachish, south-west of Jerusalem, 
in the trit« of Judah, Josh. 10:10-28: 
12:16: 15:41. 

MAK'TESH, Zeph. 1 :11, apparently in 
ornear Jerusalem, and occupied by mer- 
chants ; but we have no clue to its loca- 
tion. 

}iIAL'ACm. the last of the minor 
prophets, and of all the Old Testament 
writers : so little known, that it is doubt- 
270 



' ed by some, though \vithout sufficient 
reason, whether his name be a proper 
name, or only a generical one, signifjing 
the angel of the Lord, that is. a messen- 
ger, a prophet, Hag. 1 : 13; Mai. 3 : 1. 
Malachi most probably prophesied about 
B. c. 416, in the latter part of the ad- 
ministration of Nehemiah, and after 
Haggai and Zechariah. at a time of great 
disorder among the priests and peo- 
ple of Judah, whom he reproves. He 
inveighs against the priests; reproves 
the people for having taken strange 
wi\-es, for inhumanity to their brethren, 
for divorcing their wives, and for neglect 
of paying tithes and first-fruits. He 
seems to allude to the covenant that 
Xehemiah renewed with the Lord, to- 
gether with the priests and the chief of 
the nation. In the latter part he fore- 
tells the coming of John the Baptist in 
the spirit and power of Elijah, Mai. 3:1; 

;4:o, 6; Matt. 11:10, 14; 17:10-13; 
Luke 1:17. He also foretells the two- 
fold coming of Christ, and the blessed- 
ness of those who fear and serve him. 
Thus the Old Testament closes with pre- 
dictions of the Messiah, and the Xew 
Testament opens with the record of their 

i fulrilracnt. 

i MAL'CHTS, the servant whose right 
ear was cut off by Peter and miraculous- 
ly restored by Christ, in Gethsemane, 
Matt. 26 : 51. The seizure of the Sav- 

! iour immediately after two manife.sta- 

' tions of his divinity, Luke 22 : 51, John 
18:6, e^-inces the blindness and obstina- 

■ CY of mankind in sin. 

" MALLOWS. Job 30 : 4. supposed by 
Bochart to signify the plant called Orach, 
the Atriplex Halimus of Linnaeus. It 
somewhat resembles lettuc-e, and its 
young leaves are used in the East, either 
green or boiled, as food, by the poor. 

ilAM'MON. a Chaldee word signifying 
riches. Our Saviour Kxys we cannot serve 
God and mammon. Matt. 6:24. "Wealth 
is as truly an idol to those who set their 
hearts on it, as Jupiter or Diana ; and 
no idolater can enter heaven. He also 
charges us, from the example of the im- 
just steward, so to use worldly goods, 
which are generally sought and used sin- 
fully — "the unrighteous mammon — " 
as to have God the Judge our friend, 
and rec-eive the true riches in heaven, 
Luke 16:9. 11. 

MAM RE. I. . an Amorite prince, broth- 
er of Eshcc)l and Ancr. All three united 



MAN- 



BIBLE DiCTlOXxiUY. 



MAN 



tlieir forces to aid Abral:ani in the rescue 
of Lot. Uon. LL He gave his name to 

IL The town wliere he dwelt, aftcr- 
■uaixls Hebron, in the suburbs of "svliich 
was a large terebinth-tree, or grove, (sec 
Oak,) called in the English Bible "the 
plain of Mamre." Here Abraham and i 
liis descendants often pitched their tents, 
Gen. la : 18 ; 18 : 1. The cave of Mach- i 
pelah was adjacent to Mamre on the east, j 
Gen. 28 : 17, 1"J ; 49 : oO ; and from the 
heights near by, Abraham could see the 
smoking plain of Sodom, Gen. 19:27, 28. j 

MAN' OF SIN. See ANXicnEisT. 1 

:MANAEN, a foster-brother of Herod 
Antipas, but unlike him in character 
and end : i\Ianaen was a minister of j 
Christ at Antioch ; Herod was guilty of 
the blood of both Christ and liis forerun- | 
ner. Acts 13 : 1. "One shall be taken, i 
and another left." I 

IMAXAS'SEH, I., the eldest son of Jo- j 
scph. born in Egypt. His descendants 
constituted a full tribe. This was divid- 
ed in the promi.scd land : one part hav- 
ing settled east of the Jordan, in the 
country of Baslian, from the river Jab- 
bok northwards ; and the other west of 
the Jordan, between Ephraim and Issa- 
char. extending from the Jordan to the 
Mediterranean. It wtrs far inferior to 
Ephraim in wealth and power, according 
to the prediction of Jacob, Gen. 41 : 50, , 
51; 48; Josh. 10; 17. I 

II. The son and impious successor of j 
the good Hezekiah, king of Judah. He j 
began to reign at twelve years old, b. c. 
698, and reigned lifty-live years. For [ 
his shocking idolatries, tyranny, and cru- 
elties, God suffered him to be carried as 
a prisoner to Babylon in the twenty-sec- 
ond year of his reign, probably by Esar- 
haddon king of Assyria. - Here", how- 
ever, he so humbled himself that God 
moved the Assyrians to restore him to 
his throne, as a tributary ; and thence- 
forth he set himself to undo the evil he 
had done. He abolished the idols he 
had worshipped and the diviners he had 
consulted ; accomplished many reforms 
for the s]nritual and material good of 
his kingdom ; repaired the defences of 
Jerusalem, enclosing with a wall new 
space on the west and Ophel on the 
south-east : and strengthened the walled 
cities of Judah. After a reign longer 
than that of any other king of Judah, he 
died in peace and was buried in Jerusa- 
lem. 2 Kin. 21; 2 Chr. 33. 




MAN'DKAKES, Hebrew Dudaim, Gen. 
30 : 14-16, Song 7 : 13, a plant to which 
was attributed, probably without reason, 
the power of rendering barren women 
fruitful. According to most of the an- 
cient versions, it was the Atropa IMan- 
dragora of Linnanis, a plant of the genus 
belladonna, with a root like a beet, white 
and reddish blossoms, and fragrant yel- 
low apples, which ripen from May to 
July. But this opinion is uncertain. 

MA'XEH, a Hebrew weisiht of sixty 
shekels, Ezek. 45:12. See the Table at 
the end of the volume. 

MxVN'NA, the miraculous food given 
by God to the Israelites during their 
wanderings in the desert. It was a small 
grain, white like hoar-frost, round, and 
of the size of coriander-seed, E::od. 16 ; 
Num. 11. It fell every morning, with 
the dew, about the camp of the Israel- 
ites, and in so great quantities during 
the whole fortv years of tlieir journey in. 
the wilderness, that it was sufficient to 
serve the entire multitude instead of 
bread, Ex. 16:35: Deut. 29:5. 6; Josh. 
5 : 12. It is nowhere said that the Is- 
raelites had no other food. That numer- 
ous flocks and herds accompanied the 
camp of Israel is clear from many pas- 
sages. Certainly the daily sacrifices were 
ottered, and no doubt other oflerings, 
affording animal food on which the 
priests and Levites subsisted, <iccording 
to their offices. 

When manna was first sent, the Israel- 
ites "knew not what it was." and "sjiid 
one to another, max-hu, which means. 
What is it.^ Most interpreters think 
that from the frequent repetition of this 
inquirv the name max or manna arose. 
271 



MAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY, 



MAR 



Biirckhardt says, that in the valleys 
around Sinai a species of manna is still 
found, dropping from the sprigs of sev- 
eral trees, but principally from the tama- 
risk, in the month of June. It is collect- 
ed by the Arabs, who make cakes of it, and 
call it homy of heyrouk. See Ex. Itj : 31. 
Since his time it has been ascertained by 
Dr. Ehrenburg that the exudation of this 
manna is occasioned by an insect, which 
he has particularly described. Besides this 
substance and the manna of commerce, 
which is used as a laxative medicine, and 
is produced by the ash-trees of southern 
Europe, several other vegetable products 
in Arabia, Persia, etc., of similar origin 
and qualities, are known by the same 
name. It is in vain, however, to seek 
to identify with any of these the manna 
of the Israelites, which was evidently a 
special provision for them, beginning 
and terminating with their need of it. 
It was found, not on trees and shrubs, 
but on "the face of the wilderness" 
wherever they went ; and was ditferent 
in its qualities from any now known 
by that name, being dry enough to 
grind and bake like grain, but breed- 
ing worms on the second day. It was 
miraculous in the amount that fell, for 
the supply of millions ; in not falling on 
the Sabbath ; in falling in double quan- 
tities the previous day ; and in remain- 
ing fresh during the Sabbath By these 
last three peculiarities God miraculously 
attested the sanctity of the Sabbath, as 
dating from the creation and not from 
mount Sinai. Moreover, a specimen of 
manna was laid up in a golden vase in 
the ark of the covenant, in memory of a 
substance which would otherwise have 
perished, Heb. 9:4. 

In Psa. 78 : 24, 25, manna is called 
"angels' food" and "corn of heaven," 
in token of its excellence, and that it 
came directly from the hand of God. 
The people gathered on an average about \ 
three quarts for each man. They who ; 
gathered more than they needed, shared 
it freely with others ; it could not be 
hoarded up: and thus, as Paul teaches 
us, 2 Cor. 8 : 18-15, it furnishes for all 
men a lesson against hoarding the earth- 
ly and perishable gifts of God, and in 
favor of freely imparting to our brethren 
in need. 

This great boon of God to the Israel- 
ites also offers many striking analogies, 
illustrative of "the true Bread" which i 
272 



I came down from heaven to rebellious 

and perishing man, John 6:31-58; Rev. 

i 2: 17. Like the manna, Christ descends 

! from above around the camp of his 

church in daily and abundant supplies, 

to meet the wants of every man. 

j MANO'AH, a native of Zorah, in the 

tribe of Dan, and the father of Samson, 

j Judg. 13:14; 16:31. In the prediction 

I of his son's birth and achievements, we 

see the Angel of the covenant, who ap- 

1 peared to Abraham, Gideon, etc., and 
who never slumbers nor sleeps, caring 
for his oppressed people. So too he 
appeared to Jacob, and would not tell 
his mysterious name, Gen. 32:29; Judg. 
13:18; Isa. 9:6: Luke 13:34. 

MAN'SLAYER. See Refuge. 

MAN'TLE. See Garments. 

MA'OIS, a town in the edge of the 
hill-country of Judah, Josh. 15:55, near 
which Nabal lived and David took ref- 
uge from Saul, 1 Sam. 23:24, 25; 25:2. 
Dr. Robinson finds it in the ruinous 
place called Main, seven miles south by 
east from Hebron 

MA'OXITES, called Mehunim in 2Chr. 
26:7, an Arabian tribe, named Avith the 
Amalekites and other foes of Israel. 
Their abode may have been near the 
place now called Maan, nearly east of 
Petra, on the Haj route from Damascus 
to Mecca. Uzziah defeated them. 

MA RAH, bitterness, a well near the 
Red sea, three days' journey from the 
point where the Israelites crossed it. 
The well was sweetened for the use of 
the distressed Hebrews by the miracu- 
lous efficacy imparted to the branches of 
a certain tree which Moses threw m, Ex. 
15:23-25. No plant is now known pos- 
sessed of such a quality. The name 
Amarah now marks the dry bed of a 
wintry torrent, a little south of which 
is a well called Hawara, which answers 
well to the description. Its water, after 
remaining a few seconds in the mouth, 
becomes exceedingly nauseous. The 
Arabs do not drink it, though their cam- 
els will. See also Ruth 1 : 20. 

MA'RAN-A'THA, composed of two 
Syriac words, signifying "the Lord 
Cometh." See Anathema. 

MARE' SHAH, a town in Judah, Josh. 
15 : 44, fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 
11 : 8, and the birthplace of Micah. In 
a valley near by, Asa defeated Zerah 
with an immense host of Ethiopians, 

2 Chr. 14:9-13. It probably lay on the 



MAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MAR 



western border of Judah, just south of 
lileutheropolis. 

MARK, or Marcus, the writer of one 
of the four gospels. See Gospels. There 
can be httle doubt of the correctness of 
the general opinion of learned men, that 
he is the same person who is mentioned 
by the names of John and Mark in Acts 
12 : 12, 25 ; 13 : 5, 13, and as the cousin 
and disciple of Barnabas, Col. 4:10. He 
was also the companion of Paul and Bar- 
nabas in their journey through Greece 
to Antioch, Perga, and Pamphylia, at 
which last place he left them and re- 
turned to Jerusalem, much to the dis- 
satisfaction of Paul, Acts 13 ; 5, etc. ; 
15:37-39. Yet he labored faithfully 
with Barnabas at Cyprus, and Paul men- 
tions him, when in captivity at Ptome, 
as one of those Avho were associated with 
him, Col. 4:10, 11; 2 Tim. 4:11 ; Phile. 
24. Pie afterwards accompanied Peter 
also to Babylon. As he was the son of 
that Mary at whose house in Jerusalem 
the apostles were Avont to convene, so it 
is probable that he was particularly in- 
structed in the doctrines of Christianity 
l)y Peter, who on that account calls him 
son, 1 Pet. 5 : 13. Compare 1 Tim. 1 : 2 
i.nd2Tim. 1:2. 

MAR'KET, in Greek ag'ora, in Latin 
ro'RUM, a large open area in many an- 
cient cities, especially of Greece and [ 
Home, having the public market on one j 
Fide only, tlie other sides of the area | 
being occupied by temples, theatres, col- j 
onades, courts of justice, baths, and other j 
public structures, the whole square often I 
presenting a magnificent appearance. 
Here was the city exchange, the focus to 
which converged all the lines of public i 
life. Hither laborers resorted in search | 
of employment. Matt, 20 : 3-7, and chil- , 
dren to pursue their sports, Luke 7 : 32. 
Here the ordinary assemblies of the peo- | 
pie were held; here philosophers and 
statesmen met and debated ; here laws 
were promulgated and news announced ; 
hither men resorted for pleasure as well 
as for business. The most notable pub- 
lic men, and indeed all classes of citi- 
zens, here congregated ; and what was 
done here was done before the whole 
city. Hence the proud Pharisees desired 
"greetings in the market-places," Matt. 
12:38 ; and Paul resorted to the agora at j 
Athens to meet and convince the philos- i 
ophers. Acts 17 : 17 ; and the masters of 
the damsel at Philippi exorcised by Paul i 
12* 



and Silas, "drew them into the market- 
place unto the rulers," Acts 1G:19. 

MAB'RIAGE, the union for life of one 
man and one woman, is an ordinance of 
the Creator for the perpetuity and hap- 
piness of the human race ; instituted in 
Paradise, Gen. 1 : 27, 28 ; 2 : 18-24, and 
the foundation of no small part of all 
that is valuable to human society. By 
promoting parental love and the sense 
of responsibility, marriage most eflfectu- 
ally promotes the health and happiness 
of children, and their careful education 
to virtue, industry, and honor, to right 
habits and ends, and to all that is in- 
cluded in the idea of home. God made 
originally but one man and one woman. 
The first polygamists were Lamech and 
those degenerate " sons of God," or wor- 
shippers of Jehovah, who "took them 
wives of all that they chose," Gen. 4: 17 ; 
6:2. On the other hand, Xoah and his 
three sons had each but one wife ; and 
the same appears to be true of all his 
direct ancestors back to Adam. So also 
was it with Job, Nahor, Lot, and at 
first with Abraham. See Concubine. In 
after-times a plurality of wives became 
more common among the Hebrews, and 
the Scriptures afford numerous illustra- 
tions of its evil results. Gen. 16 : 30 ; 
Judg. 8:30; 2 Sam. 3:3-5; IKin. 11:1- 
8 ; 2 Chr. 11 : 18-21 ; 13 : 21. In the time 
of Christ there is no mention of polyga- 
my as prevalent among the Jews. 

The Israelites were forbidden to marry 
within certain specified degrees. Lev. 18 ; 
20 ; Deut. 27. Marriage with Canaan- 
ites and idolaters was strictly forbid- 
den, Exod. 34 : 16 ; and afterwards with 
any of the heathen nations around them, 
especially such as were uncircumcised, 
Neh. 13. By the Levirate law, as it is 
termed, if a Jew died without children, 
his nearest brother or kinsman was 
bound to marry the widow, that her 
first-born son after this marriage might 
be reckoned the son and heir of the first 
husband. Gen. 38 ; Deut. 25:5-10 ; Matt. 
22 : 23-26. The Saviour set his seal to 
marriage as a divine and permanent in- 
stitution, aside from all the civil laws 
which guard and regulate, or seek to 
alter or annul it ; forbidding divorce 
except for one cause, Matt. 5:32; 19:3- 
6, 9 ; and denouncing all breaches of 
marriage vows, even in thought. Matt. 
5:28. Compare Heb. 13:4 ; Rev. 21:8. 

Jewish parents were wont to arrange 
273 



MAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MAR 



with other parents as to the marriage of 
their children, sometimes according to 
the previous choice of tlie son, and not 
without some regard to the consent of 
the daughter. Gen. 21:21; 24; 'S^-.-i-d; 
Judg. 14 : 2, 3. The parties were often 
betrothed to each other long before the 
marriage took place. See Bktrothing. 
A dowry was given by the suitor to the 
parents and brethren of the bride, Ex. 
22:16; Deut. 22:29; 2 Sam. 13:11, 11. 
The nuptials were often celebrated with 
great pomp and ceremony, and with pro- 
tracted feasting and rejoicings. It was 
customary for the bridegroom to appoint 
a Paranymphus, or groomsman, called 
by our Saviour ' ' the iViend of the bride- 
groom," John 3:29. A number of other 
j'^oung men also kept him company dur- 
ing the days of the wedding, to do him 
honor ; as also young women kept com- 
pany with the bride all this time. The 
companions of the bridegroom are ex- 
pressly mentioned in the history of Sam- 
son, Judg. 14:11, 20; Song 5:1; 8:13; 
Matt. 9:14 ; also the companions of the 
bride, Tsa. 45:9, 14; Song 1:5; 2:7; 3:5; 
8 : 4. The ofiice of the groomsman was to 
direct in the ceremonies of the wedding. 
The friends and companions of the bride 
sang the cpithalamimn, or wedding song, 
at the door of the bride the evening be- 
fore the wedding. The festivities of the 
wedding were conducted with great de- 
corum, the young people of each sex be- 
ing in distinct apartments and at differ- 
ent tables. The young men at Samson's 
wedding diverted themselves in propos- 
ing riddles, and the bridegroom appoint- 
ed the prize to those who could explain 
them, Judg. 14:14. 

The Jews affirm, that before Jerusa- 
lem was laid in ruins, the bridegroom 
and bride wore crowns at their marriage. 
Compare Isa. 61 : 10; Song 3 : 11, "Go 
forth, ye daughters of Zion, and be- 
hold king Solomon with the crown 
wherewith his mother crowned him in 
the day of his espousals, and in the day 
of the gladness of his heart. ' ' The mod- 
ern Jews, in some places, throw handfuls 
of wheat on the newly married couple, 
particularly on the bride, saying, "In- j 
crease and multiply." In other places j 
they mingle pieces of money witli the 
wheat, Avhich are gathered up by the 
poor. The actual ceremony of marriage 
was very simple, consisting of little more 
than the reading of the marriage con- 
274 



tract, Prov. 2 : 17, Mai. 2 : 14, and the 
nuptial blessing invoked by the friends, 
Gen. 24:60; Ruth 4:11, 12. 

The wedding festivities commonly 
lasted seven days for a maid, and three 
days for a widow. So Laban says to Ja- 
cob, respecting Leah, "FuHil her week," 
Gen. 29 : 27. The ceremonies of Samson's 
wedding continued seven whole days, 
Judg. 14 : 17, 18. These seven days of 
rejoicing were commonly spent in the 
house of the woman's father, after which 
they conducted the bride to her husband's 
home. 

The procession accompanying the bride 
from the house of her father to that of the 
bridegroom, w^as generally one of more 
or less pomp, according to the circum- 
stances of the married couple , and for 
this they often chose the night, as is still 
the custom in Syria. Hence the para- 
ble of the ten virgins that went at mid- 
night to meet the bride and bridegroom, 
]\Iatt. 25. " At a Hindoo marriage, the 
procession of which I saw some years 
ago," says Mr. Ward, "the bridegroom 
came from a distance, and the bride lived 
at Serampore, to which place the bride- 
groom was to come by water. After 
waiting two or three hours, at length, 
near midnight, it was announced, as if 
in the very words of Scripture, 'Behold, 
the bridegroom cometh ; go ye out to 
meet him.' All the persons employed 
now lighted their lamps, and ran with 
them in their hands to fill up their sta- 
tions in the procession ; some of them 
had lost their lights, and were unpre- 
pared ; but it was then too late to seek 
them, and the cavalcade moved forward 
to the house of the bride, at which place 
the company entered a large and splen- 
didly illuminated area, before the house, 
cohered Avitli an awning, where a great 
multitude of friends, dressed in their 
best apparel, were seated upon mats. 
The bridegroom was carried in the arms 
of a friend, and placed in a superb seat 
in the midst of the company, where he 
sat a short time, and then went into the 
house, the door of which was immedi- 
ately shut, and guarded by sepoys. I 
and others expostulated with the door- 
keepers, but in vain. Never was I so 
struck with our Lord's beautiful parable 
as at this moment ; * and the door was 
shut.' " 

Christianity invests the family institu- 
tion with peculiar sacredness ; makes 



MAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MAR 



true love its basis, and mutual preference 
of each otliers' liappiness its rule ; and 
even likens it to the ineffable union be- 
tween Christ and his church, Eph 5:22- 
33. Nowhere in the world is woman so 
honored, happy, and useful as in a Chris- 
tian land and a Christian home. Be- 
lievers are directed to marry "in the 
Lord," 1 Cor. 7 : 39. No doubt the re- 
strictions laid upon tlie ancient people 
of God contain a lesson for all periods, 
and the recorded ill results of forbidden 
marriages among the Jews, if heeded, 
would prevent the serious evils which 
often result from union between a Chris- 
tian and a worldling. As to the mutual 
duties of husband and wife, sec Eph. 
6:22-23; 1 Tim. 2:11, 12; 1 Pet. 3:1-7. 
The Romish church puts dishonor on 
what the Holy Spirit describes as ' ' hon- 
orable in all." It not only extols celi- 
bacy and virginity in the laity, but 
strictly refuses marriage to all its priests, 
bishops, etc., and in thus " forbidding to 
;narry," fixes upon itself the name of 
anti-Christ, 1 Tim. 4 : 3. Sec -Betroth- 
ing, Concubine, Divorce, Garments, etc. 
MARS'-HILL. See Areopagus. 
MAR'THA, sister of Lazarus and Mary, 
at Bethany. Though ditferent from Mary 
in temperament, she was no less truly a 
devoted friend of Christ and beloved by 
him, John 11:5. His gentle reproof, 
Luke 10:38-42, does not imply that she 
was a stranger to renewing grace. Her 
affectionate care for the hospitable enter- 
tainment of Christ must not be forgot- 
ten, nor her promptness in hasting to 
meet him, nor her faith in liis power, 
John 11:20-28; 12:1, 2. Sec M.\ry IV. 
MARTYR, a icUness, Matt. 18 : 16 ; 
Luke 24 : 48 ; in ecclesiastical history, ' ' a 
witness, by the shedding of his blood, in 
testifying to the truth." Thus martyrs 
are distinguished from "confessors," 
properly so called, who underwent great 
afflictions for their confession of the 
truth, but Avithout suffering death. The 
term "martyr" occurs only thrice in 
the New Testament, Acts 22 : 20 ; Rev. 
2:13; 17:6. Since the time of Stephen, 
Acts 7 : 59 ; 22 : 20, myriads of martyrs ■ 
have sealed the truth of Christianity by 
a p linful death ; which they willingly 
endured through faith, rather than to 
deny Christ, and which they often eager- 
ly desired as a special privilege. It is 
doubtless possible to be put to death as 
a Christian, without real love for Christ, 



1 Cor. 13 : 3 ; but in general "the noble 
army of the martyrs" have borne a true 
and overwhelming testimony to the 
power and preciousness of faitli in Christ ; 
and their blood witnesses before God 
against their foes, especially against that 
apostate church which is " drunken with 
the blood of the martyrs of Jesus," Rev. 
17:6. 

MA'RY, in Hebrew Miriam, I., "the 
mother of Jesus," Acts 1:14. Her ami- 
able and lovely character, and her re- 
markable history in connection with the 
wonders relating to the birth of Christ, 
are recorded in the first two chapters of 
Matthew and Luke. The genealogy of 
the Saviour through her, in the line of 
David and Abraham, is preserved in 
Luke 3, to prove that he was born "as 
concerning the flesh" according to an- 
cient prophecies. After the return from 
Egypt to Nazareth, she is but five times 
mentioned in the gospel history : three 
times witli some appearance of reproval 
on the part of Christ, Matt. 12 : 46-50 ; 
Luke 2 : 49, 50 ; John 2:4; once when 
he commended her to the care of John, 
John 19 . 20 ; and lastly as among the 
disciples at Jerusalem after his ascension, 
Acts 1 : 14. Thenceforth, throughout the 
Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles, and 
the Revelation, no allusion is made to 
her. Manifestly the worship of Mary 
had not then commenced. The inven- 
tions of the Romish church in after- 
centuries are wholly destitute of foun- 
dation in Scripture, and subversive of 
the gospel. One of these unauthor- 
ized inventions is the alleged immacu- 
late conception and spotless holiness of 
Mary. See Rom. 3 : 10, 23 ; Gal. 3 : 22 ; 
1 John 1:8; and compare also the re- 
proofs above alluded to, and her own 
confession of her need of a Saviour, Luke 
1:47. Another unauthorized invention 
is lier alleged virginity after the birth 
of Jesus, Matt. 1 : 25 ; Luke 2 : 7. No 
case can be found in Scripture Avhere 
* ' first-born son ' ' is used of an only child. 
In other passages the brethren, sisters, 
and mother of Christ are mentioned to- 
gether, apparently as one family. Matt. 
13 : 55, 56; and she was known as the 
wife of Joseph probably for almost thirty 
years, John 6 : 42. To adore her as the 
"queen of heaven," and the "mother of 
God," is, in the light of the Bible, blas- 
phemous idolatry ; and to pray to her as 
divine, or even as a mediator with God, 
275 



MAS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MAZ 



implies that she possesses the attribute of 
omnipresence, and degrades tlie only and 
sufficient Mediator, 1 Tim. 2:5; Hcb. 
4:16. She was "blessed" or signally- 
favored "among women," as Jael was 
"blessed above women," Judg. 5:24; 
Luke 1 : 28 ; but Christ himself declares 
that a higher blessing belongs to those 
' ' that hear the word of God and keep 
it," Luke 11:27, 28. 

II. The mother of Mark the Evange- 
list. She had a house in Jerusalem, 
where the followers of Jesus were wont 
to convene. Hither Peter, when deliv- 
ered from prison by the angel, came and 
knocked at the gate, Acts 12-. 12. Many 
such hospitable Christian homes, and 
places of social prayer, even in troublous 
times, are for ever enshrined in the re- 
membrances of the people of God. 

III. The wife of Cleophas, and mother 
of James the Less and Joses, Matt. 
27 : 56, 61 ; Luke 24 : 10; John 19 : 25. 
This last passage leaves it uncertain 
whether this Mary was sister to Mary 
our Lord's mother, or not. Some sup- 
pose that four persons are there named : 
Christ's mother, his mother's sister, 
Mary of Cleophas, and Salome. See 
Mary I. and James HI. She believed 
early on Jesus Christ, and accompanied 
him in some of his journeys, to minister 
to him, followed him to Calvary, and 
was with his mother at the foot of his 
cross. She was also present at his bur- 
ial, prepared perfumes to embalm him, 
and was early at his sepulchre on the 
morning of his resurrection. See Cleo- 
phas. 

IV. Tlie sister of Lazarus, whom our 
Lord raised from the dead. Her charac- 
ter presents a beautiful companion-pic- 
ture to that of her more active and im- 
pulsive sister Martha. Contemplative, 
confiding, and affectionate, it was like 
heaven to her to sit at the feet of her 
adored Teacher and Lord, Luke 10 : 39- 
42. The character of the two sisters was 
well contrasted at the supper in Bethany, 
after the resurrection of Lazarus. No 
service was too humble for Martha to 
render, and no offering too costly for 
Mary to pour out, in honor of their Sav- 
iour, John 11; 12:1-8. This occurrence 
should not be confounded with that de- 
scribed in Luke 7 : 37-50. 

V. The Magdalene, or native of Mag- 
dala on the sea of Galilee. She was fore- 
most among the honorable women of 

276 



substance who ministered unto Christ 
and his disciples, Matt. 28 : 1-10 ; Mark 
15:47; 16:1-10; Luke 24:1-12; John 
20 : 1, 2, 10-18. She was especially de- 
voted to Christ, for his mercy in casting 
out from her seven evil spirits, Luke 
8:2, 3. She was early at his tomb ; and 
lingering there when the disciples had 
retired, she was the first to throw her- 
self at the feet of the risen Saviour. 
There is no evidence that she was ever 
a profligate. 

VI. A benevolent and useful Christian 
at Rome, saluted in Paul's epistle, Rom. 
16:6. 

MAS'CHIL is a term found as a title 
of thirteen Psalms, and imports one that 
instructs or makes to understand. Some 
interpreters think it means an instru- 
ment of music ; but it more probably 
signifies an instructive song. 

MATRIX, the womb. To "open the 
matrix," Ex. 13:12, 15, means, to be 
the first-born. 

MATTHEW, an apostle and evange- 
list, was son of Alpheus, a Galilean by 
birth, a Jew by religion, and a publican 
by profession, Matt. 9:9; 10 : 3 ; Luke 
6 : 15. The other evangelists call him 
only Levi, which was his Hebrew name, 
Mark 2 : 14 ; Luke 5 : 27 ; but he always 
calls himself Matthew, which was prob- 
ably his name as a publican, or officer 
for gathering taxes. Pie does not dis- 
semble his former profession ; thus ex- 
alting the grace of Christ which raised 
him to the apostleship. Plis ordinary 
abode was at Capernaum, and his ofiice 
probably on the main road, near the sea 
of Tiberias ; here, in the midst of his 
business, he was called by Jesus to fol- 
low him. Matt. 9:9; Mark 2 : 14. It is 
probable that he had a previous knoAv- 
ledge of the miracles and doctrine of 
Christ. 

For the Gospel of Matthew, see Gos- 
pel. 

MATTHPAS, one of the disciples who 
continued with our Saviour from his 
baptism to his ascension. Acts 1 : 21-26, 
and was after the ascension associated 
with the eleven apostles. We know 
nothing further of him. 

MAZ'ZAROTH, Job 38 : 32. Our trans- 
lators properly suppose this word to de- 
note the twelve signs of the zodiac, a 
broad circle in the heavens, comprehend- 
ing all such stars as lie in the path of 
the sun and moon. As these luminaries 



MEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MED 



appear to proceed throughout this cir- 
cle annually, so different parts of it pro- 
gressively receive them every month ; 
and this progression seems to be what is 
meant by ' ' bringing forth mazzaroth in 
his season," that is. Canst thou by thy 
power cause the revolutions of the heav- 
enly bodies in the zodiac, and the sea- 
sons of summer and winter, in their 
regular succession ? 

MEALS. See Eating. 

MEAS'URE. See the general table of 
Weights, Measures, and Money of the 
Hebrews, at the end of the Dictionary ; 
also the particular names of each, as 
Shekel, Talent, Bath, Epilvh, etc. 

MEATS. "Meat" in the English 
Bible usually signifies "food," and not 
merely "flesh,'' Gen. 1:29, 30; Matt. 
15 : 37. So in Luke 24 : 41 ; " Have ye 
here any meat ?' ' literally, any thing to 
eat ? The ' ' meat-offerings ' ' of the Jews 
were made of flour and oil, etc.. Lev. 2. 
See Offerings and Sacrifices. As to the 
animal food used by the Jews, see Clean, 
and Food. 

It does not appear that the ancient 
Hebrews Avere very particular about the 
seasoning and dressing of their food. 
We find among them roast meat, boiled 
meat, and ragouts. Moses forbade them 
to seethe a kid in its mother's milk, 
Ex. 23:19 ; 34:26— a precept designed to 
inculcate principles of humanity, and 
perhaps to prevent them from adopting 
an idolatrous custom of their heathen 
neighbors. The Jews were also forbid- 
den to kill a cow and its calf in the same 
day ; or a sheep, or goat, and its young- 
one, at the same time. They might not 
cut off a part of a living animal to eat 
it, either raw or dressed. If any lawful 
beast or bird should die of itself or be 
strangled, and the blood not drain away, 
they were not allowed to taste of it. 
They ate of nothing dressed by any other 
than a Jew, nor did they ever dress their 
victuals with the kitchen implements of 
any but one of their own nation. 

The prohibition of eating blood, or an- 
imals that are strangled, has been always 
rigidly observed by the Jews. In the 
Christian church, the custom of refrain- 
ing from things strangled, and from 
blood, continued for a long time, being 
approved by the council held at Jerusa- 
lem, and recommended to the Gentile 
converts. Acts 15. 

At the first settling of the church, 



there Avcre many disputes concerning 
the use of meats offered to idols. Some 
newly converted Christians, convinced 
that an idol was nothing, and tliat the 
distinction of clean and unclean crea- 
tures was abolished by our Saviour, ate 
indifferently of whatever was served up 
to them, even among pagans, without 
inquiring whether the meats had been 
offered to idols. They took the same 
liberty in buying meat sold in the mar- 
ket, not regarding whether it were pure 
or impure according to the Jcavs ; or 
whether it had been oflered to idols or 
not. But other Christians, ^weaker, more 
scrupulous, or less instructed, were of- 
fended at this liberty, and thought the 
eating of meat which had been offered 
to idols was a kmd of partaking in that 
wicked and sacrilegious offering. This 
diversity of opinion among the disciples 
called for the judgment of inspiration ; 
and we find in several of Paul's epistles 
directions both for those who held such 
scruples, and for those who were free 
from them. The former, while in obe- 
dience to their own conscience they care- 
fully abstained from the food in ques- 
tion, Avere charged to view with charity 
the conduct of those who did not share 
their scruples. The latter might freely 
buy and eat without guilt, since meat is 
in no wise injured as an article of food 
by being offered to an idol ; yet when- 
ever others would be scandalized, pained, 
or led into sin by this course, even they 
were required by the laws of Christian 
charity and prudence to abstain, Piom. 
14:20-23; 1 Cor. 8; 10:19-33; Tit. 1:15. 
This principle is of general application in 
similar cases ; and many in our own day 
might well adopt the generous determi- 
nation of the self-denying apostle to par- 
take of no questionable indulgence while 
the world stands, if it may be the occa- 
sion of sin to others. 

ME'DAD. See Eld ad. 

ME'DAN, a son of Abraham and Ketu- 
rah. Gen. 25:2. He is supposed to have 
settled in Arabia, near Midian his brother. 

MED'EBA, a town east of the Jordan, 
in the tribe of Eeuben, Josh. 13 : 9, 16. 
Near it the army of David gained a great 
victory, 1 Chr. 19:7. Long afterwards, 
it fell again into the hands of the Moab- 
ites its ancient masters. Num. 21 . 30 ; 
Isa. 15 : 2. Its ruins, on rising ground 
a few miles south-east of Heshbon, stiU 
retain the old name. 

277 



MED 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MED 



ME'DIA, called by the Hebrews Ma- 
DAi, and supposed to have been peopled 
by the descendants of Madai the son of 
Japheth, Gen. 10 : 2, extended itself on 
the west and south of the Caspian sea, 
from Armenia and Assyria on the north 
and west, to Farsistan or Persia proper 
on the south ; and hicluded the districts 
now called Shirvan, Adserbijan, Gliilan, 
Masanderan, and Irak Adjemi. It cov- 
ered a territory larger than that of Spain, 
lying between 32" and 40° of north lati- 
tude, and was one of the most fertile and 
earliest cultivated among the kingdoms 
of Asia. It had two grand divisions, of 
which the north-western was called Atro- 
patene, or Lesser Media, and the south- 
ern Greater Media. The former corre- 
sponds to the modern Adserbijan, now, 
as formerly, a province of the Persian 
empire, on the west of the Caspian, sur- 
rounded by high mountains of the Tau- 
Titic range, except towards the east, 
where the river Kur, or Cyrus, dis- 
cliarges its waters into the Caspian. Tiie 
Greater Media corresponds principally to 
the modern Irak Adjemi, or Persian Irak. 
Ecbatana was the ancient capital. 

Media is one of the most ancient in- 
dependent kingdoms of which history 
makes mention. After several centuries i 
of subjugation under Assyria, the Medes | 
rebelled under Arbaces in the time of ' 
Sardanapalus, and again in the time of i 
Sennacherib, about 700 b. c. They be- I 
came powerful, cultivated, and wealthy, | 
Isa. 13 : 17, 18 ; 21 : 2, 3, and continued 
an independent kingdom until, under t 
Cyrus, Media became united Avith Persia. | 
In this way arose the Medo-Persian king- 
dom ; and the ' ' laws of the Medes and 
Persians" are always mentioned by the ! 
sacred writers together, Esth. 1 : 19, etc. ; • 
Dan. 6:8. 12, etc. So also the "Cliron- | 
icles" of the Medes and Persians are I 
mentioned together, Esth. 10 : 2. In- i 
deed, from this time onward, the man- 
ners, customs, religion, and civilization 
of the Medes and Persians seem ever to 
have become more and more amalga- 
mated. And in general it would seem, 
as we may gather from the ancient Zend 
writings, that the Medes, Persians, and 
Bactrians were originally the same peo- 
ple, having in common one language, 
the Zend, and one religion, the worship 
of Ormuzd, the highest being, under the 
symbol of tire. They also worshipped 
the stars, particularly the planets ; and 
278 



[ still more, the sun and moon. The 
I priests of this religion, the Magi, were 
j a Median race, to whom were intrusted 
• the cultivation of the sciences, and the 
I performance of the sacred rites. Among 
tliese, and as is supposed before the time 
of Cyrus, appeared Zerdusht, or Zoroas- 
i ter, as a reformer, or ratlier as the re- 
i storer of the ancient but degenerated 
j religion of light, whose disciples have 
I maintained themselves even to the pres- 
! ent day in Persia and India, under the 
i name of Guebres. 

j Media is first mentioned in the Bible 

as the part of Assyria to which the ten 

\ tribes were transported : at first, those 

beyond the Jordan, by Tiglath-pileser, 

I 1 Chr. 5 ; 26 ; and afterwards, about 721 

B. c, the remainder of Israel, by Shal- 

' maneser, 2 Kin. 17 ; 6. Tlie subsequent 

history of Media is involved in that of 

Persia. Both countries were subdued by 

Alexander of Macedon, 330 b. c. ; and in 

the next century became tributary to the 

Parthians on their east, in connection 

with Avhom they are mentioned in Acts 

2:9. See Persia. 

ME'DIATOR, one who stands between 
two parties or persons as the organ of 
commimication or the agent of reconcik 
iation. So far as man is sensible of his 
own guilt and of the holiness and justice 
of God, he shrinlcs from any direct com- 
munication with a being he has so much 
reason to fear. Hence the disposition 
more or less prevalent in all ages and in 
all parts of the world, to interpose be- 
tween the soul and its judge some person 
or thing most adapted to propitiate his 
favor — as a priestly order, an upright and 
devout man, or the smoke of sacrifices 
and the sweet savor of incense, Job 9: 33. 
The Israelites evinced this feeling at 
mount Sinai, Deut. 5 : 23-31 ; and God 
was pleased to constitute Moses a medi- 
ator between himself and them, to re- 
ceive and transmit the law on the one 
hand, and their vows of obedience on the 
othe-r. In this capacity he acted on va- 
rious other occasions, JExod. 32 : 30-32 ; 
Num. 14 ; Psa. 106:23 ; and was thus an 
agent and a type of Christ, Gal. 3 : 19. 
The Messiah has been in all ages the 
only true Mediator between God and 
man ; and without Him', God is inacces- 
sible and a consuming fire, John 14 : 6 ; 
Acts 4 : 12. As the Angel of the cove- 
nant, Christ was the channel of all com- 
munications between heaven and earth 



MEG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MEL 



in Old Testament days ; and as the Me- 
diator of the new covenant, he does all 
that is needful to provide for a perfect 
reconciliation between God and man. 
He consults the honor of God by appear- 
ing as our Advocate with the blood of 
atonement ; and through his sympathiz- 
ing love and the agency of the Holy 
Spirit, he disposes and enables us to re- 
turn to God. The believing penitent is 
"accepted in the Beloved" — his person, 
his praises, and his prayers ; and through 
the same Mediator alone he receives par- 
don, grace, and eternal life. In this high 
oftice Christ stands alone, because he 
alone is both God and man, 1 Tim. 2:5. 
To join Mary and the saints to him in 
his mediatorship, as the antichristian 
churcii of Rome does, implies that he is 
unable to accomplish his own peculiar 
work, Heb. 8:G; 9:15; 12:24. 

MEGID'DO, a town of Manasseh, 
though Avithiu the bounds of Issachar. 
It had been a royal city of the Canaan- 
ites, and they long retained a foothold 
in it, Josh. 12 : 21 ; 17 : 11 ; Judg. 1 ;27. 
It lay in the south-west border of the 
plain of Esdraelon, near the Kishon, 
which is probably intended by ' ' the wa- 
ters of Megiddo," mentioned in the song 
of Deborah and Barak as the scene of 
their victory, Judg. 5 : 19, 21. In the 
reign of Solomon, Megiddo was fortified, 
1 Kin. 9 : 15. Here king Ahaziah died, 
and king Josiah was defeated, slain, and 
sorely lamented, 2 Kin. 9 : 27 ; 23 : 29 ; 
Zech. 12:11. Robinson identifies it with 
a village now called Leijun, the Legio of 
the Romans. 

MELCHIZ'EDEK, king of righteousness, 
king of Salem, and also priest of the 
most high God, in which capacity he 
blessed Abraham, and received tithes at 
his hand, Gen. 14:18-20. Scripture tells 
us nothing of his father or mother, of 
his genealogy, his birth, or his death ; 
he stands alone, without predecessor or 
successor, a royal priest by the appoint- 
ment of God ; and thus he was a type of 
Jesus Christ, who is "a priest for ever 
after the order of Melchizedek," and not 
after the order of Aaron, whose origin, 
consecration, life, and death, are known, 
Psa. 110:4; Heb. 7. See Genealogy. 

It has been matter of great inquiry 
among commentators, who Melchizedek 
really was. He has been variously sup- 
posed to be the Holy Spirit, the Son of 
God, an angel, Enoch, and Shem. But 



the safest and most probable opinion is 
that which considers Melchizedek as a 
righteous and peaceful king, a worship- 
per and priest of the most high God, in 
the land of Canaan ; a friend of Abra- 
ham, and of a rank elevated above him. 
This opinion, indeed, lies upon the very 
face of the sacred record in Gen. 14 and 
Heb. 7, and it is the only oae which can 
be defended on any tolerable grounds of 
interpretation. See Salem. 

MELTTA. The name Melita was an- 
ciently applied to two islands; one in 
the Adriatic sea, on the coast of Illyri' 
cum, now called Meleda ; the other in 
the Mediterranean, between Sicily and 
Africa, now called Malta. That the lat- 
ter is the one on which Paul suflered 
shipwreck is evident both from the di- 
rection of the wind which blew him 
thither, (see Euroclydon,) and from the 
fact that he left the island in a ship of 
Alexandria, which had wintered there 
on her voyage to Italy, and after touch- 
ing at Syracuse and Rhegium, landed at 
Puteoli, thus sailing on a direct course. 
The other Melita would be far out of the 
usual track from Alexandria to Italy ; 
and in sailing from it to Rhegium, Syra- 
cuse also would be out of the direct 
course. The fact that the vessel was 
tossed all night before the shipwreck in 
the Adriatic sea, does not militate against 
this view, because the name Adria was 
applied to the whole Ionian sea, which 
lay between Sicily and Greece. See 
Adria. Acts 27:27; 28:1. 

Malta is a rocky island, sixty-two miles 
south of Sicily, seventeen miles long 
and nine broad, and containing nearly 
one hundred square miles, and 100,000 
inhabitants. At an early period it was 
seized by the Phoenicians ; these were 
dispossessed by the Greeks of Sicily ; 
they by the Carthaginians ; and they in 
turn, 242 b. c, by the Romans, who held 
it in the time of Paul. After numerous 
changes, it fell at length into the hands 
of the English, who since 1814 have held 
undisputed possession of it. The name 
of "St. Paul's bay" is now borne by a 
small inlet on the north side of the isl- 
and, opening towards the east, which 
answers well to the description in Acts 
27. Here Paul was protected by the 
hand of God, amid perils on shore as 
Avell as in the sea. He remained hero 
three months, and wrought many mir- 
acles. 

279 



MEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MER 




MEL'ONS are common in the East, 
but do not differ particularly from ours. 
Watermelons grow luxuriantly in Pales- 
tine, even in dry and sandy soil. They 
are a delicious fruit in a hot climate, 
and were among the articles of food for 
which the Hebrews pined in the desert, 
Num. 11:5. 

MEL'ZAR, the name or the ofiS.cial title 
of a butler or steward at the court of 
Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. 1:11-16. 

MEM'PHIS, Hos. 9:6. See Noph. 

MEN' AHEM, the sixteenth king of 
Israel, previously general of the army of 
Zachariah. He was at Tirzah when he 
heard of his master's murder ; and im- 
mediately marching against Shallum, 
who had shut himself up in Samaria, he 
captured and slew him, and then ascend- 
ed the throne. He reigned in Samaria 
ten years, 771-760 b. c, and was a ty- 
rannical and cruel idolater. Pul, king 
of Assyria, having invaded Israel during 
the reign of Menahem, obliged him to 
pay a tribute of a thousand talents, 
which Menahem raised by a tax on all 
his rich subjects of lifty shekels a head. 
He seems to have died a natural death ; 
but his son and successor Pekahiah 
reigned only two years, and was the last 
of that dynasty, 2 Kin. 15 : 13-22. The 
name of Menahem is found on the Assyr- 
ian tablets recently discovered. 

ME'NE, he is numbered; Te'kel, he is 
weighed; Upiiar'sin, and they are dividing ; 
Chaldee words supernaturally traced on 
the wall at Belshazzar's impious feast, 
and significant of his impending doom, 
Dan. 5. The astrologers could not read 
them, perhaps because they Avere written 
in antique Hebrew characters ; still less 
could they explain, even if they had 
dared to do it, what was so portentous. 
Daniel, however, received skill to under- 
stand and courage to declare their aAvful 
280 



meaning ; and the same night witnessed 
their fulfilment. Over how many proud 
heads, often found in scenes of ungodli- 
ness and revelling, the hand that has 
recorded their past history is even now 
preparing to record their doom. 

MEPHIB'OSHEl H, a son of Jonathan, 
also called Merib-baal, 1 Chr. 8:34. See 
EsiiBAAL. Mephibosheth was very young 
when his father was killed in the battle 
of Gilboa, 2 Sam. 4:4, and his nurse was 
in such consternation at the news, that 
she let the child fall ; and from this ac- 
cident he was lame all his life. When 
David found himself in peaceable posses- 
sion of the kingdom, he sought for all 
that remained of the house of Saul, that 
he might show them kindness, in con- 
sideration of the friendship between him 
and Jonathan. He gave Mephibosheth 
the estate of his grandfather Saul. Of a 
part of this, however, he was afterwards 
deprived by the treachery of his steward 
Ziba, and the hasty injustice, as it ap- 
pears, of David towards an unfortunate 
but noble and loyal prince, 2 Sam. 9 ; 
16:1-4; 19:24-30. David subsequently 
took care to exempt him fi-om the num- 
ber of the descendants of Saul given up 
to the vengeance of the Gibeonites, 2 Sam. 
21:1-14, though another Mephibosheth, 
a son of Saul, was slain, ver. 8. 

ME'EAB, the eldest daughter of king 
Saul, was promised to David in marriage, 
in reward for his victory over Goliath ; 
but was given to Adriel, son of Barzillai 
the Meholathite, 1 Sam. 14 : 49 ; 18 : 17, 
19. Merab had five sons by him, who 
were delivered to the Gibeonites, and 
hanged before the Lord, 2 Sam. 21:8, 9. 
The text intimates that the five men 
delivered to the Gibeonites were sons of 
Michal ; but see Adriel. 

MER'ARI, the youngest of Levi's three 
sons, born in Canaan, and head of a fam- 
ily of the Levites, Gen. 46: 11 ; Ex. 6: 16 ; 
Nmn. 3:17 ; 1 Chr. 6:1. In the journey 
through the wilderness they were charg- 
ed with the framework of the tabernacle, 
to carry from one place of encampment 
to another, and there set it up. Num. 
4 : 29-33 ; 7 : 8. Twelve cities were as- 
signed to them beyond Jordan, Josh. 
21:7, 34-40. 

MER'CHANT, Gen. 23:16. The com- 
modities of different countries were usu- 
ally exchanged by traders of various 
kinds, in caravans or "travelling com- 
panies," Isa. 21:13, which had their reg- 



MER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MER 



•ular seasons and routes for passing from 
one great mart to another, Gen. 37:25, 
28. Tliese merchants prospered by wan- 
dering, as ours do by remaining station- 
ary. Tlie apostle James reminds tliem 
to lay their plans in vievv of the uncer- 
tainty of life, and their need of divine 
guidance, James 4: 13. Some of the mar- 
itime nations, as Egypt, and still more 
the Pha'nicians, carried on a large traffic 
by sea, Isa. 23:2; Ezek. 27:28. 

MER'CURY, a fabulous god of the 
ancient heathen, the messenger of the 
celestials, and the deity that presided 
over learning, eloquence, and traffic. 
The Greeks named him Hermes, inter- 
preter, because they considered him as 
the interpreter of the will of the gods. 
Probably it was for this reason that the 
people of Lystra, having heard Paul 
preach, and having seen him heal a 
lame man, would have offered sacrifice 
to him as to their god Mercury ; and to 
Barnabas as Jupiter, because of his ven- 
erable aspect, Acts 14:11, 12. 



MER'CY, the divine goodness exer- 
cised towards the wretched and the 
guilty, in harmony with truth and jus- 
tice, Psa. 85 : 10. The plan by which 
God is enabled to show saving mercy to 
men, for Christ's sake, is the most con- 
summate work of infinite wisdom and 
love. The soul that has truly experi- 
enced the mercy of God will be merciful 
like him, Luke 6 : 36, compassionate to 
the wretched, Psa. 41 : 1, 2, and forgiv- 
ing towards all. Matt. 5:7 ; 18:33. 

MER'CY-SEAT, 1 Chr. 28 : 11, the 
cover of the Ark of the Covenant, which 
see. The Hebrew word means a cover, 
but contains an allusion to the covering 
or forgiving of sins, Psa. 32 : 1. In the 
I New Testament it is designated by a 
Greek word meaning ' ' the propitia- 
tory," or "expiatory," Heb. 9:4, 5. It 
was approached only by the high-priest, 
and not without the blood of atonement, 
to show that the divine mercy can be 
granted only through the blood of Christ, 
Rom. 3:25. 




LAKE MEROM, WITH MOUNT HERMON IN THE DISTANCE. 



ME'ROM. The "waters of Merom," 
Josh. 11:5, or lake of Semechon, is the 
most northern of the three lakes sup- 
plied by the river Jordan. It is situated 
in the southern part of a valley formed 
by the two branches of mount Hermon. 
The lake is now called after the valley, 



the lake of Huleh. The lake proper is 
four or five miles long, and perhaps four 
broad, tapering towards the south. It; 
is very shallow, and a large part of it is I 
covered with aquatic plants. Thousands 
of water-fowl sport on its surface, and 
its waters abound in fish. On the north 
281 



MER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MES 



lies the plain of the Huleh, which is a 
dead level for a distance of six miles or 
more. Near the upper end of this, the 
three streams A\'hich form the Jordan 
unite. On the west side of the Jordan 
ahove the lake, a marsh extends up north 
as far as the junction of these streams, or 
CA^en farther ; while on the eastern side 
tlie land is tilled almost down to the 
lake. It is a splendid plain, and ex- 
tremely fertile. All kinds of grain grow 
on it, with very little labor ; and it still 
merits the praise accorded to it by the 
Danite spies : ' ' We have seen the land ; 
and behold, it is very good, .... a place 
where there is no want of any thing that 
is in the earth," Judg. 18:9, 10. Its 
rich soil is formed by deposit, and it 
seems to be partially submerged in the 
spring. Thus the lake and valley El- 
Huleh form an immense reservoir, and 
unite with the snows of Hermon to main- 
tain the summer supplies of the Jordan. 
Near this lake Joshua defeated the kings 
of Northern Canaan, Josh. 11:1-8. 

MER'IBAH, strife, L, a station of the 
Israelites between the Red sea and mount 
Sinai, where they miumured against the 
Lord, and a fountain gushed from the 
rock for their use, Ex. 17:1-7. It was 
also named Massah, temptation, when they 
tempted God there, Deut. 33:8 ; Heb. 3:8. 

II. A similar miraculous fountain in 
the desert of Zin, near Kadesh, which 
see. Num. 20:13, 14. This was the scene 
of the transgression of Moses and Aaron, 
for which they were precluded from cross- 
ing the Jordan. It is called "the wa- 
ters of Meribah, ' ' Deut. 33 : 8 ; Psa. 81:7; 
106:32, and also Merilmh-kadesh, Num. 
27:14; Deut. 32:51; Ezek. 47:19. 

MERO'DACH, an idol of the Babylo- 
nians, representing probably the planet 
Mars, Jer. 50 : 2. The names of Baby- 
lonish kings were also sometimes com- 
pounded with this name, as Evil-Mero- 
dach and Merodach-Baladan, Isa. 39 : 1, 
who is also called Bcrodach-Baladan in 
2 Kin. 20:12. 

ME'ROZ, an unknown place in Gali- 
lee, cursed in the song of Deborah and 
Barak for not joining with them against 
the foes of Israel, Judg. 5:23. Probably 
their vicinity to the scene of conflict, or 
the opportunity they had of rendering 
some special assistance, rendered their 
refusal peculiarly guilty. 

ME'SHA, I., a place on the eastern 
frontier of the territorv of Joktan, Gen. 
282 



I 10:30, supposed to have been in the re- 
I gion of Bassora, at the north-west end of 
i the Persian gulf. 

II. A king of Moab, who paid an enor- 
mous tribute to Ahab king of Israel, but 
revolted at his death, 2 Kin. 1:1 ; 3:4- 
j 27. Joram the son of Ahab, with the 
aid of Judah and Edom, made war upon 
i him, and besieged him in his capital. 
[ Unable to force his way through the be- 
I sieging host, king Mesha sought the aid 
! of his gods by sacrificing his own son on 
the city wall ; and the besiegers, horror- 
struck at this atrocious act, withdrew 
in terror, lest some curse should fall on 
them. 

ME'SHACH. See Abed-nego. 

ME'SHECH, or Mesech, Psa. 120 : 5, 

the sixth son of Japheth, Gen. 10 : 2, lo- 

1 cated near Tubal at the north-east cor- 

' ner of Asia Minor, in Iberia, and sup- 

I posed by many to have been the father 

' of the Muscovites. Meshech traded with 

Tyre in "the persons of men, and in 

vessels of brass," Ezek. 27 : 13 ; 32 : 26 ; 

38:2. 

MESOPOTAMIxV, heticecn the rivers, the 
Greek name of the country between the 
Euphrates and the Tigris, called in Ara- 
bic, Al Jezira, the island. See Aram II., 
and Pad.\n-a,ram. In its fullest sense, 
Mesopotamia extended from the Persian 
gulf to mount Taurus ; but the name 
usually denotes only the tract above Bab- 
ylonia, now called Diarbekr and cele- 
brated for its exuberant fertility ; while 
the part below, now Irak-Arabi, is sterile 
and without water. Mesopotamia was 
included in the territories of the Assyr- 
ian, Babylonian, Persian, Macedonian, 
and Roman empires successively, and 
belongs now to that of the Turks. 

This region is associated with the ear- 
liest history of the human race both be- 
fore and after the flood. Eden was not far 
off; Ararat was near to it on the north, 
and the land of Shinar on the south. 
The traveller here reaches what is truly 
"the old world." and is surrounded by 
objects compared with which the antiq- 
uities of Greece and Rome are modern 
novelties. This was the home of the 
patriarchs who preceded Abraham — Te- 
rah, Heber, Peleg, etc. Here Abraham 
and Sarah were born, and the wives of 
Isaac and Jacob, and most of the sons of 
Jacob, the heads of the twelve tribes. 
Mesopotamia is also mentioned in Scrip- 
ture as the abode of the first oppressor 



MES 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MIC 



of Israel in the time of the judges, Judg. 
3 : 8-10 ; in the history of the wars of 
David, 2 Sam. 10:16 ; and as furnishing 
a delegation of Jews, and perhaps prose- 
lytes, to attend the Passover at Jerusa- 
lem, Acts 2:9. 

MESSI'AH, or Messi'as, anointed, a title 
given principally, or by way of eminence, 
to that sovereign Deliverer promised to 
the Jews. They were accustomed to 
anoint their kings, high-priests, and some- 
times prophets, when they were set apart 
to their office ; and hence the phrase, 
"to anoint" for an employment, some- 
times signifies merely a particular desig- 
nation or choice for such an employment. 
Cyrus, who founded the empire of the 
Persians, and who set the Jews at liber- 
ty, is called, Isa. 45:1, "the anointed of 
the Lord ;" and in Ezek. 28:14, the epi- 
thet ' ' anointed ' ' is given to the king of 
Tyre. 

But, as we have already observed, 
Messiah is the designation given by the 
Hebrews, eminently, to that Saviour and 
Deliverer whom they expected, and who 
was promised to them by all the proph- 
ets. As the holy unction was given to 
kings, pries-ts, and prophets, by describ- 
ing the promised Saviour of the world 
under the name of Christ, Anointed, or 
Messiah, it was sufficiently evidenced 
that the qualities of king, prophet, and 
high-priest would eminently centre in 
him, and that he should exercise them 
not only over the Jews, but over all 
mankind, and particularly over those 
who should receive him as their Saviour. 
See Christ. 

That Jesus Christ was the true Mes- 
siah of the Old Testament, the " Shi- 
loh" of Jacob, the "Redeemer" of Job, 
the "Angel of the Covenant," is abim- 
dantly clear. The time of his appear- 
ance was predicted in Gen. 49:10 ; Dan. 
9 : 20, 25 ; Hag. 2:7 ; Mai. 3:1. At the 
time when the Saviour actually came, 
and then only, could these predictions 
meet : then the seventy weeks of years 
were ended ; and soon after, the sceptre 
was torn for ever from the hands of Ju- 
dah, the only tribe that could then claim 
the headship of the Jews ; and the tem- 
ple in which the INIessiah was to appear 
w^as annihilated. Then also the genea- 
logical lists were extant, which proved 
the descent of Christ from the line pre- 
dicted. Numerous and clear detached 
predictions respecting the birth, charac- 



ter, life, sufferings, and death of Christ, 
his resurrection, ascension, and king- 
dom, were all in him perfectly fulfilled, 
John 1:41; 4:25. 

ME'THEG-AM'MAH, 2 Sam. 8:1; 
IChr. 18:1. See Gath. 

METHU'SELAH, son of Enoch, and 
father of Lamech. He lived 969 years, 
a longer life than any other on record, 
and died within the year before the del- 
uge. Gen. 5:21, 22. 

MI'CAH, I., the Morasthite, or of 
Maresheth, a village near Eleutheropolis, 
in the west of Judali ; the seventh in 
order of the lesser prophets. He proph- 
esied under Jotham, Ahaz, and Heze- 
kiah, kings of Judah, for about fifty 
years, if with some we reckon from 
near the beginning of the reign of 
Jotham, to the last year of Hezekiah 
B. c. 750-698. He was nearly con- 
temporary with Isaiah, and has some 
expressions in common with him. Com- 
i pare Isa. 2 : 2 with IMicah 4:1, and Isa. 
41 : 15 with Micah 4:13. His bold fidel- 
ity served as a shield to the prophet Jer- 
emiah a century afterwards, Jer. 26 : 18, 
19 ; Mic. 3:12. He wrote in an elevated 
and vehement style, with frequent tran- 
sitions. His prophecy relates to the sins 
and judgments of Israel and Judah, the 
destruction of Samaria and Jerusalem, 
the return of the Jews from captivity, 
and the punishment of their enemies. 
He proclaims the coming of the Messiah, 
' ' whose goings forth have been from of 
old, from everlasting," as the founda- 
tion of all hope for the glorious and 
blessed future he describes; and specifies 
Bethlehem in Judah as the place where 
He should he born of woman, IMic. 5 : 2, 
3. The prediction was thus understood 
by the Jews, Matt. 2:6; John 7:41, 42. 

II. An Ephraimite in the time of the 

judges, soon after Joshua, who stole 

eleven hundred shekels of silver from 

his mother, but restored them, and with 

her consent employed them in establish- 

I ing a private sanctuary, with an image 

j to be used in the worship of Jehovah, 

j and with a Levite for his priest. Provi- 

; dence frowned on his idolatrous service, 

i and a troop of Danites robbed him of his 

I priest and of all his implements of wor- 

; ship, Judg. 17 ; 18. 

MICAI'AH, I., a faithful and fearless 

I prophet, consulted by king Ahab at the 

j demand of Jehoshaphat as to the issue 

I of their proposed campaign against the 

283 



MIC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MIG 



Syrians. He was imprisoned to abide 
the event, which coincided with his pre- 
dictions and probably secured his re- 
lease, 1 Kin. 22:8-38. Ahab's conduct 
in this matter displays the amazing folly 
of sins against light. 

II. Aprinceof Judah, who seconded the 
efforts of Jehoshaphat to instruct and re- 
form the people of Judah, 2 Kin. 17 : 7-9. 

MI'CHAEL. See Archangel. 

MICHArAH, a young prince at the 
court of Jehoiakim, who communicated 
to the king's counsellors the solemn 
warnings of Jeremiah, Jer. 36:11-13. 

Ml'CflAL, the younger of Saul's two 
daughters, in love with David, and whom 
Saul reluctantly gave to him in marriage, 
1 Sam. 14:49; 18:20-29. Siie saved her 
husband's life from assassins sent by her 
father, by a stratagem which gave him 
time to escape, 1 Sam. 19 : 14, 15. Her 
father then gave her in marriage to 
Phalti, 1 Sam. 25:44, from whom David 
some years after recovered her, 2 Sam. 
3:12-21. When David brought the ark 
of God to Jerusalem, she conceived and 
expressed great disgust at his pious joy, 
and the affections of the king remained 
alienated from her till her death, 2 Sam. 
6: 16-23. Her hatred of unfashionable 
zeal in religion was stronger than her 
love of her husband and her God. She 
left no children. 

MIC [I'M ASH, a town of Benjamin, 
nine miles north by east of Jerusalem, 
Neh. 7:31; 11:31. It was a sti'ong po- 
sition, and lay on the north side of a 
deep valley ; for which reasons perhaps 
Sennacherib, on his way to Jerusalem, 
left his heavy equip ige there, Isa. 10:28, 
29. In this deep valley, a little west of 
the town, are two steep hills or rocks, 
supposed to be the ones referred to in 
the account of Jonathan's achievement 
at "the passage of Michmash," 1 Sam. 
13:23 ; 14:4. Dr. Robinson found here a 
village called Makhmas, which appeared 
to be the remnant of a town of some size 
and importance. 

MICH'TAM, prefixed to Psalms 16, 56- 
60, and meaning golden, profound, or as 
some think, a wrilinq or song, as in Isa. 
88:9. 

MID'IAN, the fourth son of Abraham 
and Keturah, Gen. 25.2. 

MID'IANITES, descendants of Midian, 

a nomade race in Arabia, numerous, and 

rich in flocks, herds, and camels, Isa. 

60:6. The original and appropriate dis- 

284 



trict of the Midianites seems to have been 
on the east side of the Elanitic branch of 
the Red sea, where the Arabian geogra- 
phers place the city Madian, Acts 7:29. 
But they appear to have spread them- 
selves northward, probably along the 
desert east of mount Seir, to the vicinity, 
of the Moabites ; and on the other side, 
also, they covered a territory extending 
to the neighborhood of mount Sinai. 
See Ex. 3 : 1 ; 18 : 1 ; Num. 22 ; 25 ; 81 ; 
Judg. 6-8. In Gen. 25 : 2, 4, compared 
with ver. 12-18, they are distinguished 
from the descendants of Ishmael, though 
elsewhere we find the two people inti- 
mately associated, so that they are call- 
ed now by one name and now by the 
other. See Gen. 87 : 25, compared with 
verse 36. Their capital city was call- 
ed Midian, and its remains were to be 
seen in the time of Jerome and Euse- 
bius. It was situated on the Arnon, 
south of the city Ar, or Areopolis. 

The Midianites were idolaters, and 
often led Israel astray to worship their 
gods. They also not unfrequently ren- 
dered the Hebrews tributary, and op- 
pressed them. See Num. 22 ; 25 ; 31. 
Often Avhen the Israelites had sown, and 
their harvest was nearly ready to be 
gathered in, the Midianites and Ama- 
lekites, children of the eastern desert, 
came down like locusts in countless 
swarms, with their cattle and tents and 
camels, to devour and carry off the fruits 
of the ground, and not only rob but de- 
stroy their owners. And often did the 
Jews, lacking the strength or the faith 
or the leadership necessary for effectual 
resistance, seek refuge in mountain-dens 
and caverns till the invaders retired. 
Gideon was their deliverer in one such 
period of oppression, Judg. 6 ; 7. The 
modern Ishmaelites still follow the an- 
cient practice, and their violent incur- 
sions, robberies, and murders might be 
described in the same terms that were 
used with reference to their fathere by 
the historians of old. 
MID'NIGHT. See Hour. 
MIG'DOL, a tower, a frontier town in 
Northern Egypt, towards the Red sea, 
Jer. 44 : 1 ; 46 : 14 ; Ezek. 29 : 10 ; 30:6. 
The Hebrews, on leaving Egypt, en- 
camped between it and the sea, Exod. 
14:2; Num. 33:7. 

MIG'RON, a town in the vicinity of 
Ai and Gibeah, north of Michmash, now 
lost, 1 Sam. 14:2; Isa. 10:28. 



MIL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MIN 



MIL'COM. See Moloch. 

MILE. The word viile, in Matt. 5:41, 
is spoken of the Koman milliare, or mile, 
which contained eight stadia, 1,000 paces, 
that is, about 1,614 yards, while the Eng- 
lish mile contains 1,760 yards. 

MILE'TUS, an ancient city, formerly 
the metropolis of all Ionia, situated on 
the western coast of Asia Minor, on the 
confines of Caria, just south of the mouth 
of the river Meander. It was the parent 
of many colonies, and was celebrated for 
a temple and oracle of Apollo Didy- 
m;Bus, and as the birthplace of Thales, 
Anaximander, Democritus, and other 
famous men. The apostle Paul, on his 
voyage from Macedonia towards Jerusa- 
lem, spent a day or two here, and held 
an affecting interview with the Christian 
elders of Ephesus, who at his summons 
came nearly thirty miles from the north 
to meet him. Acts 20 : 15-38. He also 
revisited Miletus after his first imprison- 
ment at Rome, 2 Tim. 4:20. There were 
Christians and bishops there from the 
fifth to the eighth century ; but the city 
has long been in ruins, and its exact site 
can hardly be determined, so much is 
the coast altered around the mouth of 
the Meander. 

MILK is often alluded to in the Bible, 
as a symbol of pure, simple, and whole- 
some truth, Heb. 5 : 12, 13 ; 1 Pet. 2:2; 
and in connection with honey, to denote 
fertility and plenty. Gen. 49 : 12 ; Num. 
16 : 13 ; Josh. 5:6. The Jews and their 
neighbors used not only the milk of 
cows, but that of camels, sheep, and 
goats. Gen. 32:15; Deut. 32:14; Prov. 
27:37. See Butter and Cheese. 

MILL. See Corn. 

MIL'LO, I., probably a bastion of the 
citadel of Zion, at Jerusalem, mentioned 
in the history of David and Solomon, 
2 Sam. 5-9 ; 2 Kin. 12:20 ; 1 Chr. 11:8 ; 
2Chr. 32:5. 

II. The name of a family or of a for- 
tress at Shechem ; in the latter case, the 
' ' house of Millo ' ' would mean the gar- 
lison of that fortress, Judg. 9:6. 

MILLET, a kind of grain, of which 
there are several species cultivated in 
Italy, Syria, Egypt, and India. It is 
used partly green as fodder, and partly 
in the ripe grain for bread, etc. Ezekiel, 
4:9, received an order from the Lord to 
make himself bread with a mixture of 
wheat, barley, beans, lentiles, and mil- 
let. ' ' Durra," says Niebuhr, " is a kind 




of millet, made mto bread with camel's 
milk, oil, butter, etc., and is almost the 
only food eaten by the common people 
of Arabia Felix. I found it so disagree- 
able, that I would willingly have pre- 
ferred plain barley bread." This illus- 
trates the appointment of it to the proph- 
et Ezekiel, as a part of his hard fare. 

MINTSTER, one who attends or waits 
on another, Matt. 20 : 28 ; so Elisha was 
the minister of Elijah, 1 Kings 19 : 21 ; 
2 Kings 3 : 11, and Joshua the minister of 
Moses, Ex. 24:13 ; 33:11. These persons 
did not feel themselves degraded by their 
stations, and in due tune they succeeded 
to the olfice of their masters. In like 
manner, John Mark was minister to Paul 
and Barnabas, Acts 13 : 5. Angels are 
ministers of God and of his people, Psa. 
103:21 ; Heb. 1:14. The term is applied 
to one who performs any function, or 
administers any office or agency : as to 
magistrates, Rom. 13 : 4, 6 ; to gospel 
teachers, Rom. 15:16; 1 Cor. 5:5; 4:1; 
and to teachers of error, 2 Cor. 11 : 15. 
Christ came to minister, not to be min- 
istered unto ; and is called in another 
sense a minister "of the circumcision," 
Rom. 15 : 8, and of the heavenly sanc- 
tuary, Heb. 8:2. 

MIN'NI, a kingdom summoned to a 
war against Babylon, with Ararat and 
Ashchenaz, Jer. 51 : 27 ; supposed to de- 
note Armenia, or a portion of it. 

MIN'NITH, a town of the Ammonites 
285 



MIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MIR 



in the time of Jeplithah, Judg. 11 : 33, 
four miles north-east of Heshbon. It 
furnished tine wheat for the market of 
Tyre, Ezek. 27: 37. 




MliSTT, a garden herb, sufficiently 
knoMTi. The Pharisees, desiring to dis- 
tinguish themselves by a most scrupu- 
lous and literal observation of the law, 
gave tithes of mint, anise, and cummin. 
Matt. 23:23. Our Saviour does not cen- 
sure this exactness, but complains, that 
while they were so precise in these lesser 
matters, they neglected the essential 
commandments of the law — making 
their punctiliousness about easy and ex- 
ternal duties an excuse for disregarding 
their obligations to love God supremely, j 
to be regenerated in heart, and just and 
beneficent in life. 

MIR'ACLE, also called a sign, wonder, 
or mighty work, Acts 2: 32 ; a work so su- 
perseding in its higher forms the estab- 
lished laws of nature as to evince the spe- 
cial interposition of God. A miracle is to 
be distinguished from wonders wrought 
by designing men through artful decep- 
tions, occult sciences, or laws of nature 
unknown except to adepts. The mira- 
cles wrought by Christ, for example, 
were such as God only could perform ; 
were wrought in public, before numer- 
ous witnesses, both friends and foes ; 
were open to the most perfect scrutiny ; 
had an end in view worthy of divine 
sanction ; were attested by witnesses 
whose character and conduct establish 
their claim to our belief; and are further 
confirmed by institutions still existing, 
intended to commemorate them, and 
dating from the period of the miracles. 



Christ appealed to his mighty works as 
undeniable proofs of his divinity and 
Messiahship, Matt. 9:6 ; 11:4, 5, 23, 24; 
John 10:24-27 ; 20:29, 31. The decep- 
tions of the magicians in Egypt, and of 
false prophets in ancient and in modern 
times, Deut. 13:1 ; Matt. 24:24 ; 2 Thess. 
2:9 ; Rev. 13:13, 14, Avould not bear the 
above tests. By granting to any man 
the power to work a miracle, God gave 
the highest attestation to the truth he 
should teach and the message he should 
bring, 1 Kin. 18 : 38, 39 ; this is God's 
own seal, not to be affixed to false- 
hoods ; and though the lying wonders 
of Satan and his agents were so plau- 
sible as to " deceive if possible the very 
elect," no one who truly sought to know 
and do the will of God could be deluded 
by them. 

The chief object of miracles having 
been to authenticate the revelation God 
has made of his Avill, these mighty works 
ceased when the Scripture canon was 
completed and settled, and Christianity 
was fairly established. Since the close 
of the first century from the ascension 
of Christ, few or no undoubted miracles 
have been wrought ; and whether a suf- 
ficient occasion for new miracles will ever 
arise is known only to God. 

The following list comprises most of 
the miracles on record in the Bible, not 
including the supernatural visions and 
revelations of himself which God vouch- 
safed to his ancient servants, nor those 
numerous wonders of his providence 
which manifest his hand almost as in- 
disputably as miracles themselves. See 
also Prophecy. 

OLD TESTAMENT MIRACLES. 

The creation of all things, Gen. 1. 

The deluge, comprising many miracles, 
Gen. 6-8. 

The destruction of Sodom, etc., Gen. 19. 

The healing of Abimelech, Gen. 20 :17, 18. 

The burning bush, Ex. 3 : •-:-4. 

Moses' rod made a serpent, and restored, 
Ex. 4:3, 4; 7:10. 

Moses' hand made leprous, and healed, Ex. 
4:6,7. 

Water turned into blood, Ex. 4 :9, 30. 

The Nile ttirned into blood, Ex. 7 :20. 

Frogs brought, and removed, Ex. 8 :6, 13. 

Lice brought, Ex. 8:17. 

Flies brought, and removed, Ex. 8 : 21-31. 

Murrain of beasts. Ex. 9:3-6. 

Boils and blains brought, Ex. 9 :10, 11. 

Hail brought, and removed, Ex. 9 ;23, 33. 

Locusts brought, and removed, Ex. 10 :13, 
19. 

Darkness brought, Ex. 10 :22. 

First-born destroyed, Ex. 10 :29. 
286 



MIK 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MIS 



The Bed sea divided, Ex. 14 :21, 22. 
Egyptians overwhelmed, Ex. 14 : 26-28. 
Waters of Marah sweetened, Ex. 15 :28. 
Quails and manna sent, Ex. 16. 
AVater from the rock, in Horeb, Ex. 17 :6. 
Amalek vanquished, Ex. 17 : 11-13. 
rillar ot cloud and fire, Num. 9 : 15-23. 
Leprosy of Miriam, Num. 12 :10. 
Destruction of Korah, etc., Num. 16 : 28-35, 
40-50. 
Aaron's rod budding. Num. 17 :8. 
Water from the rock, in Kadesh, Num. 
20 11. 

Healing by the brazen serpent, Num. 
21:8, 9. 
Balaam's ass speaks, Num. 22 :28. 
riague in the desert. Num. 25 :1, 9. 
Waters of Jordan divided. Josh. 3 : 10-17. 
Jordan restored to its course. Josh. 4 :18. 
Jericho taken. Josh. 6 :6-20. 
Achan discovered. Josh. 7 : 14-21. 
Sun and moon stand still. Josh. 10 : 12-14. 
Gideons fleece wet, Judg. 6 : -36-40. 
Midianites destroyed. Judg. 7 : 16-22. 
Exploits of tjamson, Jadg. 14-16. 
House of Dagon destroyed, Judg. 16 :30. 
Dagon falls before the ark, etc., 1 Sam. 5. 
Keturn of the ark, 1 Sam. 6 :12. 
Thunder and rain in harvest, 1 Sam. 12 :I8. 
Jeroboams hand withered, etc., 1 Kin. 
13:4,6. 
The altar rent, 1 Kin. 13 :5. 
Drought caused, 1 Kin. 17 :6. 
Samuel fed by ravens, 1 Kin. 17 :6. 
Meal and oil supplied, 1 Kin. 17 : 14-16. 
Child restored to life, 1 Kin. 17 :22, 23. 
Sacrifice consumed by fire, 1 Kin. 18 : 36, 38. 
Rain brought, 1 Kin. 18 : 41-45. 
3Ien destroyed by fire, 2 Kin. 1 : 10-12. 
Waters of Jordan divided, 2 Kin. 2 : 14. 
Noxious waters healed, 2 Kin. 2 :21, 22. 
Children torn by bears, 2 Kin. 2 :24. 
Waters brought, 2 Kin. 3 :1:>~20. 
Oil supplied, 2 Kin. 4 : 1-7. 
Child restored to life, 2 Kin. 4 : 32-35. 
Naaman healed, 2 Kin. 5 :10, 14. 
Gehazi's leprosy, 2 Kin. 5 :27. 
Iron caused to swim, 2 Kin. 6 :6. 
Syrians smitten blind, etc., 2 Kin. 6 :18, 20. 
A man restored to life, 2 Kin. 13 :21. 
Syrians destroyed, 2 Kin. 19 .-35. 
Ilezekiah healed, 2 Kin. 20 :7. 
Shadow put back, 2 Kin. 20 : 11. 
Festilence in Israel, 1 Chr. 21 :14. 
Jonah preserved by a fish, Jonah 1:17; 
2:10. 

NEW TE3TAMEXT MIRACLES. 

The star in the east. Matt. 2 :3. 

The Spirit like a dove. Matt. 3 :lfi. 

Christ's fast and temptations, Matt. 4 :1-11. 

Many miracles of Christ, 3Iatt. 4 :23, 24 ; 
8 : 16 ; 14 :14, 36 ; 15 :30 ; Mark 1 :34 ; Luke 
6 : 17-19. 

Lepers cleansed, Matt. 8 :3. 4 ; Luke 17 :14. 

Centurion's servant healed. Matt. 8 -5-13. 

Peter's wife's mother healed, Matt. 8 :14. 

Tempests stilled, ilatt. 8 : 23-26 ; 14 :32. 

Devils cast out, Matt. 8:28-32:9:32,33; 
15:22-28; 17:14-18. 

Paralytics healed. Matt. 9:2-6; Mark 2 :3- 

"issue of blood healed. Matt. 9 -20-22. 
JAirus' daughter raised to life, Matt. 9 -.18, 
25. 



Sight given to the blind. Matt. 9 : 27-30 : 
20 :34 ; Mark 8 : 22-25 ; John 9:1-7. 

The dumb restored, Matt. 9 :32, 33 ; 12 :22 ; 
Mark 7 : 33-35. 

Miracles by the disciples. Matt. 10 :1, 8. 

Multitudes fed, Matt. 14 : 15-21 ; 15 : 35-38. 

Christ walking on the sea, 31att. 14 : 25-27. 

Peter walking on the sea. Matt. 14 :29. 

Christ's transfiguration, etc.. Matt. 17 :l-8. 

Tribute from a fish's mouth. Matt. 17 :27. 

The fig-tree withered. Matt. 21 :19. 

Miracles at the crucifixion. Matt. 27 : 51-53. 

Miracles at the resurrection, 31att. 28 :l-7 ; 
Luke 24 : 6. 

Draught of fishes, Luke 5 :4-6 ; John 21 :6. 

Widow's son raised to life, Luke 7 :14, 15. 

Miracles before John's messengers, Luke 
7:21,22. 

Miracles by the seventy, Luke 10 :9, 17. 

AVoman healed of infirmity, Luke 13 : 11-13. 

Dropsy cured, Luke 14 :2-4. 

Malchus' ear restored, Luke 22 :50, 51. 

AYater turned into wune, John 2 :e-10. 

Nobleman's son healed, John 4 : 46-53. 

Impotent man healed, John 5 :5-9. 

Sudden crossing of the sea, John 6 :21. 

Lazarus raised from the dead, John 11 :43, 
44. 

Christ's coming to his disciples, John 20: 19, 
26. 
AVonders at the Pentecost, Acts 2 :1-11. 
Miracles by the apostles. Acts 2 :43 ; 5 :12. 
Lame man cured. Acts 3:7. 
Death of Ananias and Sapphira, Acts 5 :5, 
10. 
Many sick healed, Acts 5 :15, 16. 
Apostles delivered from prison, Acts 5 :19. 
Miracles by Stephen, Acts 6 :8. 
Miracles by Philip, Acts 8 :6, 7, 13. 
^neas made whole, Acts 9 :34. 
Dorcas restored to life, Acts 9 :40. 
Peter delivered from prison. Acts 12 : 6-10. 
Elymas struck blind. Acts 13 :11. 
Miracles by Paul and Barnabas, Acts 14 :3. 
Lame man cured. Acts 14 :10. 
Unclean spirit cast out, Acts 16 : 18. 
Paul and Silas delivered. Acts 16 :25, 26. 
Special miracles, Acts 19 :11, 12. 
Eutychus restored to life, Acts 20 : 10-12. 
A'iper's bite made harmless. Acts 28 :5. 
Father of Publius, etc. , healed. Acts 28 : 8, 9. 

MIR'IAM, the sister of Moses and Aa- 
ron, probably the one who watched over 
Moses in the ark of bulrushes. Ex. 2 : 4, 
5 ; Num. 26:59 ; Mic. 6:4. As a proph- 
etess, she led the women of Israel in 
their song of worship and thanksgiving 
to God on the drowning of the Egyp- 
tians, Ex. 15 : 20, 21. Her jealous mur- 
murs against Moses and his Cushite wife 
were punished bv a temporary leprosy, 
Num. 12 ; Deut. 24:9 ; but she w.as for- 
given and restored, and near the close of 
the wanderings of Israel, died at Kadesh- 
barnea. Num. 20:1. 

MlR'PiOR. See Looking-glass. 

MISH'AEL, or Me'siiacii, a fellow-cap- 
tive with Daniel ii\ Babylon. See Abed- 

NEGO. 

287 



MIT 



BIBLE DICTIONAKY, 



MOA 




THE ROMAN AS. 

MITE, a small piece of money, two of 
which made a kodrantes, or the fourth 
part of the Iloman as. The as was equal 
to three and one-tenth farthings ster- 
ling, or about one and one-half cents. 
The mite, therefore, would be equal to 
about two mills, Luke 12:59; 21:2. 




' ll llyv^iEH^i^slV"! 



MI'TRE, the sacred turban or bonnet 
of the Jewish high-priest, made of a piece 
of fine linen many yards long, wound 
about tl^e head, and having in front, se- 
cured with blue lace, a plate of pure gold 
on which Avas inscribed, "Holiness unto 
THE Lord," Ex. 28 : 4, 36-88 ; 39:28-31. 

MIT'YLENE, the ancient capital of 
the island of Lesbos ; a seaport on the 
east side of the island, towards Asia Mi- 
nor. Paul touched there on his way from 
Greece to Jerusalem, Acts 20 : 14. The 
island is now called Mitelino ; and the 
ruins of the city still exist near Castro. 

MIZ'PAH, or Miz'PEH, a watch-toicer, I., 
a town in Gilead, Hos. 5:1; so named 
from the stone-heap cast up by Jacob 
and Laban, Gen. 31 : 49 ; supposed by 
many to be the place mentioned in the 
history of Jephthah, Judg. 10:17 ; 11:11, 
29, 34. 

II. A city of Benjamin, a central gath- 
ering-place of the tribes in the period of 
the judges, Josh. 18:26; Judg. 20:1, 3; 
21:1. Here Samuel sacrificed and judg- 
ed, and here Saul was designated as king, 
288 



1 Sam. 7:5-16 ; 10:17. It was fortified 
by Asa as a defence against Israel, 1 Kin. 
15:22, was the residence of the governor, 
under Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 40 : 6, and 
was reoccupied after the captivity, Neh. 
3:19. Its name indicates that it occu- 
pied an elevated site, and it was near 
Ramah ; hence Dr. Robinson identifies 
it with the modern place called Neby 
Samwil, four or five miles north-north- 
west of Jerusalem. 

III. A town in the plain of Judah, 
Josh. 15:38. 

IV. A valley near mount Hermon, 
towards Zidon, Josh. 11:3, 8. 

MIZ'RAIM, a son of Ham, and father 
of various African races. Gen. 10:6, but 
particularly of the Egyptians, to whom 
his name was given. Mizraim is also the 
Hebrew word for Egypt in the Bible, and 
this country is still called Misr in Arabic. 

MNA'SON of Cyprus, "an old disci- 
ple ' ' with whom Paul lodged at Jerusa- 
lem, Acts 21:16. 

MOABITES, descendants of Moab the 
son of Lot, Gen. 19:30-38. The land of 
Moab lay east and south-east of the Dead 
sea, and chiefly south of the river Arnon. 
At one period, however, it extended 
north as far as the Jabbok, and for a 
long time the region beyond the Jordan 
opposite Jericho retained the name of 
' ' the plains of Moab, ' ' Num. 22 : 1 ; Deut. 
1:5; 29:1 ; Josh. 13:32. The Moabites 
had dispossessed a race of giants called 
Emim, Deut. 2:11, and had themselves 
been expelled by the Amorites from the 
territory north of the Arnon, Num. 
21 : 13, 26 ; Judg. 11 : 13-18, which was 
again conquered by Moses, and assigned 
to the tribe of Reuben. On the approach 
of Israel from Egypt, the Moabites acted 
with great inhumanity. Num. 22-24 ; 
Deut. 2:8, 9 ; and though God spared 
them from conquest, he excluded them 
and their seed even to the tenth genera- 
tion from the peculiar privileges of his 
people, Deut. 23:3-6. They were gross 
idolaters, worshipping Chemosh and 
Baal-peor with obscene rites, Num. 25, 
and sometimes with human sacrifices, 

2 Kin. 3 : 27. See Moloch. At times, 
as in the days of Ruth, there was peace 
between them and Israel ; but a state of 
hostility was far more common, as in the 
time of Eglon, Judg. 3:12-30; of Saul, 
1 Sam. 14:47 ; of David, 2 Sam. 8:2, 12 ; 
of Joram and Jeroboam, 2 Kin. 3 ; 13:20 ; 
14 : 25. They aided Nebuchadnezzar 



MOL 



BIBLE DICTlUNAJiY. 



MOX 



against the Jews, 2 Kin. 24 : 2 ; Ezek. 
25 : 6-11 ; and after these began to be 
carried captive, appear to have regained 
tlieir old possessions north of the Arnon, 
Isa. 15 ; 16. The Jewish prophets re- 
corded many threatenings against these 
hereditary enemies of God and liis peo- 
ple. Num. 24:17; Psa. 60:8; 83:6; Jer. 
25:9-21 ; 48; Amos 2:1-3 ; and all trav- 
ellers concur in attesting the fulfilment 
of these predictions. Desolation and 
gloom brood over the mountains of 
Moab, and its fruitful valleys are for the ' 
most part untilled. It is under Turkish | 



government, but is inhabited chiefly by 
migratory Arabs, Zeph. 2 : 8, 9. Few 
travellers have ventured to traverse it 
in modern times. They describe it as 
abounding in ruins, such as shattered 
tombs, cisterns, walls, temples, etc., 
proving that it was once densely popu- 
lated. See "Keith on Prophecy." 

MOLE, a small animal, which burrows 
obscurely in the groimd, Isa. 2:20. It is 
common in some parts of Palestine, and 
is mentioned as unclean in Lev. 11:£0 ; 
or, according to Bochart, in ver. 29, in 
the word translated ' ' weasel. ' ' 




MO'LECH, Mo'LocH, or Mil'com, a king, 
1 Kin. 11 : 5, 7 ; Acts 7:43 ; supposed also 
to be intended by Malcham, or "their 
king," in Jer. 49:1; Amos 1:15; Zeph. 
1:5, the name of a heathen deity, wor- 
shipped by the Ammonites. The Israel- 
ites also introduced the worship of this 
idol, both during their ' wanderings in 
the desert, and after their settlement in 
Palestine, 2 Kin. 23:10; Ezek. 20:26, 31. 
The principal sacrifices to Moloch were 
human victims, namely, children who 
were cast alive into the red-hot arms of 
his statue. See Hinnom. Compare Lev. 
18:21; 20:2; Deut. 12:31; Psa. 106:37, 
38 ; Jer. 7:31 ; 19:2-6 ; 32:35. Accord- 
ing to some of these passages, Moloch 
would seem to be another name for 
13 



Baal ; and we find that the Phoenicians, 
whose chief god was Baal, and the Car- 
thaginians their colonists, worshipped 
his image with similar horrid sacrifices, 
as the Romans did their god Saturn. 

MON'EY. See next page. 

MONTH. The Hebrew months were 
lunar months, that is, from one new 
moon to another. These lunar months 
were each reckoned at twenty-nine days 
and a half; or rather, one was of thirty 
days, the following of twenty-nine, and 
so on alternately : that Avhich had thirty 
days was called a full or complete month ; 
that which had but twenty-nine days 
was called incomplete. The new moon 
was always the beginning of the month, 
and this day they called new-moon day, 
289 



MON 



lilliLE DICTIOXAllY. 



MOX 



or new montli. The Hebrews usually- 
designated the months only as first, sec- 
ond, etc. ; and the names by uhich they 
are now known are believed to be of 
Persian origin, and to have been adopted 
by the Jews during the captivity. At 
the exodus from Egypt, wliich occurred 
in April, Grod ordained that that month— 
the seventh of the civil year — should be 
the tirst of the sacred year, according to 
which the religious festivals were to be 
reckoned ; and from that time both these 
modes of numbering the months contin- 
ued to be employed. 

As the Jewish months were governed 
by the moon, while ours entirely disre- 
gard it, the two systems cannot wholly 
coincide. It is generally agreed, how- 
ever, that their month Xisan answers 
most nearly to our April, ly ar to our 
May, etc., as in the following table. 



HebrewMontlis. 



Abib,or2\isan 
Ex. 12: -J, IS. 
" 13:4. 
Esth. 3 : 7. 



Nenrly corre- 

spoud.ng with 

our 



Months' Months 
< i' the I of the 
Pacred rivil 
■i e.ir. Year- 



April. 



1st 



1 Km. G:l. I 



Tth. 



Sth. 



feivan. 
Est h. S : 9. 



June. 



Tammuz, 
Ezck. 8:14. 



July. 



d. i 9th. 
loth. 



ith 



Ab. 



August. oth. 



Elul, 
Xeh. 6 : lo. 



September. 



eth. 



11th 



12th. 



Ethanim, or 

Tishri, 
1 Kin. 8:2. 



October, i Tth. 1st. 



Marcheshvan, i 

or Bui, i November. 
1 Kin. 6 :38. j 



8th. 



Cth. 



£d. 



Tebeth, 
Esth. 2 -.W. 



January. 



Shebat, 
Zech. 1 : 



February. 



Adar, 
Esth. 3 : 



March. 



10th. 



11th. 



12th. 



4th. ; I 



sth. 



IS 

O 



eth. 



Twelve lunar months making but three 
hundred and fifty-four days and six 
20!) 



hours, the Jewish year was short of the 
Roman by twelve days. To recover the 
equinoctial points, from which this dif- 
ference of the solar and lunar year would 
separate the new moon of the lirst month, 
the Jews every three years intercalated a 
thirteenth month, which they called Ve- 
adar, the second Adar. By this means 
their lunar year nearly equalled the 
solar. See Year. 

MON'EY was anciently weighed, and 
did not at first exist in the form of coins. 
The most ancient commerce was con- 
ducted by barter, or exchanging one sort 
of merchandise for another. One man 
gave what he could spare to another, 
who gave him in return part of his su- 
perabundance. Afterwards, the more 
precious metals were used in traffic, as a 
value more generally known and stated, 
and the amount agreed upon was paid 
over by weight. Gen. 23:16; 43:21 ; Ex. 
30:24. Lastly they gave this metal, by 
public authority, a certain mark, a cer- 
tain weight, and a certain degree of alloy, 
to fix its value, and to save buyers and 
sellers the trouble of weighing and exam- 
ining the coins. The first regular coin- 
age among the Jews is supposed to have 
been in tlie time of Simon Maccabceus, 
less than a century and a half before 
Christ. The coins were the shekel, and 
a half, a third, and a quarter of a shekel. 
The Jewish coins bore an almond rod 
and a vase of manna, but no image of 
any man was allowed. Compare Matt. 
22 : 16-22. Many Greek and Roman 
coins circulated in Judea in New Testa- 
ment times. See Tables at the end of 
the volume ; also Mite, Penny, Suekel. 

Volney says, "The practice of weigh- 
ing money is general in Syria, Egypt, 
and all Turkey. No piece, however ef- 
faced, is refused there : the merchant 
draws out his scales and weighs it, as in 
■the days of Abraham, when he purchased 
his sepidchre. In considerable payments, 
an agent of exchange is sent for, who 
counts paras by thousands, rejects pieces 
of false money, and weighs all the se- 
quins, either separately or together." 
This may serve to illustrate the phrase, 
"current money with the merchant," 
Gen. 23 : 16 ; and the references to "di- 
vers weights " — a large one to Aveigh the 
money received, and a small one for that 
paid out ; and to ' ' wicked balances, ' ' 
Dent. 25:13; Amos 8:5; Mic. 6:11. 
Our Saviour alludes to a class of ' ' ex- 



MOO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



MOS 



changers," who appear to have taken 
money on deposit, and so used it that 
the owner might afterwards receive his 
OAvn with interest. Matt. 25 : 27. There 
were also money brokers wlio had stands 
in tlie outer court of the temple, proba- 
bly to exchange foreign for Jewish coins ; 
and to accommodate those who wished 
to pay the yearly half-shekel tax, Ex. 
30 : 15, or to present an offering. They 
were expelled by the Lord of the temple, 
not only for obtruding a secular business 
Avithin the house of prayer, but also for 
pursuing it dishonestly, Mark 11:15-17. 

In 1 Tim. 6 : 10, Paul speaks of the 
' ' love of money " as a root of all evils ; 
censuring not money itself, but the love 
of it — a prevailing form of human selfish- 
ness and covetousness. This passion, to 
which so many crimes are chargeable, 
may infest the heart of a poor man as 
well as that of the rich ; for the one may 
have as much of ' ' the love of money ' ' 
as the other. 

MOON. Tliis beautiful and stately 
ruler of the night. Gen. 1 : 16, is one of 
the chief witnesses to mankind of the 
goodness, Avisdom, and power of the j 
Creator, Psa. 8:3; and as receiving all [ 
its light from the sun, and reflecting it ' 
on all around, it is a striking image of 
the church of Christ. In the clear sky 
of the East, the moon shines Avitli pecul- 
iar brilliancy ; and it was worshipped 
by most nations of antiquity, either j 
directly, or as an idol-goddess under the 
name of Ashtoreth, Artemis, Diana, Hec- 
ate, Meni, Mylitta, Maja, etc. The He- 
brews were specially cautioned against 
this form of idolatry. Deut. 4:19 ; l7:3 ; 
and vet fell into it, 2 Kin. 21 : 3 ; Isa. 
65:li: Jer. 7:18; 8:2; 19:13; 44:17- 
25. See Lunatic and New IMoox. 

I\IOR'DECAI, the uncle of Esther, who 
rose to dignity and honor in the court of 
Ahasuerus. See the book of Esther. 

MOPiPAH, the hill on which the tem- 
ple of Jerusalem was built, 2 Chr. 3 : 1. | 
See JERUs.\LE:\r. It seems to have been 
the same place where Abraham was 
about to offer up Isaac, Gen. 22 : 1, 2 ; 
and where David interceded for his peo- 
ple at the threshing-floor of Araunah, 
2 Sam. 24:16-25. 

MOPt'TAR. This well-known utensil 
was employed by the Hebrews in prepar- 
ing manna for use. Num. 11:8. Large 
iron mortars, for pounding grain, have 
been used by the Turks in the execution 



of criminals ; but it is not known that 
the Jews ever practised this mode of 
punishment. To this day a favorite 
article of food in Syria is prepared by 
pounding meat for hours in an iron mor- 
tar, and adding grain and spice while the 
process of "braving" goes on, Prov. 
27:22. 

MO'SES, the name of the illustrious 
prophet and legislator of the Hebrews, 
who led them from Egypt to the prom- 
ised land. Having been originally im- 
posed by a native Egyptian princess, the 
word is no doubt Egyptian in its ori- 
gin, and Josephus gives its true deriva- 
tion — from the two Egyptian words, jig, 
loater, and use, saved. With this accords 
the Septuagint form, Mouses. The He- 
brews by a slight change accommodat- 
ed it to their own language, as they did 
also in the case of some other foreign 
words ; calling it Moshb, from the verb 
MASUA, to draw. See Ex. 2 : 10. Moses 
was born about 1571 b. c, the son of 
Amram and Jochebed, of the tribe of 
Levi, and the younger brother of Miriam 
and Aaron. His history is too extensive 
to permit insertion here, and in general 
too well known to need it. It is enough 
simply to remark, that it is divided into 
three periods, each of forty years. Tlie 
first extends from his infancy, when he 
was exposed in the Nile, and found an-I 
adopted by the daughter of Pharaoh, to 
his flight to Midian. During this time 
he lived at the Egyptian court, and ' ' was 
learned in all the wisdom of the Egyp- 
tians, and Avas mighty in words and in 
deeds," Acts 7:22. This is no unmean- 
ing praise ; the " Av-isdom ' ' of the Egyp- 
tians, and especially of their priests, was 
then the profoundest in the world. The 
second period was from his flight till 
his return to Egypt, Acts 7 : 30, during 
the whole of which interval he appears 
to have lived in Midian. it may be much 
after the manner of the Bedaween sheikhs 
of the present day. Here he married 
Zipporah, daughter of the wise and pious 
Jethro, and became fiimiliar with life in 
the desert. What a contrast lietween 
the former period, spent amid the splen- 
dors and learning of a court, and this 
lonely nomadic life. Still it was in this 
M'ay that God prepared him to be tlie 
instrument of deliverance to His people 
during the third period of his life, which 
extends from the exodus out of Egypt to 
his death on mount Nebo. In this in- 
291 



mo; 



BIBLE DICTIOXABY 



MOT 



terval how much did he accomplish, as 
the immediate agent of the Most High. 

The life and institutions of Moses pre- 
sent one of the finest subjects for the pen 
of a Christian historian, who is at the 
same time a competent biblical antiqua- 
ry. His institutions breathe a spirit of 
freedom, purity, intelligence, justice, 
and humanity, elsewhere unknown ; and 
above all, of supreme love, honor, and 
obedience to God. They moulded the 
character of the Hebrews, and transform- 
ed them from a nation of shepherds into 
a people of fixed residence and agricul- 
tural habits. Through that people, and 
through the Bible, the influence of these 
institutions has been extended over the 
world ; and often where the letter has not 
been observed, the spirit of them has been 
adopted. Thus it was in the laws estab- 
lished by the pilgrim fathers of New 
England ; and no small part of what is of 
most value in the institutions which they 
founded, is to be ascribed to the influence 
of the Hebrew legislator. 

The name of this servant of God oc- 
curs repeatedly in Greek and Latin writ- 
ings, and still more frequently in those 
of the Arabs and the rabbinical Jews. 
Many of their statements, however, are 
mere legends without foundiition, or else 
distortions of the Scripture narrative. 
By the Jews he has always been espe- 
cially honored, as the most illustrious 
personage in all their annals, and as the 
founder of their whole system of laws 
and institutions. Numerous passages 
both in the Old and New Testament 
show how exalted a position thev gave 
him, Psa. 103:7; 105:20; 100:16: Isa. 
63:12 ; Jer. 15 : 1 ; Dan. 9 : 11 ; Matt. 
8:4; John 5:45 : 9 : 28 : Acts 7:20, 37 ; 
Eom. 10:5, 19; Heb. 3; 11:23. 

In all that he wrought and taught, he 
was Init the agent of the IMost High ; and 
yet in all his own character stands hon- 
orably revealed. Though naturally lia- 
ble to anger and impatience, he so far 
subdued himself as to be termed the 
meekest of men, Num. 12 : 3 ; and his 
piety, humility, and forbearance, the 
wisdom and vigor of his administration, 
his unfailing zeal and f^iith in God, and 
his disinterested patriotism are -worthy 
of all imitation. IMany features of his 
character and life furnish admirable 
illustrations of the work of Christ — as 
the deliverer, ruler, and guide of his peo- 
ple, bearing them on his heart, interced- 
292 



ing for them, rescuing, teaching, and 
nourishing them even to the promised 
land. All the religious institutions of 
Moses pointed to Christ ; and he him- 
self, on the mount, two thousand years 
after his death, paid his homage to the 
Prophet he had foretold, Deut. 18 : 15- 
19, beheld "that goodly mountain and 
Lebanon," Deut. 3 : 25, \and was admit- 
ted to commune with the Saviour on the 
most glorious of themes, the death He 
should accomplish at Jerusalem, Luke 
9:31. 

Moses was the author of the Penta- 
teuch, as it is called, or the lirst live 
books of the Bible. In the composition 
of them he was probably assisted by 
Aaron, who kept a register of public 
transactions, Ex. 17:14; 24:4, 7 ; 34:27 ; 
Num. 33:1, 2; Deut. 31:24, etc. Some 
things were added by a later inspired 
hand ; as for example, the last chapter 
of Deuteronomy. The ninetieth Psalm 
also is ascribed to him; and its noble 
and devout sentiments acquire a new 
significance, if received as from his pen 
near the close of his pilgrimage. 

MOTH. The common moth is an in- 
sect destructive to woollen cloths. The 
egg is laid by a small white miller, and 
produces a small shining Avorm ; which 
l3y another transformation becomes a 
miller. Allusions to the moth, as de- 
vouring clothes, and as a frail and fee • 
ble insect, are frequent in Scripture, Job 
4:19; 13 : 28 ; 27 : 18 ; Isa. 50 : 9 ; Hos. 
5:12; Matt. 6:19, 20. See Garments. 

The insects called in general moths, 
of which the above is only one species, 
are exceedingly numerous. The main 
genus is called by naturalists Phalania, 
and contains more than fifteen hundred 
species. Moths fly abroad only in the 
evening and night ; dift'ering in this 
respect from the tribe of butterflies, 
which fly only by day. Their larva;, or 
the worms from which they spring, are 
active and quick in motion, mostly 
smooth, and prey voraciously on the 
food adapted to 'them; the common 
moth on cloths, others on furs, the 
leaves of plants, etc. 

MOTH'EPt. Ihe Hebrew words asi and 
AB, mother and father, are simple and 
easy sounds for infant lips, like mamma 
and papa in English. See Abba. "Be- 
fore the child shall have knowledge to 
cry, My father, and My mother," Isa. 
8 : 4. In addition to the usual meaning 



MOU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MOU 



of " mother," am sometimes signifies in 
the Bible grandmother, 1 Kin. 15:10, or 
some remote female ancestor. Gen. 3 -.20. 
It is put for a chief city, 2 Sam. 20 : 19 ; 
for a benefactress, Judg. 5:7; for a na- 
tion, as in the expressive English phrase, 
'• the mother country," Isa. 8:12 ; 49:23. 
The fond affection of a mother is often 
referred to in Scripture ; and God has 
employed it to illustrate his tender love 
for his people, Isa. 49 : 15. Mothers are 
endowed with an all-powerful control 
over their offspring ; and most men of 
eminence in the world liave acknowledg- 
ed their great indebtedness to maternal 
influence. "When Buonaparte asked Ma- 
dame Campan what tlie French nation 
most needed, she replied in one word. 
•'Mothers." The Christian church al- 
ready owes much, and will owe infinitely 
more, to the love, patience, zeal, and 
self-devotion of mothers in training their 
children for Christ. 

MOUX'TAINS are among the most 
sublime and impressive of the Creator's 
works on earth, and form the noblest 
and most enduring monuments of great 
events. Most of the mountains of Scrip- 
ture thus stand as witnesses for God — 
every view of their lofty summits, and 
every recurrence to them in thought re- I 
minding us of the sacred facts and truths ! 
connected with them. Thus mount Ar- 
arat is a standing memorial of the del- i 
uge — of man's sin, God's justice, and : 
God's mercy. Mount Sinai asserts the 
terrors of the divine law. Mount Car- 
mel summons us, like the prophet Eli- j 
jah of old, not to "halt between two | 
opinions;" but if Jehovah is God, to j 
love and serve him. The mount of the | 
Transfiguration still shines with the 
glory of the truths there taught, and 
mounts Ebal and Gerizim still echo the 
curses and the blessings once so solemn- 
ly pronounced from them. So mount 
Hor, Nebo, Lebanon, and Gilboa have 
been signalized by striking events ; mount ', 
Zion, Moriah, and Olivet are covered | 
with precious memories ; and the moun- 
tains about Jerusalem and all other 
" everlasting hills " are sacred witnesses 
of the eternal power and faithfulness of ! 
God. I 

Judea was eminently a hilly country ; ' 
and the sacred poets and prophets drew : 
from the mountains around them many i 
beautiful and sublime illustrations of di- 
vine truth. Thus a kingdom is termed | 



a mountain, Psa. 30 : 7, especially the 
kingdom of Christ, Isa. 2:2; 11 : 9 ; 
Dan. 2 : 35. Thus also difficulty is a 
"great mountain," Zech. 4:7. A revo- 
lution is the " carrying of mountains 
into the midst of the sea," Psa. 40 : 3, 
God easily and speedily removes every 
obstacle — "hills melt like wax at the 
presence of the Lord," Psa. 97 : 5. Tlie 
integrity of the divine nature is sure and 
lasting — "Thy righteousness is like the 
great mountains," Psa. 36:6. The eter- 
nity of God's love is pictured out by this 
comparison: "For the mountains shall 
depart, and the hills be removed ; but 
my kindness shall not depart from thee, 
neither shall the covenant of my peace 
be removed, saith the Lord that hath 
mercy on thee," Isa. 54:10. "When Da- 
vid wishes to express the stability of his 
kingdom, he says, "Lord, by thy favor 
thou hast made my mountain to stand 
strong," Psa. 30 : 7. The security and 
protection afforded by God to his people 
are thus beautifully delineated: "As the 
mountains are round about Jerusalem, 
so the Lord is round about his people 
from henceforth, even for ever," Psa. 
125 : 2. "When the prophet would ex- 
press his faith in God, how pure it was, 
and what conffdence it inspired, far above 
any assurance which could arise from 
earthly blessing or defence, he sings, 
"Truly in vain is salvation hoped for 
from the hills, and from the multitude 
of mountains: truly in the Lord our God 
is the salvation of Israel," Jer. 3:23. 

The hills ©f Judea were anciently cul- 
tivated to the top, with scores of terra- 
ces, and covered with vines, olives, figs, 
etc. Hence the expression, alluding to 
the vine of God's planting, "The hills 
were covered with the shadow of it," 
Psa. 80 : 1 ; and others of the same 
kind. Travellers say it is a rare thing to 
pass a mountain, even in the wild parts 
of Judea, which does not show that it was 
formerly terraced and made to flow with 
oil and wine, though it may now be des- 
olate and bare. Says Paxton, "There 
are many districts that arc sadly encum- 
bered with rock, yet the soil among these 
rocks is of a very superior kind: and 
were the rock somewhat broken up, the 
large pieces piled, and the small mixed 
Avith the soil, it might be made very 
productive. Tliere is very striking proof 
of this in some districts, as that about 
Hebron, which abounds with rock, and 
293 



MOU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MOU 



yet is covered with the most productive 
vineyards. As to such a rocky country 
being so spoken of in the days of the 
patriarchs, I suppose that it was in truth, 
at that time, the finest of lands ; that 
the rock which now Hes bare in so many 
places, was then all covered with earth 
of the richest kind." 

' ' Even in those parts where all is now 
desolate," remarks Dr. Robinson, "there 
are everywhere traces of the hand of the 
men of other days. . . . Most of the 
hills indeed exhibit the remains of terra- 
ces built up around them, the undoubted 
signs of former cultivation." Again, 
when travelling towards Hebron, he ob- 
serves, "Many of the former terraces 
along the hill sides are still in use ; and 
the land looks somewhat as it may have 
done in ancient times." 

"We often counted forty, fifty, sixty, 



and even seventy terraces from the bot- 
tom of the valley up to the summit of 
the mountain. . . . What a garden of 
delights this must have been, when, in- 
stead of grass making green the surface, 
verdant and luxuriant vines Avere their 
clothing. . . . We could understand how 
the words of Joel shall yet be literally 
true, 'The mountains shall drop down 
new wine,' when every vine on these 
hills shall be hanging its ripe clusters 
over the terraces. In observing too the 
singular manner in which the most 
rocky mountains have at one time been 
made, through vast labor and industry, 
to yield an abimdant return to the hus- 
bandman, we saw clearly the meaning of 
the promise in Ezekiel, ' But ye, moun- 
tains of Israel, ye shall shoot forth your 
branches, and yield your fruit.' " Nar- 
rative of a Mission. 




MOURN'ING. The Hebrews, at the 
death of their friends and relations, made 
striking demonstrations of grief and 
mourning. They wept, tore their clothes, 
smote their breasts, threw dust upon 
their heads. Josh. 7:6, and lay upon the 
ground, went barefooted, pulled their 
hair and beards, or cut them, Ezra 9:3, 
Isa. 15 : 2, and made incisions on their 
breasts, or tore them with their nails. 
Lev. 19 : 28 ; 21 : 5 ; Jer. 16 : 6 ; 48 : 37. 
The time of mourning was commonly 
seven days, 1 Sam. 31:11-13 ; but it was 
lengthened or shortened according to cir- 
cumstances, Zech. 12:10. That for Mo- 
294 



ses and Aaron was prolonged to thirty 
days, Num. 20:29 ; Deut. 34:8 ; and that 
for Jacob to seventy days. Gen. 50:3. 

During the time of their mourning, 
the near relations of the deceased con- 
tinued sitting in their houses, and fasted, 
2 Sam. 12 : 16, or ate on the ground. 
The food they took Avas thought unclean, 
and even themselves were judged im- 
pure. "Their sacrifices shall be imto 
them as the bread of mourners ; all that 
eat thereof shall be polluted," Hos. 9:4. 
Their faces were covered, and in all that 
time they could not apply themselves to 
any occupation, nor read the book of the 



MOU 



BIBLE DICTIOXAlir. 



MUU 



law, nor offer their usual prayers. They 
did not dress themselves, nor malce their 
heds, nor uncover tiieir heads, nor shave 
tlicmselves, nor cut their nails, nor go 
iuto the bath, nor salute any body. No- 
l)ody spoke to them unless they spoke 
lirst, Job 2 : 11-13. Their friends com- 
monly went to visit and comfort them, 
John 11 : 19, 39, bringing them food, 
2 Sam. 3:35; Jer. 16:7. They also went 
lip to the roof, or upon the platform of 
their houses, to bewail their misfortune : 
"They shall gird themselves with sack- 
cloth ; on the tops of their houses, and 
in their streets, every one shall howl, 
weeping abundantly," Isa. 15:3; Jer. 
48:38. The mourning dress among the 
Hebrews was not fixed either by law or 
custom. We only find in Scripture that 
they used to tear their garments, a cus- 
tom still observed ; but now they tear a 
small part merelv, and for form's sake, 
2 Sam. 13:19; 2Chr. 34:27; Ezra 9:3; 
Job 2 : 12 ; Joel 2 : 13. Anciently, in 
times of mourning, they clothed them- 
selves in sackcloth, or hair-cloth, that is, 
in clothes of coarse brown or black stuft^, 
2 Sam. 3:31; 1 Kin. 21:27; Esth. 4:1; 
Psa. 35:13; 69:11. 

They hired women to weep and wail, 
and also i)ersons to play on instruments, 
at the funerals of tlie rich or distinguish- 
ed, Jer. 9 : 17. In Matt. 9 : 23, we ob- 
serve a company of minstrels or players 
on the flute, at the funeral of a girl of 
twelve years of age. All that met a 
funeral procession were accustomed to 
join them for a time, to accompany them 
on their way, sometimes relieving the 
bearers of the bier, and mingling their 
tears with those of the mourners, Kom. 
12:15. 

The custom of hiring women to weep 
and wail has come down to modem 
times. The follo\ving account of such a 
scene at Nablous, the ancient Shechem, 
is from Dr. Jowett. The governor of 
the city had died the very morning of 
Dr. Jowett's arrival. "On coming with- 
in sight of the gate, we perceived a nu- 
merous company of females, who were 
singing in a kind of recitative, far from 
melancholy, and beating time with their 
hands. If this be mourning, 1 thought, 
it is of a strange kind. It had indeed 
sometimes more the air of angry defi- 
ance. But on our reaching the gate, it 
was suddenly exchanged for most hide- 
ous plaints and shrieks, which, with the 



feeling that we were entering a city at 
no time celebrated for its hospitality, 
struck a very dismal impression upon 
my mind. They accompanied us a few- 
paces ; but it soon appeared that the 
gate was their station, to which, having 
received nothing from us, they returned. 
We learned, in the course of the even- 
ing, that these were only a small detach- 
ment of a very numerous body of ' cun- 
ning w^omen.' who were tilling the 
whole city Avith their cries, ' taking up a 
wailing,' with the design, as of old, to 
make the eyes of all the inhabitants 
' run down with tears, and their eye- 
lids gush out with waters,' Jer. 9:17, 18. 
For this good service, the\^ would, the 
next morning, wait upon the govern- 
ment and principal persons, to receive 
some trifling fee." 

Some of the Jewish forms of mourn- 
ing are the appropriate and imiversul 
language of grief ; others, to our modern 
and occidental taste, savor of extrava- 
gance. None of these were enjoined by 
their religion, which rather restricted 
than encouraged them. Lev. 10:6; 19:27; 
21:1-11 ; Num. 6:7 ; Deut. 14:1. They 
were the established customs of the times. 
Sorrow finds some relief in reversing ail 
! the usages of ordinary life. Cbristianity, 
i however, moderates and assuages our 
I grief; shows us a Father's hand h(jlding 
j the rod, and the dark valley itself pene- 
j trated by the heavenly light into which 
it emerges, 1 Cor. 15 : 53-55 ; 1 Tliess. 
i 4:14-18^ Eev. 7:18-17; 14:13. 




THE FIELD-MOUSK. 

MOUSE, in the Scriptures, is used 
chiefly of the field-mouse, but probably 
includes various species of these animals, 
some of which were eaten. Moses, Lev. 
11 : 29, declared it to be unclean, yet it 
was sometimes eaten ; and Isaiah, 66:17, 
reproaches the Jews with this practic*^ 
29.") 



MOU 



BIBLE DICTIOXART. 



MUR 



The hamster and the dormouse, as well 
as the jerboa, are sometimes used for 
food by the modern Arabs. Mice made 
great havoc in the fields of the Philis- 
tines, after that people had taken the 
ark of the Lord; which induced them 
to send it back with mice and emerods 
of gold, 1 Sam. 5:G, 9, 11; 6:4. 5. The 
field-mice are equally prevalent in those 
regions at the present day. See Hamath. 

MOUTH is sometunesused in Scripture 
for speaker, Ex. 4:16; Jer. 15:19. God 
spoke with Moses "mouth to mouth," 
Num. 12:8, that is, condescendingly and 
clearly. The law was to be "in the 
mouth" of the Hebrews, Ex. 13:9, often 
rehearsed and talked of. ' ' The rod of his 
mouth," Isa. 11:4, and the sharp sword. 
Rev. 1:16, denote the power of Christ's 
word to convict, control, and judge ; 
compare Isa. 49 : 2 ; Heb. 4 : 12. The 
Hebrew word for mouth is often trans- 
lated "command," Gen. 4-3:21; Job 
39:27; Eccl. 8:2; and the imclcan spir- 
its out of the mouth of the dragon, Rev. 
16:14, are the ready cxecuters of his 
commands. 

MULBERRY-TREE. The word trans- 
lated mulberry-tree signifies literiilly 
weeping, and indicates some tree which 
distils balsam or gum. The particular 
species is not known ; though some think 
the poplar, or aspen, may be intended, 
2 Sam. 5:23, 24 ; 1 Chr. 14:14, 15. 

MULE, a mixed animal, the oftspring 
of a horse and an ass. A mule is small- 
er than a horse, and has long cars, though 
not so long as those of an ass. It is a 
remarkably hardy, patient, obstinate, 
sure footed animal, lives twice as long as 
a horse, and is much more easily and 
cheaply fed. Mules are much used in 
Spain and South America, for transport- 
ing goods across the mountains. So also 
in the Alps, they are used by travellers 
among the mountains, where a horse 
would hardly be able to pass with safety. 
There is no probability that the Jews 
bred mules, because it was forbidden to 
couple creatures of different species, Lev. 
19 : 19. But they were not forbidden to 
obtain them from abroad and use them, 

1 Kin. 10 : 25 ; Ezek. 27 : 14. Thus we 
may observe, especially after David's 
time, that mules, male and female, were 
common among the Hebrews ; formerly 
they used only male and female asses, 

2 Sam. 13:29; 18:9; 1 Km. 1:33; 10:25; 
18:5; Esth. 8:10. 14. 

296 



In Gen. 36 : 24, Anah is said to have 
found ' ' mules ' ' in the desert ; but the 
Hebrew word here probably means hot 
springs. See Anah. 

MUNTTIOXS, implements of war. 
"Munitions of rocks" seems to mean, a 
rocky fortress or strong-hold. The strong 
tower of the righteous is impregnable 
and inaccessible to their foes, Isa. 33:10. 

MUR'DER, the designed and malevo- 
lent taking of human life, was by the 
original appointment of God a crime to 
be punished by death. Cain, the first 
murderer, recognized it as such, Gen. 
4 : 14. The ground for the death-penalty 
for murder is the eminent dignity and 
sacredness of man as a child of God, Gen, 
9:5, 6. Like the Sabbath and marriage, 
it is a primeval and universal institution 
for mankind, and all nations have so 
recognized it. Acts 28 : 4. The Mosaic 
code reenacted it, Lev. 24:17 ; and while 
providing for the imintentional homicide 
a safe retreat, declares that deliberate 
murder must be punished by death, from 
which neither the city of refuge nor 
the altar of God could shield the crim- 
inal, Ex. 21 : 12-14 ; Num. 35 : 9-34 ; 
Deut. 19 : 1-13 ; 1 Kin. 2 : 5, 6, 28-34. 
Death was usually inflicted by stoning, 
upon the testimony of at least two wit- 
nesses. Num. 35 : 30. If a corpse were 
found in the open fields, and the murder- 
er could not be discovered, the town 
nearest to the spot was obliged to purge 
itself by a solemn ceremony, lest it 
should become liable to the judgments of 
God, Deut. 21 : 1-9. In various ways 
God is represented as specially abhorring 
this crime, and securing its punishment, 
Deut. 32 : 43 ; 2 Sam. 21 : 1 ; Psa. 9 : 12 ; 
55 : 23 ; Hos. 1:4; Rev. 22 : 15. Our 
Saviour instructs us that one may be 
guilty, in the sight of God, of murder in 
the heart, without any overt act, Matt. 
5 : 21, 22 ; 1 John 3:15. Nothing is said 
specially in the law respecting self-mur- 
der, and only the cases of Saul, Ahitho- 
phel, and Judas are described in the Bi- 
ble. 1 Sam. 31 : 4 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 23 : Acts 
1 : 18. Of all murders, that of the soul 
is incomparably the most awful, John 
8:44, and many plunge not only them- 
selves but othei-s into the second death. 

MUR'RAIN. a special mortality, 
wrought by miraculous agency, among 
the cattle of the Egyptians, while those 
of the Hebrews in the same region were 
unharmed. Ex. 9:3. 



MUS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MUS 



MTJ'SIC. The ancient Hebrews had a | 
great taste for music, which they used in 
their religious services, in their public | 
and priv^ate rejoicings, at their Aveddings i 
and feasts, and even in their moin-nings. 
We have in Scripture canticles of joy, of | 
thanksgiving, of praise, of mourning ; i 
also mournful elegies or songs, as those j 
of David on the death of Saul and Ab- i 
ner, and the Lamentations of Jeremiah ; 
on the destruction of Jerusalem ; so, too, I 
songs of victory, triumph, and gratula- j 
tion, as that which Moses sung after pass- i 
ing the Eed sea, that of Deborah and 
Barak, and others. The people of God 
went up to Jerusalem thrice a year, 
cheered on their way with songs of joy. 
Psalms 84; 122; Isa. 30:29. The b(3ok 
of Psalms comprises a wonderful variety 
of inspired pieces for music, and is an 
inexhaustible treasure for the devout in 
all ages. 

Music is perhaps the most ancient of 
the fine arts. Jubal, who lived before the 
deluge, was the "father" of those who 
played on the harp and the organ. Gen. 
4:21; 31:26,27. Laban complains that 
his son-in-law Jacob had left him, with- 
out giving him an opportunity of send- 
ing his family away ' ' with mirth and 
with songs, with tabret and with harp." 
Moses, having passed through the Red , 
sea, composed a song, and sung it with 
the Israelitish men, while Miriam, his 
sister, sung it with dancing, and playing 
on instruments, at the head of the wom- 
en, Ex. 15:20, 21. He caused silver 
trumpets to be made, to be sounded at 
solemn sacrifices, and on religious festi- 
vals. David, Avho had great skill in 
music, soothed the perturbed spirit of 
Saul by playing on the harp, 1 Sam. 
16 : 16, 23 ; and wdien he was himself j 
established on the throne — seeing that 
the Levites were not employed, as for- 
merly, in carrying the boards, veils, and ' 
vessels of the tabernacle, its abode being 
fixed at Jerusalem— appointed a great 
part of them to sing and to play on in- 
struments in the temple, 1 Chr. 25. Da- 
vid brought the ark to Jerusalem with 
triumphant and joyful music, 1 Chr. 
13:8 ; 15 : 16-28 ; and in the same man- 
ner Solomon was proclaimed king, 1 Kin. 
1 : 39, 40. The Old Testament prophets 
also sought the aid of music in their ser- 
vices, 1 Sam. 10:5; 2 Kin. 3:15. 

Asaph, Heman, and Jeduthun were j 
chiefs of the music of the tabernacle un- ! 
13* 



der David, and of the temple under Sol- 
omon. Asaph had four sons, Jeduthun 
six, and Heman fourteen. These twen- 
ty-four Levites, sons of the three great 
masters of the temple-music, were at the 
head of twenty-four bands of musicians, 
which served in the temple by turns. 
Their number there w^as always great, 
but especially at the chief solemnities. 
They were ranged in order about the 
altar of burnt-sacrifices. As the whole 
business of their lives was to learn and 
to practise music, it must be supposed 
that they understood it well, whether it 
were vocal or instrumental, 2 Chr. 29:25. 

The kings also had their music. Asaph 
was chief master of music to David. In 
the temple, and in the ceremonies of re- 
ligion, female musicians Avere admitted 
as well as male ; they generally were 
daughters of the Levites. Ezra, in his 
enumeration of those whom he brought 
back with him from the captivity, reck- 
ons two hundred singing men and sing- 
ing women, 2 Sam. 19 : 35 ; Ezra 2 : 65 ; 
Neh. 7:67. 

As to the nature of their music, we 
can judge of it only by conjecture, be- 
cause it has been long lost. Probably it 
was a unison of several voices, of which 
all sung together the same melody, each 
according to his strength and" skill ; 
without musical counterpoint, or those 
ditferent parts and combinations which 
constitute harmony in our music. Prob- 
ably, also, the voices Avere generally ac- 
companied by instrumental music. If 
we may draw any conclusions in favor 
of their music from its effects, its mag- 
nificence, its majesty, and the lofty sen- 
timents contained in their songs, Ave 
must alloAv it great excellence. It is 
supposed that the temple musicians Avere 
sometimes divided into two or more sep- 
arate choirs, Avhich, Avith a general cho- 
rus, sung in turn responsive to each other, 
each a small portion of the Psalm. The 
structure of the HebrcAv Psalms is emi- 
nently adapted to this mode of singing, 
and very delightful and solemn effects 
might thus be produced. Compare 
Psalms 24, 136, 148, 150. 

Numerous musical instruments are 
mentioned in Scripture, but it has been 
found impossible to affix their names 
Avith certainty to specific instruments 
noAv in use. By a comparison, however, 
of the instruments probably held in com- 
mon by the Jews with the Greeks, Ro- 
297 



MUS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY, 



MUS 



mans, and Egyptians, a degree of proba- 
bility as to most of them has been secur- 
ed. They were of three kinds : 




I. Stringed instnimenis : 

1. KiNNOR, "the harp," Gen. 4:21. 
Frequently mentioned in Scripture, and 
probably a kind of lyre. 

2. Nebel, ' ' the psaltery, ' ' 1 Sam. 10 : 5. 
It appears to have been the name of vari- 
ous large instruments of the harp kind. 

3. AsoR, signifying ten-stringed. In 
Psa. 92 : 4, it apparently denotes an in- 
strument distinct from the nebel; but 
elsewhere it seems to be simply a de- 
scription of the NEBEL as ten-stringed. 
See Psa. 33:2; 144:9. 

4. GiTTiTH. It occurs in the titles of 
Psalms 8, 81, 84, etc. From the name, 
it is supposed that David brought it from 
Gath. Others conclude that it is a gen- 
eral name for a stringed instrument. 

5. MiNNiM, strings, Psa. 150:4. Prob- 
ably another kind of stringed instru- 
ment. 

6. Sabeca, "sackbut," Dan. 3:5, 7, 
10, 15. A kind of lyre. 

7. Pesanterin, "psaltery," occurs 
Dan. 3:7, and is supposed to represent 
the nebel. 

8. Machalath. Found in the titles 
of Psalms 53 and 88 ; supposed to be a 
lute or guitar. 

See illustrations in Harp. 
II. Wind instruments : 

9. Keren, "horn," Josh. 6:5. Cornet. 

10. Shophar, "trumpet," Num. 10:10. 
Used synonymously with keren. 

11. Chatzozerah, the straight trum- 
pet, Psa. 98:6. 

298 



12. Jobel, or Keren Jobel, horn of 
jubilee, or signal trumpet. Josh. 6 : 4. 
Probably the same with 9 and 10. 

13. Chalil, "pipe" or "flute." The 
word means bored through, 1 Sam. 10:5. 

14. MisiiROKiTHA, Dan. 3 : 5, etc. 
Probably the Chaldean name for the 
Ante with two reeds. 

15. Ugab, "organ" in our version, 
Gen. 4:21. It means a double or mani- 
fold pipe, and hence the shepherd's pipe ; 
probably the same as the syrinx or Pan's 
pipe ; or perhaps resembling the bag- 
pipe, numbered 16 in the cut. 




III. Instruments which gave out sound on 
iieing struck : 



MUS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



MYR 



17. Topii, Gen. 31:27, the tambourine 
and all ixistruinents of the drum kind. 

18. PiiAAJiox, "bells," Ex. 28 ; 33. 
Attached to the hem of the high-priest's 
garment. 

19. TzELTZEUM, "cymbals," Psalm 
150 . 5. A word frequently occurring. 
Thore were probably two kinds, hand- 
cy.nbals and ringer -cymbals. 

20. Shalishim, 1 Sam. 18 : 6. In our 
version, ' ' instruments of music. ' ' Mar- 
gin, "three-stringed instruments." Most 
writers iientify it with the triangle. 

21. Mgvaaxeim, "cymbals," 2 Sam. 
6:5. Probably the sistrum. The He- 
brew word means to shake. The sistrum 
w 13 generally about sixteen or eighteen 
inches long, occasionally inlaid with sil- 
ver, and being held upright, was shaken, 
the rings moving to and fro on the bars. 





Further particulars concerning some of 
these may be found under the names 
they severally bear in our English Bible. 

MUS'TARD. a species of this annual 
shrub is found in Palestine, growing to 
the height of seven to nine feet, and with 
a stem one inch thick. Prof. H,icl-3", 
while examining a held of these plants, 
saw a bird of the air come and lodge in 
the branches before him. Matt. 13 : 31. 
82 ; Mark 4 : 31, 32. Others suppo.se a 
tree is meant, called Salvadora Persica. 
It is found in Palestine, and bears ber- 
ries containing small, mustard-like seeds. 
' ' A grain of mustard ' ' was used prover- 
bially to denote any thing extremely 
small, Mitt. 17:20. 

MUZ'ZLE. See Threshing. 

MY'RA, a town of I^ycia, where Paul 
embarked for Rome, on board a ship of 
Alexandria, Acts 27:5. 

MYRRH, a precious gum yielded by a 
tree common in Africa and Arabia, which 
is about eight or nine feet high ; its 
wood hard, and its trunk thorny. It 



was of several kinds, and various flu- 
grees of excellence. The best was an 
ingredient in the holy ointment, Ex. 
30 : 23. It was also employed in per- 
fumes, Esth. 2:12; Psa. 45:8^ Song 4:6; 
5:5, 13; and in embalming, to preserve 
the body from corruption, John 19 : 39. 

j The magi, who came from the East to 
worship Christ, offered him myrrh, Matt. 

'2:11. 

In Mark 15 : 23, is mentioned "wine 
mingled with myrrh," which was offered 
to Jesus previous to his crucifixion, 
and intended to deaden the anguish of 
his sufterings. It was a custom among 
the Hebrews to give such stupefying 
liquors to persons who were about to be 
capitally punished, Prov. 31 : 6. Some 

I have thought that the myrrhed wine of 

i Mark is not the same as the "vinegar 



mingled with gall" of Matt. 



34. 



They suppose the myrrhed wine was 
given to our Lord from a sentiment of 
sympathy, to prevent him from feeling 
too sensibly the pain of his sufferings ; 
while the potation mingled with gall, of 
which he would not drink, was given 
from cruelty. But the other explanation 
is the more probable. See Gall. 

MYR'TLE, a beautiful and fragrant 
evergreen tree, growng wild throughout 
the southern parts of Europe, the north 
of Africa, and the temperate parts of 
Asia ; principally on the sea-coast. The 
leaves are of a rich and polished ever- 
green ; the flowers white, with some- 
times a tinge of red externally ; and the 
berries are of the size of a small pea, vio- 
let or whitish, sweetish, and with the 
299 



MYS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NAB 




aromatic flavor which distinguishes the 
whole plant. These are used for spices 
in the Levant. It furnishes a useful 
tonic medicine, Neh. 8 : 15 ; Isa. 41 : 19 ; 
55:13; Zech. 1:8, 10, 11. 

MYS'IA, a province in the north-west 
corner of Asia Minor, bounded north by 
the Propontis, west by the ^gean sea, 
south by Lydia, and east by Bithynia. 
Paul preached in this country on his 
lirst journey to Europe, Acts 16:7, 8. 

MYS'TERY means strictly a secret, and 
is so used when spoken of the heathen 
"mysteries" or secret rites, which were 
full of all manner of abominations. In 
the Scriptures the word ' ' mystery ' ' de- 
notes those truths of religion which, 
without a revelation from God, would 
have remained unknown to man. Our 
Saviour says to his disciples, that they 
are peculiarly happy, because God has 
revealed to them ' ' the mysteries of the 
kingdom of heaven," Matt. 16:17; 
11 : 25 ; Luke 10 : 21-24. Paul explains 
the word in Eph. 3 : 1-9 ; and often 
speaks of the mystery of the gospel, of 
the mystery of the cross of Christ, of the 
mystery of Christ which was unknown 
to former ages, of the mystery of the 
incarnation, the resurrection, etc. , Rom. 
11:25; 1 Cor. 2:7-10 ; 4:1 ; 13:2; 15:51; 
1 Tim. 3:9, 16. These, then, were call- 
ed mysteries, not only because they 
included some things which stretch 
beyond all human thought, and others 
Avhich woidd never have been known if 
the Son of God and his Holy Spirit had 
not revealed them, but also because they 
were not opened indifferently to every 
one ; according to the advice of Christ to 
his apostles, "Give not that which is 
holy unto the dogs, neither cast ye your 
300 



pearls before swine, ' ' 1 Cor. 2 : 14. In one 
place "mystery" seems to denote the 
whole cycle of God's secret plan in the 
administration of the gospel, gradually 
unfolded even to the end, Rev. 10 : 7 ; 
11:15. 

Mystery signifies also an allegory, that 
is, a mode of information under which 
partial instruction is given, a partial dis- 
covery is made, but there is still a cover 
of some kind, which the person who de- 
sires to know the whole must endeavor 
to remove. So the mystery of the seven 
stars. Rev. 1 : 20, is an allegory repre- 
senting the seven Asiatic churches under 
the symbol of seven burning lamps. So 
the mystery, "Babylon the Great," is 
an allegorical representation of the spir- 
itual Babylon, idolatry, spiritual fornica- 
tion, etc., "I will tell thee the mystery 
of the woman ;' ' that is, I Avill explain to 
thee the allegory of this figure, Rev. 
17:5, 7. 



N. 



NAAMAN, the highly esteemed gen- 
i eral of Ben-hadad, king of Damascene 
Syria in the time of Joram king of Israel. 
He was afflicted with the leprosy ; but 
I was miraculously cured, on washing sev- 
I en times in the Jordan, Lev. 14 : 7, ac- 
! cording to the direction of Elisha, 2 Kin. 
I 5 ; Luke 4 : 27. He had found all his 
honor and power valueless, and all phy- 
sicians of no avail for his cure ; was led to 
! renounce his pride, and avail himself of 
the simple remedy prescribed ; and being 
! cured, was grateful not only to the proph- 
' et, but to the prophet's God. He frank- 
ly yielded to the evidence which proved 
that Jehovah was the living and true 
God ; and took home with him two 
mule-loads of earth, for an altar to the 
Lord, Ex. 20 : 24. With respect to his 
attending Ben-hadad while in the temple 
of Rimmon, the prophet gave him no 
precise rule ; discerning, we may sup- 
pose, a growing fear and love of God 
which would preserve him from all even 
! outward homage to the idol. 
I NABAL, foolish, a descendant of Ca- 
j leb, owner of a large property in lands _ 
I and flocks, at Maon and Carmel in the 
} south of Judah. He was under great 
I obligations to David, for protecting him 
j from the robbers of the desert ; and yet, 
I in the very hour most suggestive of a 



NAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NAI 



grateful generosity, he churlishly refused 
David's modest request of provisions for 
his needy troop. Indignant at this in- 
gratitude and inhospitality, David was 
soon on his way to put him and his men 
to the sword. Happily, the discreet in- 
tervention of Abigail averted this catas- 
trophe. Ten days after, the Lord smote 
him, and he died, 1 Sam. 25. See Abi- 
gail 

NA'BOTH, an Israelite at Jezreel, who 
declined selling his ancestral vineyard to 
Ahab, Lev. 25 : 23, 24 ; and was in con- 
sequence murdered, on a false charge of 
blasphemy contrived by Jezebel the 
queen. Ahab took immediate posses- 
sion of the coveted vineyard — perhaps as 
being legally forfeited to the govern- 
ment, construmg blasphemy as treason ; 
or it may be, that the heirs were deter- 
red from asserting their claim by a dread 
of the unscrupulous arts of Jezebel. Eli- 
jah, however, did not fear to denounce 
against the king and queen the ven- 
geance of One "higher than they," 

1 Kin. 21 ; 2 Kin. 9 : 2-4-26, 36 ; Eccl. 
5:8. 

NA'DAB, I., the oldest son of Aaron, 
slain by the Lord for presumptuously 
offering strange fire on the altar of burnt- 
ofifering. Lev. 10. See Abihu. 

II. Son of Jeroboam I. king of Israel. 
He succeeded his father, b. c. 954, and 
reigned but two years, being assassinat- 
ed, while besieging Gibbethon, by Baa- 
sha, of the tribe of Issachar, who usurp- 
ed his kingdom. Nadab did evil in the 
sight of the Lord ; and with him perish- 
ed his children, and the race of Jerobo- 
am, as God had foretold, 1 Kin. 15:25-30. 

NA'HASH, I., a king of the Ammon- 
ites, defeated by Saul while besieging 
Eamoth-gilead, 1 Sam. 11. He, or as 
some thinlv, his son of the same name, 
was on friendly terms with David, 2 Sam. 
10:2. 

II. The father of Zeruiah and Abigail, 
David's half-sisters, 2 Sam. 17:25 ; 1 Chr. 

2 : 13-16. Nahash, however, may have 
been another name for Jesse ; or possibly 
the name of his wife. 

NA'HOR, I., son of Senig, and father 
of Terah, Gen. 11 : 22-25 ; Luke 3 : 34. 

II. Son of Terah, and brother of Abra- 
ham and Haran. He married Milcah 
his niece in Ur of the Chaldees, Gen. 
11:26, 29, but seems to have transferred 
his residence to Haran, Gen. 24 : 10 ; 
27:43. He had twelve sons, and among 



them Bethuel the father of Eebekah. 
Gen. 22:20-24. 

NAH'SHON, or Naas'son, one of our 
Lord's ancestors. Matt. 1:4; Luke 3:32; 
chief of the tribe of Judah in the desert, 
Num. 1:7; 2:3; 7: 12; and brother-in- 
law of Aaron, Ex. 6 : 23 ; Kuth 4 : 20 ; 
IChr. 2:10. 

NA'HUM, consolation, the seventh of 
the twelve minor prophets. The cir- 
cumstances of Nahum's life are un- 
known, except that he was a native of 
Elkosh, which probably was a village in 
Galilee. His prophecy consists of three 
chapters, which form one discourse, in 
which he foretells the destruction of Nin- 
eveh in so powerful and vivid a manner, 
that he might seem to have been on the 
very spot. The native elegance, fire, 
and sublimity of his style are universally 
admired. 

Opinions are divided as to the time in 
which Nahum prophesied. The best 
interpreters adopt Jerome's opinion, that 
he foretold the destruction of Nineveh 
in the time of Hezekiah, after the war 
of Sennacherib in Egypt, mentioned by 
Berosus. Compare Isa. 20 : 6, and Nah. 
3 : 8. Nahum speaks of the taking of 
No-ammon, of the haughtiness of Eab- 
shakeh, and of the defeat of Sennache- 
rib, as things that were past. He implies 
that the tribe of Judah were still in their 
own country, and that they there cele- 
brated their festivals. He notices also 
the captivity and dispersion of the ten 
tribes. 

NAIL. The "nail" with which Jael 
killed Sisera was rather a tent-pin, such 
as is driven into the ground in order to 
fasten the cords of the tent, Ex. 27:19; 
Judg. 4:21, 22, Sometimes the Hebrew 
word is used for the wooden pins or iron 
spikes firmly inwrought into the walls 
of a building, Ezra 9:8; Ezek. 15 : 3. 
The word implies fixedness, Isa. 22 : 23 ; 
and a firm support, Zech. 10:4. Anoth- 
er Hebrew word describes the golden and 
ornamental nails of the temple, etc., 
2 Chr. 3:9 ; Eccl. 12:11 ; Isa. 41:7 ; Jer. 
10:4. 

NATN, where Christ performed one of 
his chief miracles, in raising to life a 
widow's only son, Luke 7:11-17, was a 
small village in Galilee, three miles south 
by west of mount Tabor. It is now a 
petty hamlet, called Nein. 

NAI'OTH, the abode of Samuel, and 
his pupils in a "school of the prophets," 
301 



NAK 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NAT 



1 Sam. 19 : 18-24 ; 20 : 1. It appears to 
have been a suburb of Ramah ; and Da- 
vid, having sought refuge there with 
Samuel, Avas pursued by Saul. 

NA'KED, in the Bible, often means 
no more than " not fully dressed." So 
in John 21:7, Peter is said to have been 
"naked," that is, he had laid off his 
outer garment, and had on only his in- 
ner garment or tunic. See Garments. 
So probably in Isa. 20:2; Mic. 1:8; Acts 
19 : 16. Sometimes poorness and insuffi- 
ciency of clothing are meant, as in James 
2:15. So in Isa. 58:7 ; 2 Cor. 11:27. A 
nation is said to be "naked," when strip- 
ped of its defences, wealth, etc., Gen. 
42:9; Ex. 32:25; 2 Chr. 28:19. 

"Nakedness" is also put for shame. 
To "uncover the nakedness" denotes 
an unlawful or incestuous union, Lev. 
20:19. 

NAMES among the Hebrews were fre- 
quently signiticant ; sometimes of a fam- 
ily trait, and sometimes of circumstan- 
ces attending the birth of a child ; often 
too they were assumed afterwards to 
commemorate some striking occurrence 
in one's history. Compare the cases 
of Ishmael, Esau, and Jacob, Moses, Ich- 
abod, etc.. Gen. 16 : 21 ; 25 : 25, 26 ; Ex. 

2 : 10 ; 1 Sam. 4 : 21. Compound names 
were frequent ; and often a part of the 
name of God, jah, el, jeho, etc., was 
employed, as in Eliezer, Ex. 18 : 4, Sam- 
uel, Josiah, Adonijah. Sometimes a 
whole phi'ase was formed into a name ; 
as Elioenai, to Jehovah are mine eyes, 1 Chr. 
4 : 36. The New Testament names are 
chiefly ancient and family names perpet- 
uated, Luke 1 : 61. The men of the East 
change their names for slight causes ; 
and hence many persons occur in the 
Bible bearing two or more names, Ruth 
1:20; 2 Sam. 23:8; John 1:42. Kings 
often changed the names of those to 
whom they gave offices, Dan. 1:6, 7 ; 
hence the honor and privilege implied in 
a " new name," Rev. 2:17. Many slight 
inflections of the same Hebrew name give 
it a very different appearance to an Eng- 
lish eye, as Geshem and Gashmu, Neh. 
6:1, 6. A Hebrew name was sometimes 
transferred to the Greek, with but little 
change : Elijah became Elias, or Elie. 
But sometimes it was exchanged for the 
Greek word of the same meaning, though 
very different in form ; Thomas became 
Didymus, and Tabitha, Dorcas. The 
"name" of God is put for God himself, 

302 



or for his perfections. To "raise up the 
name of the dead," is explained in Ruth 
4; while to "put out" one's name, 
means to extinguish his family, Psa. 9:5. 
NAO'MI, wife of Elimelech, and moth- 
er-in-law of Ruth. See Ruth. 

NAPH'TALI, the sixth son of Jacob, 
by Bilhah, Rachel's handmaid, Gen. 
30 : 8. We know but few particulars cf 
the life of Naphtali. His sons were tbur. 
Gen. 46:24. The patriarch Jacob, when 
he gave his blessing, said, as it is in the 
English Bible, "Naphtali is a hind let 
loose; he giveth goodly words," Gen. 
49 : 21. For an illustration of this pas- 
sage, see HixD. 

The tribe of Naphtali, called Nephtalim 
in Matt. 4:15, were located in a rich and 
fertile portion of northern Palestine; 
having Asher on the west, the upper Jor- 
dan and part of the sea of Tiberias on the 
east ; and running north into the Leba- 
non range, some lower offshoots of which 
I prolonged to the south formed the 
I "mountains of Naphtali," Josh. 19:32- 
j 39 ; 20 : 7. They attended in force at the 
I coronation of David, 1 Chr. 12 : 34 ; and 
are mentioned with honor in the wars 
of the Judges, Judg. 1:33; 5:18; 6:35; 
7 : 23 ; as much reduced by the Syrians, 
1 Kin. 15 : 20; and as among the first 
captives to Assyria, 2 Kin. 15 : 29 ; Isa. 
9:1. Our Saviour spent much time in 
the southern part of this region, Matt. 
4:13-15. 

NARCIS'SUS, a Roman, many of whose 
household Paul salates as Christians, 
Rom. 16 : 11. Two men of this name 
are mentioned in Roman histories of that 
time ; one, executed three or four years 
before Paul wrote, was a favorite of the 
j emperor Claudius ; the other, of Nero 
his successor. 

NA'THAN, I., a Hebrew prophet, 
Zech. 12 : 12, a friend and counsellor of 
David. He approved the king's purpose 
of building a temple to the Lord, but by 
divine direction transferred its accom- 
plishment to Solomon, 2 Sam. 7 : 1-17. 
By a fine parable, pointedly applied, he 
convicted David of his guilt in respect to 
Uriah and Bathsheba, 2 Sam. 12 ; Psa. 
51 ; and his bold fidelity here seems to 
have been appreciated by David, see 
Nathan II. , and is worthy of everlasting 
remembrance. Solomon was probably 
educated under his care, 2 Sam. 12 : 25 ; 
and was effectually aided by him in his 
peaceful succession to the throne, 1 Kin. 



NAT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NAZ 



1. He wrote some memorials, long since 
lost, of both David and Solomon, 1 Chr. 
29:29 ; 2 Chr. 9:29. How long he lived 
under the reign of Solomon i;^ unknown ; 
but two of his sons were high ofdcers at 
court, 1 Kin. 4:5. 

11. A son of David, by Bathsheba, 
1 Chr. 3:5; 14 : 4 ; an ancestor of Christ, 
Luke 3:21. See Genealogy. 

NATHANAEL, a disciple of Christ, 
probably the same as Bartholomew, 
which see. He was a native of Cana in ; 
Galilee, John 21 : 2, and was one of the ! 
first to recognize the Messiah, who at | 
their first interview manifested his per- I 
feet acquaintance with Nathanael's secret I 
heart and life, John 1 : 45-51. He was ' 
introduced by Philip to Jesus, who on [ 
seeing him pronounced that remarkable | 
eulogy which has rendered his name J 



almost another word for sincerity : ' ' Be- 
hold an Israelite indeed, in whom is no 
guile." He was one of the disciples to 
whom Christ appeared at the sea of Tibe- 
rias after his resurrection, John 21 : 2 ; 
and after witnessing the ascension, re- 
turned with the other apostles to Jeru- 
salem, Acts 1:4, 12, 13. 

NAZARENE', an epithet applied to 
Christ, and usually translated ' ' of Naza- 
reth," as in Matt. 21 : 11 ; Acts 2 : 22 ; 
4:10. It was foretold in prophecy, Psa. 
22 : 7, 8, Isa. 53 : 2, that the Messiah 
should be despised and rejected of men ; 
and this epithet, which came to be used 
as a term of reproach, showed the truth 
of these predictions. Matt. 2 : 23 ; Acts 
24:5. Nazareth was a small town, in a 
despised part of Palestine. See Galilee, 
and Nazareth. 




MODERN' NAZARKTH, SEEN FROM THE EAST. 



NAZARETH, a city of lower Galilee, 
about seventy miles north of Jerusalem, 
in the territory of the tribe of Zcbulun. 
It was situated on the side of a hill over- 
looking a rich and beautiful valley, sur- 
rounded by hills, with a narrow outlet 
towards the south. At the mouth of 
this ravine the monks profess to show 
the place where the men of the city were 
about to cast Jesus from the precipice, 
Luke 4:29. Nazareth is about six miles 



west-north-west of mount Tabor, and 
nearly half way from the Jordan to the 
Mediterranean. It is said in the New 
Testament to be " the city of Jesus," be- 
cause it was the place of his usual resi- 
dence during the first thirty years of his 
life, Matt. 2:23 ; Luke 1:26 ; 2:51 ; 4:10. 
He visited it during his public ministry, 
but did not perform many miracles there 
because of the unbelief of the people. 
Matt. 13 : 54-58. It is not even named 
30.^ 



NAZ 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NAZ 



in tlie Old Testament, nor by Joseplius ; 
and appears to have been a small place, 
of no very good repute, John 1:46. The 
modern town, en-Nasirah, is a secluded 
village of about three thousand inhab- 
itants, most of whom are Latin and Greek 
Christians. It lies about eight hundred 
feet above the level of the sea ; and is 
one of the pleasantest towns in Syria. 
Its houses are of stone, two stories high, 
with flat roofs. It contains a mosque, a 
large Latin convent, and two or three 
chapels. The traditionary "mount of 
the Precipitation" is nearly two miles 
from the town, too remote to have an- 
swered the purpose of the enraged Naza- 
renes ; while tliere were several precipi- 
tous spots close at hand, wdiere the fall 
is still from thirty to fifty feet. 

From the summit of the hill on the 
eastern slope of which Nazareth lies, is 
a truly magnificent prospect. Towards 
the north, the eye glances over the 
countless hills of Galilee, and reposes on 
the majestic and snow-crowned Hermon. 
On the east, the Jordan valley may be 
traced, and beyond it the dim heights 
of ancient Bashan. Towards the south, 
spreads the broad and beautiful plain 
of Esdraelon, with the bold outline of 
mount Tabor, and parts of Little Her- 
mon and Gilboa visible on its eastern 
border, and the hills of Samaria on the 
south, while Carmel rises on the west of 
the plain, and dips his feet in the blue 
waters of the Mediterranean. Says Dr. 
Robinson in his ' ' Biblical Kesearches in 
Palestine," "I remained for some hours 
upon this spot, lost in the contemplation 
of the wide prospect and of the events 
connected with the scenes around. In 
the village below, the Saviour of the 
world had passed his childhood ; and 
although we have few particulars of his 
life during those early years, yet there 
are certain features of nature which meet 
our eyes now, just as they once met his. 
He must often have visited the fountain 
near which we had pitched our tent ; his 
feet must frequently have wandered over 
the adjacent hills, and his eyes have 
doubtless gazed upon the splendid pros- 
pect from this very spot. Here the 
Prince of peace looked down upon the 
great plain, where the din of battles so 
oft had rolled, and the garments of the 
warrior been dyed in blood ; and he look- 
ed out, too, upon that sea over which 
the swift ships were to bear the tidings 
.304 



of his salvation to nations and to conti- 
nents then unknown. How has the 
moral aspect of things been changed ! 
Battles and bloodshed have indeed not 
ceased to desolate this unhappy country, 
and gross darkness now covers the peo- 
ple ; but from this region a light went 
forth, which has enlightened the world 
and unveiled new climes ; and now the 
rays of that light begin to be reflected 
back from distant isles and continents, 
to illuminate anew the darkened land 
where it first sprung up." 

NAZ'APvITE, under the ancient He- 
brew law, a man or woman engaged by a 
vow to abstain from wine and all intoxi- 
cating liquors, and from the fruit of the 
vine in any form ; to let the hair grow ; 
not to enter any house polluted by having 
a dead body in it, nor to be present at 
any funeral. If by accident any one died 
in their presence, they recommenced the 
whole of their consecration and Naza- 
riteship. This vow generally lasted 
eight days, sometimes only a month, 
and sometimes during their whole lives. 
When the time of Nazariteship expired, 
the person brought a number of sacri- 
fices and oft'erings to the temple ; the 
priest then cut off his hair and burnt 
it ; after which he was free from his 
vow, Num. 6 ; Amos 2:11, 12. Perpet- 
ual Nazarites were consecrated as such 
by their parents from their birth, as was 
proposed by the mother of Samuel, 1 Sam. 
1 : 11, and continued all their lives in this 
state, neither drinking wine, nor cutting 
their hair. Such were Samson and John 
the Baptist, Judg. 13:4, 5 ; Luke 1 : 15 ; 
7:33. 

As the cost of the offerings required at 
the expiration of the term of Nazaiite- 
ship was very considerable for the poor, 
they were often relieved by persons not 
Nazarites, who assumed these charges 
for them for the sake of performing an 
act of piety and charity. Paul availed 
himself of this custom to disarm the jeal- 
ousy of those who represented him as 
hostile to the faith of their fathers. He 
took four Christian Jews whose vow of 
Nazariteship was accomplished, assumed 
the expense of their oflerings, and with 
them went through the customary ser- 
vices and purifications at the temple. 
Acts 21 : 20-26. There is also in Acts 
18 : 18 an unexplained allusion to some 
similar vow made by Paul himself, or 
perhaps by Aquila, probably in view of 



NEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NEB 



some danger escaped or some blessing 
received. 

NEAP'OLIS, now called Napoli, Acts 
16 : 11, a maritime city of Macedonia, 
near the borders of Thrace, whither Paul 
came from the isle of Samothracia. From 
Neapolis he went to Pliilippi. 

NEBAI'OTH, a son of Ishmael, Gen. 
25:13, whose posterity occupied the pas- 
ture grounds of Arabia Deserta, Isa. 60:7, 
and ultimately possessed themselves of 
Edom. They are thought to have been 
the Nabathseans of profane history. See 
Idum^a. 

NE'BO, I., a town in the vicinity of 
Bethel and Ai, Ezra 2:29 ; Neh. 7:33. 

II. A city of Pteuben, Nam. 32 : 38, 
taken by the Moabites, Avho held it in 
the time of Jeremiah, Isa. 15 : 2 ; Jer. 
48:1. 

III. A mountain of Moab, whence 
Moses had a view of the promised land, 
and where he died. It is a summit of 
the range Abarim, "over against Jeri- 
cho." Seetzen, Burckhardt, etc., iden- 
tify it with mount Attarus, about ten 
miles north of the Arnon. Travellers 
do not observe any very prominent sum- 
mit in the range immediately opposite 
Jericho ; but it has not yet been fully 
explored, Deut. 32:49; 34. 

IV. An idol of the Babylonians, Isa. 
46:1. In the astrological mythology of 
the Babylonians, this idol probably rep- 
resented the planet Mercury. It Avas 
also worshipped by the ancient Arabians. 
Tiie extensive prevalence of this worship 
among the Chaldeans and Assyrians, is 
evident from the many compound proper 
names occurring in the Scriptures, of 
which this word forms part ; as Nebu- 
chadnezzar, Nebuzaradan, Nebushasban, 
Jer. 39 : 9, 13 ; and also in the classics, 
as Naboned, Nabonassar, Nabopolassar, 

NEBUCHADNEZ'ZAR, called in Jere- 
miah Nebuchadrezzar, the son and suc- 
cessor of Nabopolassar, succeeded to the 
kingdom of Chaldea about 600 b. c. He 
had been some time before associated in 
the kingdom, and sent to recover Car- 
chemish, which had been wrested from 
the empire by Necho king of Egypt. 
Having been successful, he marched 
against the governor of Phoenicia, and 
Jehoiakim king of Judah, tributary to 
Necho king of Egypt. He took Jehoia- 
kim, and put him in chains to carry him 
captive to Babylon ; but afterwards he 



I left him in Judea, on condition of his 
paying a large annual tribute. He took 
! away several persons from Jerusalem; 
among others, Daniel, Hanauiah, Mi- 
I shael, and Azariah, all of the royal fam- 
I ily, whom the king of Babylon caused 
I to be carefully educated in the language 
I and learning of the Chaldeans, that they 
j might be employed at court, 2 Kin. 24: 1 ; 
I 2Chr. 36:6; Dan. 1:1. 
i Nabopolassar dying, Nebuchadnezzar, 
! who v.-as then either in Egypt or in Ju- 
dea, hastened to Babylon, leaving to his 
: generals the care of bringing to Chaldea 
I the captives taken in Syria, Judea, Phoe- 
nicia, and Egypt ; for according to Bero- 
sus, he had subdued all these countries. 
He distributed these captives into seve- 
ral colonies, and in the temple of Belus 
he deposited the sacred vessels of the 
temple of Jerusalem, and other rich 
spoils. Jehoiakim king of Judah con- 
tinued three years in fealty to Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and then revolted ; but after 
three or four years, he was besieged and 
talvcn in Jerusalem, put to death, and 
his body thrown to the birds of the air, 
according to the predictions of Jeremiah, 
chap. 22. 

His successor, Jehoiachin, or Jeconiah, 
king of Judah, having revolted against 
Nebuchadnezzar, was besieged in Jeru- 
salem, forced to surrender, and taken, 
with his chief officers, captive to Baby- 
lon ; also his mother, his wives, and the 
best workmen of Jerusalem, to the num- 
ber of ten thousand men. Among the 
captives were Mordecai, the uncle of Es- 
ther, and Ezekiel the prophet, Esth. 2:6. 
Nebuchadnezzar also took all the vessels 
of gold wbich Solomon made for the 
temple and the king's treasury, and set 
up Mattaniah, Jeconiah' s uncle by the 
father's side, whom he named Zedekiah. 
Zedekiah continued faithful to Nebu- 
chadnezzar nine years, at the end of 
which time he rebelled, and confeder- 
ated with the neighboring princes. The 
king of Babylon came into Judea, re- 
duced the chief places of the country, 
and besieged Jerusalem; but Pharaoh 
Hophra coming out of Egypt to assist 
Zedekiah, Nebuchadnezzar went to meet 
him, and forced him to retire to his own 
country. This done, he resumed the 
siege of Jerusalem, and was three hun- 
dred and ninety days before the place. 
In the eleventh year of Zedekiah, b. c. 
588, the city was taken, and Zedekiah, 
30.J 



NEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



NEB 



being seized, was brought to Nebuchad- 
nezzar, who was then at Pdblah in Syria. 
The king of Babylon condemned him to 
die, caused his children to be put to 
death in his presence, and then bored 
out his eyes, loaded him with chains, 
and sent him to Babylon, 2 Kin. 24 ; 25 ; 
2 Chr. 36. 

During the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, 
the city of Babylon and the kingdom of 
Babylonia attained their highest pitch 
of splendor. He took great pains in 
adorning Babylon ; and this was one 
great object of his pride. ' ' Is not this, ' ' 
said he, "great Babylon, that I have 
built for the house of my kingdom, by 
the might of my power, and for the 
honor of my majesty?" But God van- 
quished his pride, and he was reduced 
for a time to the condition of a brute, 
according to the predictions of Daniel. 
See Dan. 1-4. An inscription found 
among the ruins on the Tigris, and now 
in the East India House at London, 
gives an account of the various works of 
Nebuchadnezzar at Babylon and Borsip- 
pa. Abruptly breaking off, the record 
says the king's heart was hardened 
against the Chaldee astrologers. "He 
would grant no benefactions for religious 
purposes. He intermitted the worship 
of Merodach, and put an end to the sac- 
rifice of victims. Ik labored under the effects 
of enchantment." Nebuchadnezzar is sup- 
posed to have died b. c. 562, after a reign 
of about forty years. 

One of the famous structures ascribed 
to Nebuchadnezzar, and in which no 
doubt he took much pride, was the fa- 
mous "hanging gardens," which he is 
said to have erected to gratify the wish 
of his queen Amytis for elevated groves 
such as she was accustomed to in her 
native Media. This could only be done, 
in a country so level as Babylonia, by 
constructing an artificial mountain ; and 
accordingly the king caused one to be 
made, four hundred feet square and over 
three hundred feet high. The successive 
terraces were supported on ranges of reg- 
ular piers, covered by large stones, on 
which were placed thick layers of mat- 
ting and of bitumen and two courses of 
stones, which were again covered with a 
solid coating of lead. On such a plat- 
form another similar, but smaller, was 
built, etc. The various terraces were 
then covered with earth, and furnished 
with trees, shrubbery, and flowers. The 
306 



whole was watered, from the Euphrates 
which flowed at its base, by machinery 
Avithin the mound. These gardens occu- 
pied but a small portion of the prodig- 
ious area of the palace, the wall inclos- 
ing the whole being six miles in circum- 
ference. Within this were two other 
walls and a great tower, besides the pal- 
ace buildings, courts, gardens, etc. All 
the gates Avere of brass, which agrees 
with the language used by Isaiah in pre- 
dicting the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, 
Isa. 45: 12. The ruins of the hanging 
gardens are believed to be found in the 
vast irregular mound called Kasr, on the 
east side of the Euphrates, eight hun- 
dred yards by six hundred at its base. 
The bricks taken from this mound are 
of fine quality, and are all stamped with 
the name of Nebuchadnezzar. 

Another labor of this monarch was 
that the ruins of which are now called 
Birs Nimroud, about eight miles south- 
west of the above structure. See Babel. 
The researches of Sir Henry Rawlinson 
have shown that this was built by Neb- 
uchadnezzar, on the platform of a ruin- 
ous edifice of more ancient days. It con- 
sisted of six distinct terraces, each twen- 
ty feet high, and forty-two feet less hor- 
izontally than the one below it. On the 
top was the sanctum and observatory of 
the temple, now a vitrified mass. Each 
story was dedicated to a different planet, 
and stained with the color appropriated 
to that planet in their astrological sys- 
tem. The lowest, in honor of Saturn, 
was black ; that of Jupiter was orange, 
that of Mars red, that of the sun yellow, 
that of Venus green, and that of Mer- 
cury blue. The temple Avas white, prob- 
ably for the moon. In the corners ot 
this long -ruined edifice, recently ex- 
plored, were found cylinders with arrow- 
headed inscriptions, in the name of Neb- 
uchadnezzar, which inform us that the 
building was named ' ' The Stages of the 
Seven Spheres of Borsippa ;" that it had 
been in a dilapidated condition ; and 
that, moved by Merodach his god, he 
had reconstructed it with bricks enrich- 
ed with lapis lazuli, "Avithout changing 
its site or destroying its foundation plat- 
form." This restoration is also stated to 
have taken place five hundred and four 
years after its first erection in that form 
by Tiglath Pileser I., 1100 b. c. If not 
actually on the site of the tower of Babel 
mentioned in the Bible, and the temple of 



NEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NEC 



Belus described by Herodotus, this build- 
ing would seem to have been erected on 
the same general plan. Every brick yet 
taken from it bears the impress of Neb- 
uchadnezzar. Borsippa Avould seem to 
have been a suburb of ancient Babylon. 

NEB'UZAR-A'DAN, a general of king 
Nebuchadnezzar, and his agent in the 
sacking and destruction of Jerusalem, 
IKin. 25:8-20; Jer. 39:9; 40:1; 52:12- 
30. 

NE'CHO, or Pharaoh-necho, an Egyp- 
tian king, mentioned not only in Scrip- 
ture, but by Herodotus, who says that 
he was son of Psammetichus, king of 
Egypt ; and that, having succeeded him 
in the kingdom, he raised great armies, 
and sent out great fleets, as well on the 
Mediterranean as the Red sea ; that he 
expended a vast sum and many thou- 
sands of lives in a fruitless effort to unite 
the Nile and the Bed sea by a canal ; and 
that he was the first to send a ship whol- 
ly around Africa. Josiah king of Judah 



being tributary to the king of Babylon, 
opposed Necho on his lirst expedition 
against Nebuchadnezzar, and gave him 
battle at Megiddo, where he received the 
wound of which he died ; and Necho 
pressed forward, without making any 
long stay in Judea. On his return from 
the Euphrates, where he had taken and 
garrisoned the city of Carchemish, b. c. 
610, he halted at Riblah in Syria ; and 
sending for Jehoahaz, king of the Jews, 
he deposed him, loaded him with chains, 
and sent him into Egypt. Then coming 
to Jerusalem, he set up Eliakim, or Je- 
hoiakim, in his place, and exacted the 
payment of one hundred talents of sil- 
ver and one talent of gold. The accom- 
panying cut, from the great "Tomb of 
the Kings ' ' in Egypt, explored by Bel- 
zoni, is believed to represent four Jewish 
hostages or captives of distinction pre- 
sented before Pharaoh-Necho. One of 
them may be meant for Jehoahaz. They 
were colored white ; and with them were 




four red, four black, and four others 
white, supposed to represent Babyloni- 
ans, Ethiopians, etc. They were led be- 
fore the king, seated on his throne, by one 
of the hawk-headed figures so frequent 
on Egyptian monuments. Jeremiah, 
46 : 2, acquaints us that Carchemish was 
retaken by Nabopolassar king of Baby- 
lon, in the fourth year of Jehoiakim king 
of Judah ; so that Necho did not retain 



his conquests in Syria more than four 
years, 2 Kin. 23:29 to 24:7 ; 2Chr. 85:20 
to 36:6. 

NECK. The phrases to "harden the 
neck," Prov. 29:1, and to be "stiff- 
necked," like a headstrong brute, illus- 
trate the wilful obstinacy of sinners 
against the instructions and commands 
of God. The tyrants of ancient days 
sometimes put their foet on the pros* 
307 



NEC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NEI 



trate necks of princes, in token of their 
subjugation, trampling tliem in the dust. 
Their miscliief sometimes returned upon 
their own heads, Josh. 10:2^ ; Psa. 18:40. 

NEC'ROMANCEK, one who pretended 
to discover unknown and future events 
by summoning and interrogating the 
dead, Deut. 18 : 10, 11, a crime punish- 
able by stoning to death, Lev. 20 : 27. 
See Sorcerer. No good reason can be 
given for believing that such pretended 
communications with departed spirits 
are less offensive to God now than in the 
time of Moses. 

NEES'lNGr, translated sneezing in 
2 Kin. 4 : 35 ; used in Job 41 : 18 to de- 
scribe the violent breathing of the en- 
niged leviathan, or crocodile. 

NEG'INOTH, Hab. 3 ; 19, a general 
name for Hebrew stringed instruments. 
Psalms 4, 6, 54, 55, and 76, are addressed 
to the leader of the music on that class 
of instruments. 

NEHEMl'AH, the son of Hachaliah, 
was born at Babylon during the captiv- 
ity. He was, according to some, of the 
race of the priests ; according to others, 
of the royal family of Judah. He sus- 
tained the office of cup-bearer to the 
Persian king Artaxerxes Longimanus. 
Touched with the calamitous state of 
the colony of Jews which had formerly 
returned to Jerusalem, he besought the 
king of Persia to permit him to go to 
Jerusalem and aid in rebuilding it. He 
was accordingly sent thither as govern- 
or, in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes, 
about 444 b. c. He directed his atten- 
tion chiefly to rebuilding the walls of 
the city. The enmity of the Samaritans, 
under which the colony had formerly 
suifered, was now increased ; and under 
Sauballat, the governor of the country, 
they cast all possible hinderances in the 
way of the Jews. They even went so 
far as to attack the laborers at their 
work ; so that Nehemiah had to cause 
them to labor with arms in their hands ; 
yet in one year their task was completed. 
In this great work, and in his whole ad- 
ministration, his pious zeal and disinter- 
estedness, his love for the people and 
city of God, and his prayerful reliance 
on divine aid were crowned with suc- 
cess. He had the cooperation of faithful 
friends, especially of Ezra, Neh. 8 : 1, 9, 
13 ; 12 : 36, and instituted many excel- 
lent civil improvements. About 432 
B. c, though perhaps not for the first 
308 



time, he returned to his post at the 
court of Babylon, Neh. 2:6 ; 5; 14 : 13:6 ; 
but after a few years, was recalled to 
Jerusalem to reform certain growing 
irregularities — neglect of the temple ser- 
vice, breaches of the Sabbath, marriages 
; with the heathen, etc. He required of 
j those Jews who had married heathen 
I wives, that they should either abandon 
I them, or else themselves quit the coun- 
! try. This voluntary exile of a number 
of discontented priests, may have given 
j occasion to the building of the temple 
1 on moimt Gerizim, and the establish- 
ment of the Samaritan worship. See 
Sanball.\t. 

The BOOK OF Nehemiah contains the 
history of all these transactions, written 
by himself near the close of his long 
life, B. c. 434. It is a sort of a continu- 
ation of the book of Ezra, and was called 
by some of the fathers the Second book 
I of Ezra. Some portions of it, as chap- 
ters 8 and 9, and 12 : 1-26, appear to be 
compilations from public registers, etc. 
' With it the historical books of the Old 
' Testament close. 

I NE'HILOTH, supposed to mean' flutes 
I or wind instruments ; found only in the 
title of the fifth Psalm, which is addressed 
to the leader of this class of instruments, 
as though intended to be sung with this 
accompaniment onlv. 

NEHUSH'TA, wife of Jehoiakim, and 
mother of the young king Jechoniah, 
with whom she was pi'obably associated 
in the government, as she is in the re- 
proaches of Jeremiah, 2 Kin. 24:8 ; Jer. 
13:18; 29:2. 

NEHUSH'TAN, brazen, a name given 
by Hezekiah king of Judah to the brazen 
serpent that Moses had set up in the wil- 
derness. Num. 21:8. and which had been 
preserved by the Israelites to that time. 
The superstitious people having made 
an idol of this serpent, Hezekiah caused 
it to be burned, and in derision gave it 
the name of Nehushtan, a mere piece of 
brass, 2 Kin. 18 : 4. Memorials, relics, 
and other outwai'daids to devotion which 
men rely upon, have the opposite effect ; 
the visible emblem hides the Saviour it 
ought to reveal, John 3:14-16. 

NEIGH'BOK. At the time of our Sav- 
iour, the Pharisees had restrained the 
meaning of the word ' ' neighbor ' ' to 
those of their own nation, or to their 
own friends ; holding, that to hate their 
enemy was not forbidden by the law, 



NEK 



BIBLE DICTlOXAlir. 



NEW 



Matt. 5 : 43. But our Saviour informed I 
them that tlie whole world were neigh- 
bors ; that they ought not to do to an- 
other what they would not have done to I 
themselves ; and that this charity ex- 
tended even to enemies. See the beau- ! 
tiful parable of the good Samaritan, the 
real neighbor to the distressed, Luke 
10 29. i 

NER'GAL, one of the gods of the Cuth- 
itc heathen who were transplanted into 
Palestine, 2 Kin 17:30. This idol prob- ; 
ably represented the planet Mars, which 
was ever the emblem of bloodshed Mars , 
is named, by the Zabians and Arabians, 
ill-luck, misfortune. He was represented 
as holding in one hand a drawn sword, 
and in the other, by the hair, a human 
head just cut off; his garments were ; 
blood red, as the light of the planet is ■ 
also reddish. His temple among the 
Arabs was painted red ; and they offered 
to him garments sprinicled with blood, ' 
and also a warrior, (probably a prisoner,) 
who was cast into a pool. The name 
Nergal appears in the proper names Ner- 
^alsharezer, Neriglassar, Jer. 39:3, 13. 

NETS are often referred to in Scrip- 
ture, Prov. 1:17; Eccl. 7:2(5; Isa. 19:8, 
9; Hab. 1:15, 16. particularly in connec- \ 
tion with the first disciples of Christ, 
Matt. 4:18; 13 : 47-50 ; Luke 5 : 1-10. 
Before the invention of tire-arms, nets 
were much used in hunting and foAvling, 
and possiblv in catching men, as rob- 
bers, etc.. Job 19 : 6 ; Psa. 140 : 5 ; Mic. 
7:2. Among the ancient Romans there 
was a gladiatorial game, in which one 
man was armed with sword and shield, 
and his antagonist with a net, by casting 
which he strove to entangle the other so 
that he might easily dispatch him Avith 
his dagger. I 

NETH'EPi, lower ; as the lower stone I 
of a handmill, Deut. 24 : 6 ; the foot of 
Sinai, Exod. 19 : 17 ; the regions of the ' 
dead, Ezck. 32:18. 

NETHTNIM. given, or consecrated, a 
term first applied to the Levites, Num. 
8 : 19 ; but after the settlement in Ca- 
naan, to servants dedicated to the ser- 
vice of the tabernacle and temple, to 
perform the most laborious offices, as 
carrying of wood and water. At first 
the Gibeonites were destined to this sta- 
tion, Judg. 9 : 27 ; afterwards, other Ca- 
naanites who surrendered themselves, ! 
and whose lives were spared. Many of j 
them appear to have been first assigned \ 



to David, Solomon, and other princes, 
and by them transferred to the temple 
service. 1 Kin. 9:20, 21 ; Ezra 2:58, 70 ; 
8 : 20 ; Neh. 11:3. It is probable that 
they became proselytes, Neh. 10:28, and 
that many of them could cordially unite 
with David in saying, ' ' I had rather be 
a doorkeeper in the house of my God, 
than to dwell in the tents of wicked- 
ness," Psa. 84:10. The Nethinim were 
carried into captivity with the tribe of 
Judah, and great numbers were placed 
not far from the Caspian sea, whence 
Ezra brought two hundred and twenty 
of them into Judea, Ezra 8:17. 

NETO'PHAH, a town near Bethlehem, 
of which little more than the name is 
known, 2 Sam. 23:28, 29 ; 2 Km. 25:23 ; 
Ezra 2:22; Neh. 7; 26. 

NET'TLE, a well-known stinging 
plant, growing in neglected grounds, 
Isa. 34 : 13 ; Hos. 9:6. A different He- 
brew word, in Job 30 : 7, Prov. 24 : 31, 
Zeph. 2 : 9, seems to indicate a larger 
species. 

NEW MOON. The new moon was the 
commencement of each of the Hebrew 
months. See Month. The Hebrews had 
a particular veneration for the first day 
of every month, for which Moses ap- 
pointed peculiar sacrifices. Num. 28:11- 
15 ; but he gave no orders that it should 
be kept as a holy day, nor can it be 
proved that the ancients observed it as 
such : it was a festival of merely volun- 
tary devotion. It appears that even 
from the time of Saul, they made on 
this day a sort of family entertainment ; 
since David ought then to have been at 
the king's table, and Saul took his ab- 
sence amiss, 1 Sam. 20 : 5, 18. Moses 
implies that, besides the national sacri- 
fices then regularly offered, everj' pri- 
vate person had his particular sacrifices 
of devotion, Num. 10 : 10. The begin- 
ning of the month was proclaimed by 
sound of trumpet, Psa. 81 : 3, and the 
offering of solemn sacrifices. But the 
most celebrated ' ' new moon ' ' was that 
at the beginning of the civil year, or 
first day of the month Tishri, Lev. 23 : 24. 
Tliis was a sacred festival, on which no 
servile labor was performed, Amos 8 : 5. 
In the kingdom of the ten tribes, it 
seems to have been a custom of the peo- 
ple to visit the prophets at the new 
moons, for the purpose of carrying them 
presents, and hearing their instructions, 
2 Kin. 4 t 23. Ezekiel says, 45 : 17, (see 
30y 



NIB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



NIL 



also 1 Chr. 23 : 31 ; 2 Chr. 8 :13,) that 
the burnt-offerings offered on the day of 
the new moon were to be provided at the 
king's expense. The observance of this 
festival was discontinued soon after the 
establishment of Christianity, Gal. 4 ; 9, 
10, Col. 2 : 16, though the Jews take 
some notice of the day even now. 

KIB'HAZ, a god of the Avites, 2 Kin. 
17: 31. Jewish interpreters say the name 
means barker, and affirm that this idol 
had the shape of a dog. Historical traces 
have also been found of the ancient wor- 
ship of idols in the form of dogs among 
the Syrians. In the Zabian books, Nib- 
haz occurs as the "lord of darkness;" 
which, according to the character of the 
Assyrian - Chaldean mythology, would 
point to an evil planetary demon. 

NICA'NOPt, one of the first seven dea- 
cons, who were chosen and appointed at 
Jerusalem soon after tlie pentecostal de- 
scent of the Holy Ghost, Acts 6:1-6. 

NICODE']\IUS, a member of the Jew- 
ish Sanliedrim, at first a Pharisee, and 
afterwards a disciple of Jesus. He was 
early convinced that Christ came from 
God, but was not ready at once to rank 
himself among His followers. In John 
3 : 1-20, he first appears as a timid in- 
quirer after the truth, learning the great 
doctrines of regeneration and atonement. 
In John 7 : 45-52, we see him cautiously 
defending the Saviour before the Sanhe- 
drim. At last, in the trying scene of 
the crucifixion, he avowed himself a be- j 
liever, and came with Joseph of Arima- j 
tliea to pay the last duties to the body 
of Christ, which they took down from 
the cross, embalmed, and laid in the sep- 
ulchre, John 19:39. 

NICOLATTANS, heretical persons or 
teachers, mentioned in Pev. 2 : 6, 15. 
Whether they were the same as the Nic- 
olaitans of the second century and later 
is very doubtful. Some suppose them to 
be followers of Nicolas the deacon, but 
there is no good evidence that lie ever 
became a heretic. 

NIC'OLAS, a proselyte of Antioch, 
that is, one converted from paganism to 
the reUgion of the Jews. He afterwards 
embraced Christianity, and was among 
the most zealous of the first Christians ; 
so that he was chosen one of the first 
seven deacons of the church at Jerusa- 
lem. Acts 6:5. 

NICOr'OLIS, a city where Paul spent 
probably the last winter of his life, hav- 
310 



ing previously written to Titus, at Crete, 
to meet him there. Tit. 3: 12. He is sup- 
posed to refer to the Nicopolis of Thrace, 
situated on the river Nestus, near the 
borders of Macedonia, and hence called, 
in the subscription to the epistle, Nicop- 
olis of Macedonia. Others, however, 
suppose him to have meant Nicopolis in 
Epirus, which stood near the mouth of 
the Ambracian gulf, opposite to Acti- 
um, and which was built by Augustus 
in honor of his decisive victory over 
Antony. 

NIGHT. The ancient Hebrews began 
their artificial day at evening, and ended 
it the next evening, so that the night 
preceded the day. This usage may prob- 
ably be traced to the terms employed in 
describing the creation, Gen. 1:5, 8, 13, 
etc., "The evening and the morning 
were the first day " The Hebrews al- 
lowed twelve hours to the night, and 
twelve to the day ; but these hours were 
not equal, except at the equinox. At 
other times, when the hours of the night 
were long, those of the day were short, 
as in winter ; and when the hours of 
night were short, as at midsummer, the 
hours of the day were long in proportion. 
See Hours. 

The nights are sometimes extremely 
cold in Syria, when the days are very 
hot ; and travellers in the deserts and 
among the mountains near Palestine re- 
fer to their own sufferings from these 
opposite extremes, in illustration of Ja- 
cob's words in Gen. 31 : 40, "In the day 
the drought consumed me, and the frcst 
by night ; and my sleep departed from 
mine eves." 

NIGHT-HAWK, animclean bird. Lev. 
11:16; Deut. 14:15. Its name seems to 
indicate voracity, and is therefore thought 
by many to point out the Syrian owl, a 
more powerful bird than the night-hawk, 
and exceedingly voracious ; it sometimes 
attacks sleeping children. 

NILE, the celebrated river of Egypt. 
It takes this name only after the junc- 
tion of the two great streams of which 
it is composed, namely, the Bahr el Alii- 
ad, or White river, which rises in the 
mountains of the Moon, in the interior 
of Africa, and runs north-east till it is 
joined by the other branch, the Bahr el 
Azrek, or Blue river, which rises in Abys- 
sinia, and after a large circuit to the 
south -cast and south-west, in which it 
passes through the lake of Dembea, flows 



XIL 



VABLV: DlCTlOXAJiV. 



NIL 



northwards to join the White river. Tliis 
Abyssinian branch has in modern times 
been regarded as the real Nile, although 
t!ic White river is much the largest and 
longest, and was in ancient times con- 
siJered as the true Nile. The jjinction 
takes place about latitude sixteen degrees 
north. From this point the Nile hows 
always in a noi'therly direction, with the 
exception of one large bend to the west. 
About thirteen hundred miles from the 
sea it receives its last branch, the Taciiz- 
ze, a large stream from Abyssinia, and 
1 laving passed through Nubia, it enters 
Egypt at the cataracts near Syene, or 
Essuan, which are formed by a chain of 
rocks stretching east and west. There 
are here three falls ; after which the 
river pui'sues its course in still and silent 
majesty through the whole length of the 
hmd of Egypt. Its average In-eadth is 
about seven liundrcd yards. In Lower 
Egypt it divides into several branches 
and forms the celebrated Delta ; for 
which see under Egypt. See also a view 
of tiie river in Ammon. 

As rain very seldom falls, even in win- 
ter, in Southern Egypt, and usually only 
slight and infrequent showers in Lower 
Egypt, the whole physical and political 
existence of Egypt may be said to de- 
pend on the Nile ; since without this 
river, and even without its regular an- 
nual inundations, the whole land would 
be but a desert. These inundations, so 
mysterious in the view of ancient igno- 
rance and superstition, are caused by the 
regular periodical rains in the countries 
farther south, around the sources of the 
Nile, in March and later. The river be- 
gins to rise in Egypt about the middle of 
June, and continues to increase through 
the month of July. In August it over- 
flows its banks, and reaches its highest 
point early in September ; and the coun- 
trv is then mostly covered with its wa- 
ters, Amos 8.8 ; 9:5 ; Nah. 3:8. In the 
beginning of October, the inundation 
still continues ; and it is only towards 
the end of this month that the stream 
returns within its banks. From the 
middle of August till towards the end of I 
October, the whole land of Egypt resem- | 
bles a great lake or sea, in which the 
towns and cities appear as islands. j 

The cause of the fertility which the ; 
Nile imparts lies not only in its thus ! 
watering the land, but also in the thick ! 
slimy mud which its waters bring down j 



I along with them and deposit on the soil 
j of Egypt. It is like a coat of rich ma- 
i nure ; and the seed being immediately 
sown upon it, without digging or plougli- 
1 ing, springs up rapidly, grows with lux- 
uriance, and ripens into abundance. See 
Egypt. 

It must not, however, be supposed that 
j the Nile spreads itself over every spot of 
land, and waters it sufficiently "without 
artilicial aid. Niebuhr justly remarks, 
' ' Some descriptions of Egypt would lead 
us to think that the Nile^ when it swells, 
lays the whole province under water. 
The lands immediately adjoining to the 
banks of the river are indeed laid under 
water, but the natural inequality of the 
ground hinders it from overflowing the 
j interior country. A great part of the 
I lands would therefore remain barren, 
were not canals and reservoirs formed to 
receive Avatcr from the river, when at its 
greatest height, which is thus conveyed 
everywhere through the lields, and re- 
served for Avatering them when occasion 
requires." In order to raise the water 
to grounds which lie higher, machines 
have 1 )een used in Egypt from time im- 
mem nial. These are chiefly Avheels to 
which buckets are attached. One kind 
is turned by oxen ; another smaller kind, 
by men seated, and pushing the lower 
spokes from them with tlieir feet, while 
they pulled the upper spokes towards 
them with their hands, Deut. 11:10. 

As the inundations of the Nile are of 
so much importance to the whole land, 
structures have been erected on which 
the beginning and progress of its rise 
might be observed. Tliese are called 
Nilometers, that is, "Nile measures." 
At present tliere is one, one thousand 
years old and half in ruins, on the little 
island opposite Cairo ; it is under the 
care of the government, and according to 
it the beginning and subsequent progress 
of the rise of tlie Nile were carefully ob- 
served and proclaimed by authority. If 
the inundation reached the height of 
twenty-two Paris feet, a ricli harvest Avas 
expected : because then all the fields had 
received the requisite irrigation. If it 
fell short of this height, and in propor- 
tion as it thus fell short, the land was 
thi-eatened with want and famine, of 
which many horrible examples occur in 
Egyptian history. Should the rise of 
the water exceed twenty-eight Paris feet, 
a famine was in like manner feared. 
311 



NIL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NIN 



The annual rise of the river also varies 
exceedingly in different parts of its 
course, being twenty feet greater where 
the river is narrow than in Lower Egypt. 
Tlic channel is thought to he gradually 
filling up ; and many of the ancient out- 
lets at the Delta are dry in summer and 
almost obliterated. The drying up of 
the waters of Egypt would involve its 
destruction as a habitable land to the 
sa<me extent ; and this fact is recognized 
in the prophetic denunciations of this 
remarkable countrv, Isa. 11 : 15; 19 : 1- 
10; Ezek. 29:10; 30:12. 

The w\ater of the Nile, although dur- 
ing a great part of the year turbid, from 
the effects of the rains above, yet fur- 
nishes, when purified by settling, the 
softest and sweetest water for drinking. 
Its excellence is acknowledged by all 
travellers. The Egyptians are full of its 
praises, and even worshipped the river 
as a god. 

The Hebrews sometimes gave both to 
the Euphrates and the Nile the name of 
"sea," Isa. 19:5; Nah. 3:8. In this 
they are borne out l)y Arabic writers, 
and also by the common peoj)le of Egypt, 



who to this day commonly speak of the 
Nile as "the sea." It is also still cele- 
brated for its fish. Compare Num. 11:5; 
Isa. 19 : 8. In its waters are likewise 
found the crocodile or leviathan, and 
the hippopotamus or behemoth. See 
Egypt, and Sihor. 

NIM'RIM. See Betii-nimrah. 

NIM'PtOD, rebellion, impiety, a son of 
Cush and grandson of Ham, proverbial 
from the earliest times as a mighty hun 
ter. Gen. 10 : 8-10 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 10. H^ 
seems to have feared neither God noi 
man ; to have gathered around him a 
host of adventurers, and extended his 
conquests into the land of Shinar, where 
he founded or fortified Babel, Erech, 
Accad, and Calneh. According to one 
interpretation of Gen. 10 : 11, he also 
founded Nineveh and the Assyrian em- 
pire ; though this is usually understood 
to have been done by Asshur, w'hen ex- 
pelled by Nimrod from the land of Shi- 
nar, Mic. 5 : G. Nimrod is supposed to 
have begun the tower of Babel ; and his 
name is still preserved by a vast ruinous 
mound, on the bite of ancient Babylon. 
See Babel. ♦ 




WINGED AND HUMAN-HEAD BULL, FROM THE RUINS OF NINEVEH. 

situated on the east bank of the Tigris, 
opposite and below the modern Mosul. 
Its origin is traced to the times near the 



NIN'EVEH, dwelling of Ni'nus, the me- 
tropolis of ancient Assyria, called by the 
Greeks and Romans " the great Ninus ;" 
312 



KIN 



Eli^LE mCTlOK'ARY. 



NIN 



flood. See Nimrod. For nearly fifteen 
centuries afterwards it is not mentioned. 
In the books of Jonah and Nahum it is 
described as an immense city, three days' 
journey in circuit, containing more than 
one hundred and twenty tliousand young 
children, or probably si.x hundred thou- 
sand souls. It contained ' ' much cattle, ' ' 
and numerous parks, gardens, groves, 
etc. Its inhabitants were wealthy, war- 
like, and far advanced in civilization. It 
had numerous strong-holds with gates 
and bars ; and had multiplied its mer- 
chants above the stars : its crowned 
princes were as locusts, and its captains 
as grasshoppers. With this description 
agrees that of the historian Diodorus 
Siculus, who says Xineveh was twenty- 
one miles long, nine miles broad, and 
fifty-four miles in circumference ; that 
its walls were a hundred feet high, and 
so broad that three chariots could drive 
upon them abreast ; and that it had fif- 
teen hundred towers, each two hundred 
feet high. 

Nineveh had long been the mistress 
of the East ; but for her great luxury ^ 
and wickedness, the prophet Jonah was | 
sent, more than eight hundred years be- j 
fore Christ, to warn the Ninevites of her i 
speedy destruction. See also Isa. 14 : 24, I 



25. Tlieir timely repentance delayed for 
a time the fall of the city ; but about 753 
B. c, the period of the foundation of 
Rome, it was taken by the Mcdcs under 
Arbaces ; and nearly a century and a 
half later, according to the predictions 
of Nahum, chap. 1-3, and Zephaniah 
2: 13, it was a second time taken by Cya- 
raxes and Nabopolassar ; after ^^dlich it 
no more recovered its former splendor. 
Subsequent writers mention it but sel- 
dom, and as an unimportant place ; so 
complete was its destruction, that for ages 
its site has been well-nigh lost, and infi- 
dels have even denied that the Nineveh 
of the Bible ever existed. The mounds 
which were the ' ' grave ' ' of its ruins, 
Nail. 1 : 14, were so covered with soil as 
to seem like natural hills. But since 
1841, Layard, Botta, and others have 
been exploring its remains, so long un- 
disturbed. The mounds chiefly explored 
lie at three corners of a trapezium about 
eighteen miles long, and twelve miles 
wide, and nearly sixty in circumference, 
thus confirming the ancient accounts of 
its vast extent. The recent excavations 
disclose temples and palaces, guarded 
by huge winged bulls and lions with 
human heads. The apartments of these 
buildings are lined with slabs of stone, 




"WARRIOR AND HORSES, FROM THE MOUND OF KHORSABAD, NINEVEH. 

covered with sculptures in bas-relief, and I whicli have been in part deciphered ; 
inscriptions in arrow-headed characters I and these sculptured memoritds of the 
14 313 



N 1 X 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



NIN 



history and customs of the Assyrians, to- 
gether with the various articles made of 
glass, wood, ivory, and metals, now 
brought to light after a burial of twen- 
ty-four centuries, furnish invaluable aid 
in the interpretation of Scripture, and 
most signally contirm its truth. Our 
surprise is equal to our gratilication, 
when we behold the actual Assyrian ac- 
count of events recorded in Kings and 
Chronicles. Not only do we lind men- 
tion made of Jehu, Menahem, Hezekiah, 
Omri, Hazael, etc., and of various cities 
in Judea and Syria ; but we discover 
Sennacherib's own account of his inva- 
sion of Palestine, and of the amount of 
tribute which king Hezekiah was forced 
to pay him ; also pictures representing 
his capture of Lachish, 2 Kin. 18:14, and 
his officers, perhaps the railing Eabsha- 
keh himself, presenting Jewish captives 
to the king, etc. (See cut and details in 
Sennacherib.) These mural tablets also 
furnish a graphic comment on the lan- 
guage of the prophet Ezekiel ; and as 
he was a captive in the region of Nine- 



veh, he had no doubt heard of, and had 
probably seen these very "chambers 
of imagery," as well as the objects they 
represent. We there find reproduced to 
our view the men and scenes he describes 
ui chap. 23 : 6, 14, 15, etc. ; 26 : 7-12 : 
"Captains and rulers clothed most gor- 
geously," "portrayed with vermilion," 
"girded with girdles upon their loins," 
"exceeding in dyed attire upon their 
heads." The "vermilion" or red color 
is quite prevalent among the various 
brilliant colors with which these tablets 
Avere painted, Ezek. 23 : 14, 15. Hero 
are "horsemen riding upon horses," 
' ' princes to look to ' ' in respect to war- 
like vigor and courage ; and their horses 
of high spirit, noble form, and attitudes, 
and decked with showy trappings. (See 
cut on previous page.) Here, in fine, are 
the idols, kings, and warriors of Nine- 
veh, in various scenes of worship, hunt- 
ing, and war ; fortresses attacked and 
taken ; prisoners led in triumph, im- 
paled, flayed, and otherwise tortured ; 
and sometimes actually held by cords 




attached to hooks which pierce the nose 
or the lips, 2 Kin. 19:28, Isa. 37:29, and 
having their eyes put out by the point of 
a spear, 2 Kin. 25:7. For other cuts see 
NisRocH, Sennacherib, Shalmanezer, 
and War. 

The Christian world is under great ob- 
ligations to Layard and Botta for their 
enterprising explorations, and to Eaw- 
linson and Hincks for their literary in- 
vestigations of these remains. To the 
student of the Bible especially these bur- 
ied treasures are of the highest value, 
314 



and we may well rejoice not only in this 
new accumulation of evidence to the 
truth of the history and prophecies of 
Scripture, but in the additional light 
thus thrown on its meaning. Hoav im- 
pressive too the Avarning which these 
newly found memorials of a city once so 
vast and powerful bring to us in these 
latter days and in lands then unknown, 
to beware of the luxury, pride, and un- 
godliness that caused her ruin. 

NI'SAN, a Hebrew month, nearly an- 
swering to our April, but varying some- 



NIS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



NOA 



what from year to year, according to the 
course of the moon. It was the seventh 
month of the civil year ; but was made 
the first month of tlie sacred year, at the 
coming out of Egypt, Ex. 12 : 2. By 
Moses it is called Abib, Ex. 13 : 4. The 
name Nisan is found only after the time 
of Ezra, and the return liom the captiv- 
ity of Babylon. See Months. 




NIS'ROCH, a god of the Assyrians, in 
whose temple, and in the very act of 
idolatry, Sennacherib was slain by his 
own sons, 2 Kin. 19 : 37. According to 
the etymology, the name would signify 
"the great eagle;" and the earlier As- 
syrian sculptures recently exhumed at 
Nineveh have many representations of 
an idol in human form, but with the head 
of an eagle, as shown above. Among 
the ancient Arabs also the eagle occurs 
as an idol. The other accompanying 
cut, representing a winged figure in a 




circle, armed with a bow, is frequently 
met on the walls of ancient Nineveh in 



scenes of worship, and is believed to be 
an emblem of the supreme divinity of 
the Assyrians. 

Nl'TKE, not the substance used in 
making gunpowder, but natron, a min- 
eral alkali composed of several salts of 
soda. It eflervesces with vinegar, Prov. 
25:28, and is still used in washing, Jer. 
2 : 22. Combined with oil, it makes a 
hard soap. It is found deposited in, or 
floating upon, certain lakes west of the 
Delta of Egypt. 

NO, or No-Ammon. See Airaox. 
NOAH, rest, comfort, the name of the 
celebrated patriarch who was preserved 
by Jehovah with his family, by means 
of the ark, through the deluge, and thus 
became the second founder of the human 
race. The history of Noah and the del- 
uge is contained in Genesis, ch. 5-9. He 
was the son of Lamech, and grandson of 
Methuselah ; was born a. m. 1056, and 
lived six hundred years before the del- 
uge, and three hundred and fifty after 
it, dying two years before Abram was 
born. His name may have been given 
to him by his parents in the hope that 
he would be the promised ' ' seed of the 
woman" that should "bruise the ser- 
pent's head. ' ' He was in the line of the 
patriarchs who feared God, and was him- 
self a just man, Ezek. 14 : 14, 20, and a 
"preacher of righteousness," 1 Pet. 3:19, 
20; 2 Pet. 2:5. His eftbrts to reform the 
degenerate world, continued as some sup- 
pose for one hundred and twenty years, 
produced little eftect, Matt. 24 : 37 ; the 
flood did not * ' find faith upon the 
earth." Noah, hoAvever, was an exam- 
ple of real faith : he believed the warn- 
ing of God, was moved by fear, and pur- 
sued the necessary course of action, Heb. 
11:7. His first care on coming out from 
the ark was to worship the Lord, with 
sacrifices of all the fitting animals. Lit- 
tle more is recorded of him except 
his falling into intoxication, a sad 
instance of the shame and misfor- 
tune into which wine is apt to lead. 
His three sons, it is believed, peopled 
the whole world ; the posterity of 
Japheth chiefly occupying Europe, 
those of Shem Asia, and those of 
Ham Africa. 

Nmnerous traces of traditions respect- 
ing Noah have been found all over the 
world. Among the most accurate is that 
embodied in the legend of the Greeks 
respecting Deucalion and Pyrrha. "VVe 
315 



:nOB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY, 



NUll 



may also mention the medals struck at 
Apamea in Phrygia, in the time of Sep- 
timus Severus, and bearing the name 
NO, an ark, a man and woman, a raven, 
and a dove with an olive-branch in its 
mouth. See Ark. 

NOB, a city of priests, in Benjamin, 
near Jerusalem ; its inhabitants were 
once put to the sword by command of 
Saul, " for their hospitality to David, 
1 Sam. 21:2 ; 22:9-28 ; Neh. 11:32 ; Isa. 
10:32. Its site is unknown. 

NOD, wandering, a region east of Eden, 
so named on account of the wanderings 
in it of the exiled Cain, Gen. 4:16. 

NOPH, sometimes called also, in He- 
brew, MoPH, Hos. 9 : 6, the ancient city 
of Memphis in Egypt. The ruins of it, 
though not to any great extent, are still 
found a few miles above Old Cairo, or 
Fostat, Isa. 19 : 13 ; Jer. 2 : 16 ; 44 : 1 ; 
Ezek. 30:13, 16. 

Memphis was the residence of the an- 
cient kings of Egypt till the times of the 
Ptolemies, who commonly resided at Al- 
exandria. Here, it is supposed, Joseph 
was a prisoner and a ruler, and here Mo- 
ses stood before Pharaoh. The prophets, 
in the places above referred to, foretell 
the miseries Memphis was to suffer from 
the kings of Chaldea and Persia ; and 
threaten the Israelites who should retire 
into Egypt, or should have recourse 
to the Egyptians, that they should per- 
ish in that country. In this city they 
fed and worshipped the sacred bull Apis, 
the embodiment of their false god Osi- 
ris ; and Ezekiel says, that the Lord will 
destroy the idols of Memphis, Ezek. 
30 : 13, 16. Memphis retained much of 
its splendor till it was conquered by the 
Arabians in the eighteenth or nineteenth 
year of the Hegira, a. d. 641 ; after which 
it was superseded as the metropolis of 
Egypt by Fostat, now Old Cairo, in the 
construction of which its materials were 
employed. The pyramids, in which its 
distinguished men were buried, still sur- 
vive ; but the magnificent city, that 
stretched along for many miles between 
them and the river, has almost wholly 
disappeared. 

NORTH. See East. The Babylonians 
and Assyrians are represented as coming 
from "the north," because they invaded I 
Israel by a northern route, in order to \ 
avoid the desert, Jer. 1 : 14 ; 46 : 6, 24 ; ! 
J^jcph. 2:13. " Fair weather," says Job, \ 
or golden weather, ' ' cometh out of the i 
318 



north," Job 37 : 22. This is as true in 
Syria and Arabia now as it was three 
thousand years ago. A traveller there 
remarks, ' ' Our friends, who have been 
long residents, informed us that we 
should have fair weather for our start 
on the morrow, as the wind was from 

the north And so we have found 

it come to pass that the clouds of a gold- 
en hue always followed upon a north 
wind, and indicated a clear day ; and as 
in the times of the Saviour, we could 
always say when it was evening, 'It 
will be fair weather, for the sky is red,' " 
Matt. 16:2. 

NOSE. Several expressions in Scrip- 
ture grew out of the fact that anger often 
shows itself by distended nostrils, hard 
breathing, and in animals by snorting, 
2 Sam. 22 : 9 ; Job 39 : 20 ; Psa. 18 : 8. 
Gold rings hung in the cartilage of the 
nose, or the left nostril, were favorite 
ornaments of Eastern women, Prov. 
11:22; Ezek. 16:12. Pangs were insert- 
ed in the noses of animals, to guide and 
control them ; and according to the re- 
cently discovered tablets at Nineveh, 
captives among the Assyrians were some- 
times treated in the same way, 2 Kin. 
19:28; Ezek. 38:4. See Nineveh. 

NOVTCE, or neophite, one recently 
converted and received to the Christian 
church, 1 Tiiu. 3:6. 

NUM'BER, Isa. 65:11. See Gad III. 

NUM'BERS, TUB book of, is so called 
because the first three chapters contain 
the numbering of the Hebrews and Le- 
vites, which was performed separately, 
after the erection and consecration of 
the tabernacle. The rest of the book 
contains an account of the breaking up of 
the Israelites from Sinai, and their sub- 
sequent wanderings in the desert, until 
their arrival on the borders of Moab. It 
was written by Moses, b. c. 1451, and is 
the fourth book of the Pentateuch. See 
Exodus. 

NURSE. The Bible contains various 
allusions to the tender and confidential 
relation anciently subsisting between a 
nurse and the children she had brought 
up, Isa. 49:22, 23; 1 Thess. 2:7, 8. See 
also the story of Rebekah, attended 
through life by her faithful and honored 
Deborah, the oak under which she was 
buried being called ' ' The oak of weep- 
ing," Gen. 24 : 59 ; 35 : 8. The custom 
still prevails in the better families of 
Syria and India. Says Roberts in his 



NYM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



OAT 



Oriental Illustrations, " How often have 
scenes like this led my mind to the pa- 
triarchal age. The daughter is ahout for 
the first time to leave the paternal roof ; 
the servants are all in confusion ; each 
refers to things long gone by, each wishes 
to do something to attract the attention 
of his young mistress. One says, 'Ah, 
do not forget him wlio nursed you when 
an infant;' another, 'How often did I 
bring you the beautiful lotus from the 
distant tank. Did I not always conceal 
your faults?' Then the mother comes | 
to take leave. She weeps, and tenderly 
embraces her, saying, ' My daughter, I j 
shall see you no more ; forget not your 
mother. ' The brother enfolds his sister 
in his arms, and promises soon to come 
and see her. The father is absorbed in 
thouglit, and is only aroused by the sobs 
of the party. He then afl'ectionately em- I 
braces his daughter, and tells her not to I 
fear. The female domestics must each I 
smell of the poor girl, and the men touch 
her feet. As Rebekah had her 72urse to 
accompany her, so, at this day, the aj/a 
{nurse) who has from infancy brought , 
up the bride, goes with her to the new 
scene. She is her adviser, her assistant, 
and friend, and to her will she tell all 
her hopes and all her fears." 

NYM'PHAS, a Christian at Laodicea, 
whom Paul salutes, together with the 
company of believers wont to worship 
at his house, Col. 4:15. 



O. 



OAK. As many as six varieties of the 
oak are found in Palestine. Dr. Robin- 
son speaks of one at Hebron which had 
a trunk twenty-two and a half feet in 
circumference ; and saw the crests and 
sides of the hills beyond the Jordan still | 
clothed, as in ancient times, with mag- 
nificent oaks, Isa. 2 : 13 ; Zech. 11:2. i 
The oak is often referred to in Scripture, 
Gen. 35:8 ; Isa. 44:14 ; Amos 2:9. There ! 
is, however, a second Hebrew word often 
translated "oak," which is supposed to ; 
denote the terebinth or turpentine-tree, j 
called butm by the Arabs, Gen. 35 : 4 ; ; 
Judg. 6:11, 19; 2 Sam. 18:9, 14. It is 
translated "elm" in Hos. 4:13, and 
"teil-tree" in Isa. G: 13, in which pas- 
sages the true oak is also mentioned. ! 
In many passages where ' ' plain " or j 
*' plains" occurs, we should probably I 



understand "terebinth," or "a grove 
of terebinths," Gen. 12:6; 13:18 ; 14:13 ; 
18 : 1 ; Deut. 11 : 30 ; Judg. 9 : 6. This 
tree was found in all countries around 
the Mediterranean, and in Palestine 
grew to a large size. It was very long- 
lived. For many ages after Christ, a 
tree of this kind near Hel)ron was su 
perstitiously venerated as one of those 
under which Abraham dwelt at Mamre. 
Under the welcome shade of oaks and 
other large trees many public affairs 
were transacted ; sacrifices were offered, 
coiuts were held, and kings were crown- 
ed, Josh. 24 : 26 ; Judg. 6 : 11, 19 ; 9 : 6. 
See Grove. 

OATH, a solemn affirmation, accom- 
panied by an appeal to the Supreme Be- 
ing. God has prohibited all false oaths, 
and all useless and customary swearing 
in ordinary discourse ; but when the ne- 
cessity or importance of a matter requires 
an oath, he allows men to swear by his 
name, Ex. 22:11 ; Lev. 5:1. To swear 1 y 
a false god was an act of idolatry, Jcr. 
5:7; 12:16. 

Among the Hebrews an oath Avas ad- 
ministered by the judge, who stood up, 
and adjured the party who was to be 
sworn. In this manner our Lord was 
adjured by Caiaphas, Matt. 26:63. Jesus 
had remained silent under long exami- 
nation, when the high-priest, rising up, 
knowing he had a sure mode of obtain- 
ing an answer, said, " I adjure thee by 
the living God, that thou tell us whether 
thou be the Christ." To this oath, thus 
solemnly administered, Jesus replied that 
he was indeed the Messiah. 

An oath is a solemn appeal to God, as 
to an all-seeing witness that what we 
say is true, and an almighty avenger if 
what we say be false, Heb.' 6 : 16. Its 
force depends upon our conviction of the 
infinite justice of God; that he will not 
hold those guiltless who take his name 
in vain ; and that the loss of his favor 
immeasurably outweighs all that could 
be gained by false witness. It is an 
act of religious worship ; oh which ac- 
count God requires it to be taken in his 
name, Deut. 10 : 20, and points out the 
manner in which it ought to be admin- 
istered, and the duty of the person who 
swears, Exod. 22 : 11 ; Deut. 6:18; Psa. 
15 : 4 ; 24 : 4. Hence atheists, who pro- 
fess to believe that there is no God, and 
persons who do not believe in a future 
state of reward and punishment, cannot 
317 



OBA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



OFF 



consistently take an oath. In their 
mouths an oath can be only profane 
mockery. 

God himself is represented as confirm- 
ing? his promise by oath, and thus con- 
foirming to what is practised among men, 
Psa. 95 : 11 ; Heb. 6 : 13, 16, 17. The 
oaths forbidden in Matt. 5 : 34, 35 ; Jas. 
5:12, must refer to tlie unthinking, hasty, 
and vicious practices of the Jews ; other- 
wise Paul would have acted against the 
command of Christ, Rom. 1:9; Gal. 
1:20; 2 Cor. 1:23. That person is obli- 
ged to take an oath whose duty requires 
him to declare the truth in the most sol- 
emn and judicial manner; though un- 
doubtedly oaths are too often adminis- 
tered unnecessarily and irreverently, and 
taken with but slight consciousness of 
the responsibility thus assumed. As we 
are bound to manifest every possible de- 
gree of reverence towards God, the great- 
est care is to be taken that we swear nei- 
ther rashly nor negligently in making 
promises. To neglect performance is 
perjury, unless the promise be contrary 
to the law of nature and of God ; in 
which case no oath is binding. See Cor- 
BAN, and Vows. 

A customary formula of taking an oath 
was, "The Lord do so to me, and more 
also;" that is, the Lord slay me, as the 
victim sacrificed on many such occasions 
was slain,' and punish me even more than 
this, if I speak not the truth, Ruth 1 : 17 ; 
1 Sam. 3:17. Similar phrases are these : 
"As the Lord liveth," Judg. 8:19 ; "Re- 
fore God I lie not," Rom. 9:1 ; "I say 
the truth in Christ," 1 Tim. 2:7 ; " God 
is my record," Pliil. 1 : 8. Several acts 
are alluded to as accompaniments of an 
oath ; as putting the hand under the 
thigh. Gen. 24 : 2 ; 47 : 29 ; and raising 
the hand towards heaven, Gen. 14 : 22, 
23; Deut. 32:40; Rev. 10:5. 

OBADIAH, I., the chief officer of king 
Ahab's household, who preserved the 
lives of one hundred prophets from the 
persecuting Jezebel, by concealing them 
in two caves and furnishing them with 
food, 1 Kin. 18:4. 

II. The fourth of the minor prophets, 
supposed to have prophesied about 587 
B. c. It cannot indeed be decided with 
certainty when he lived, but it is prob- 
able that he was contemporary with Jer- 
emiah and Ezekiel, who denounced the 
same dreadful judgments on the Edom- 
ites, as the punishment of their pride, 
31S 



violence, and cruel insultings over the 
Jews after the destruction of their city. 
The prophecy, according to Usher, was 
fulfilled about five years after the de- 
struction of Jerusalem. 

III. Eight or ten others of this name 
are mentioned in 1 Chr. 3 : 21 ; 7:3; 8 : 38 ; 
9 : 16, 44 ; 12:9. 27 : 19 ; 2 Chr. 17 : 7 ; 
34:12; Ezra 8:9; Neh. 10:5. 

O'BED, son of Boaz and Ruth, and 
grandfather of David, Ruth 4 : 17. See 
also the genealogies of Christ, Matt. 1:5; 
Luke 3:32. 

O'BED-E'DOM, a Levite, whose special 
prosperity while keeper of the ark after 
the dreadful death of Uzziah encouraged 
David to carry it up to Jerusalem. Obed- 
edom and his sons were made doorkeep- 
ers of the tabernacle at Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 
6:10-12; 1 Chr. 15:18-24 ; 16:38 ; 26:4- 
8, 15. 

O'DED, a prophet of the Lord, who, 
being at Samaria when the Israelites un- 
der king Pekah returned from the war 
against Judah and brought 200,000 cap- 
tives, went to meet them, and remon- 
strated with them ; so that the principal 
men in Samaria took care of the prison- 
ers, gave them clothes, food, and other 
assistance, and carried the feeble on 
asses. Thus they conducted them to 
Jericho, 2 Chr. 28:9, etc. 

OFFENCE'. This word answers to 
two different terms in the original, the 
one signifying a breach of the law, Rom. 
5 : 15, 17, the other a stumbling-block 
or cause of sin to others. Matt. 5 : 29 ; 
18 : 6-9 ; or whatever is perverted into 
an occasion or excuse for sin, Matt. 15 : 12; 
John 6:61 ; Rom. 9:33 ; Gal. 5:11. 

OF'FERING. In the Hebrew, an of- 
fering, minchah, is distinguished from a 
sacrifice, zebah, as being bloodless. In 
our version, however, the word offering 
is often used for a sacrifice, as in the case 
of peace-oiferings, sin-offerings, etc. Of 
the proper offerings, that is. the unbloody 
offerings, some accompanied the sacri- 
fices, as flour, wine, salt ; others were 
not connected with any sacrifices. Like 
the sacrifices, some, as the first-fruits and 
tenths, were obligatory : others were vol- 
untary offerings of devotion. Various 
sorts of offerings are enumerated in the 
books of Moses. Among these are, 1. 
Fine flour, or meal ; 2. Cakes baked in 
an oven ; 3. Cakes baked on a plate or 
shallow pan ; 4. Cakes cooked in a deep 
vessel by frying in oil, (English version, 



OG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



OLi 



"frying-pan," though some understand 
here a gridiron, or a plate with holes ;) 
5. First-fruits of the new corn, either in 
the simple state, or prepared by parch- 
ing or roasting in the ear, or out of the 
ear. The cakes were Icneaded with oliv^e 
oil, or fried in a pan, or only dipped in 
oil after they were baked. The bread 
ottered for the altar was without leaven ; 
for leaven was never oifered on the altar, 
nor with the sacrifices, Lev. 2:11, 12. 
But they might make presents of com- 
mon bread to the priests and ministers 
of the temple. Honey Avas never offered 
with the sacrifices, but it might be pre- 
sented alone, as first-fruits. Lev. 2:11, 12. 
Those who offered living victims were not 
excused from giving meal, wane, and 
salt, together with the greater sacrifices. 
Those who offered only oblations of 
bread or of meal, offered also oil, in- 
cense, salt, and wine, which were in a 
manner their seasoning. The priest in 
waiting received the offerings from the 
hand of him who brought them, laid a 
part on tlie altar, and reserved the rest 
for his own subsistence as a minister of 
the Lord. Nothing was wholly burned 
up but the incense, of which the priest 
retained none. See Lev. 2 : 2, 13, etc. ; 
Num. 15:4, 5. 

In some cases the law required only 
offerings of corn or bread, as when they 
offered the first-fruits of harvest, whether 
offered solemnly by the nation, or as the 
devotion of private persons. The un- 
bloody offerings signified, in general, not 
so much expiation, which was the pecul- 
iar meaning of the sacrifices, as the con- 
secration of the offerer and all that he 
had to Jehovah. Only in the case of the 
poor man, who could not aftbrd the ex- 
pense of sacrificing an animal, was an 
unbloody offering accepted in its stead. 
Lev. 5:11. See Sacrifices. 

OG, an Amoritish king of Bashan east 
of the Jordan, defeated and slain by the 
Israelites under Moses. He was a giant 
in stature, one of the last of the Rephaim 
who had possessed that region ; and his 
iron bedstead, fourteen feet long, was 
preserved after his death as a relic. Ash- 
taroth-carnaim and Edrei were his chief 
cities ; but there were many other walled 
to^vns, and the land was rich in flocks 
and herds. It was assigned by Moses to 
the half-tribe of Manasseh, Num. 21:33; 
32:33; Deut. 1:4; 3:1-13; 4:47; 31:4; 
Josh. 2:10; 12:4; 13:30. 



OIL was employed from the earliest 
periods in the East, not only for the 
purpose of consecration, but to anoint 
the head, the beard, and the whole per- 
son in daily life. Gen. 28 : 18. See 
Anointing. It Avas also universally used 
for food, Ezek. 1G:13. Fresh and sweet 
olive oil was greatly preferred to butter 
and animal fat as a seasoning for food, 
and to this day in Syria almost every 
kind of food is cooked with oil. It had 
a place also among the meat-offerings in 
the temple, being usually mixed with 
the meal of the oblation. Lev. 5 : 11 ; 
6 : 21. For lamps, also, pure olive oil 
was regarded as the best, and was us^ 
in illuminating the tabernacle. These 
many uses for oil made the culture of 
the olive-tree an extensive and lucrative 
business, 1 Chr. 27 : 28 ; Ezek. 27 : 17 ; 
Hos. 12:1. Oil was as much an article 
of storage and of traffic as corn and wine, 
2 Chr. 32 : 28 ; Ezra 3:7. The best oil 
was obtained from the fruit while j^et 
green, by a slight beating or pressing, 
Ex. 27:20; 29:40. The ripe fruit is now, 
and has been from ancient times, crushed 
by passing stone rollers over it. The 
crushed mass is then subjected to pressure 
in the oil-mill, Hebrew^ gath-shemen. The 
olive-berries are not now trodden w^ith 
the feet. This, however, seems to have 
been practised among the Hebrews, at 
least to some extent, when the berries 
had become soft by keeping, Mic. 6:15. 
Gethsemane, that is, oil-press, probably 
took its name originally from some oil- 
press in its vicinitv. See Olive. 

OINTMENTS were much used by the 
ancient Hebrews, not chiefly for medical 
purposes as among us, but as a luxury, 
Ruth 3:3 ; Psa. 104:15 ; Song 1:2 ; Matt. 
G:17 ; Luke 7:46. Their perfumery w^as 
usually prepared in olive oil, and not in 
volatile extracts and essences. The sa- 
cred ointment is described in Ex. 30 : 22- 
33. The ointments of the rich were 
made of very costly ingredients, and 
their fragrance was highly extolled, Isa. 
39 : 2 ; Amos 6:6; Matt. 26:7-9 ; John 
12:5. See Anointing. 

OL'IVE. This is one of the earliest 
trees mentioned in Scripture, and has 
furnished, perhaps ever since the deluge, 
the most universal emblem of peace, 
Gen. 8 : 11. It is always classed among 
the most valuable trees of Palestine, 
which is described as a land of oil olive 
and honey, Deut. 6:11 ; 8:8 ; Hab. 3:17. 
319 



OLl 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



OLI 




No tree is more frequently mentioned in 
the Greek and Roman classics. By the 
Greeks it was dedicated to Minerva, and 
employed in crowning Jove, Apollo, and 
Hercules. The olive is never a very large 
or beaut if vd tree, and seldom exceeds 
thirty feet in height : its leaves are dark 
green on the upper surface, and of a sil- 
very hue on the under, and generally 
grow. in pairs. Its wood is hard, like 
that of box, and very close in the grain. 
It blossoms very profusely, and bears 
fruit every other year. The flower is at 
first yellow, but as it expands, it becomes 
whiter, leaving a yellow centre. The 
fruit resembles a plum in shape and in 
color, being lirst green, then pale, and 
when ripe, black. It is gathered by 
shaking the boughs and by beating them 
with poles, Deut. 24:20, Isa. 17:6. and 
is sometimes plucked in an unripe state, 
put into some preserving liquid, and ex- 
ported. It is principally valuable for the 
oil it produces, which is an important 
article of c )mmerce in the East. A full- 
sized tree in full bearing vigor is said to 
produce a thousand pounds of oil, Judg. 
9:8, 9 ; 2 Chr. 2: 10. The olive delights 
in a stony soil, and will thrive even on 
the sides and tops of rocky hills, where 
there is scarcely any earth ; hence the 
expression, "oil out of tbe tlintv rock," 
etc., Deut. 52 : 13 ; Job 29 : 6. "it is an 
evergreen tree, and very long-lived, an 
emblem of a fresh and enduring piety, 
Psa. 52:8. Around an old trunk youiig 
plants shoot up from the same root, to 
?,20 



adorn the parent stock when living, and 
succeed it when dead ; hence the allu- 
sion in describing the family of the just, 
Psa. 128 : 3. It is slow of growth, and 
no less slow to decay. The ancient trees 
now in Gethsemane are believed by 
many to have sprung from the roots of 
those which witnessed the agony of our 
Lord. The "wild olive-tree " is smaller 
than the cultivated, and inferior in all 

its parts and products. A graft upon 

it, from a good tree, bore good fruit ; 

while a graft from a ' ' wild' ' olive upon 
a good tree, remains "wild" as before. 
Yet, " contrary to nature," the sinner 
engrafted on Christ partakes of His nature 
and bears good fruit. Piom. 11:13-26. 

OL'IVES, MOUNT OF, Ezek. 11 : 28, 
called also Olivet, 2 Sam. 15:80, a ridge 
running north and south on the east side 
of Jerusalem, its summit about half a 
mile from the city wall, and separated 
from it by the valley of the Kidron. It 
is composed of a chalky limestone, the 
rocks everywhere showing themselves. 
The olive-trees that formerly covered it, 
and gave it its name, are now represent- 
ed by a few trees and clumps of trees 
which ages of desolation have not eradi- 
cated. There are three i:)rominent sum- 
mits on the ridge ; of these the south- 
ernmost, which is lower than the other 
two, is noAv known as the "Mount of 
Oftence," originally the "Mount of Cor- 
ruption," because Solomon deliled it by 
idolatrous worship, 1 Kin. 11:5-7; 2 Kin. 
23 : 13. Over this ridge passes the road 
to Bethany, the most frequented road to 
Jericho and the Jordan. The sides of 
the mount of Olives towards the west 
contain many tombs, cut in the rocks. 
The central summit rises two hundred 
feet above Jerusalem, and presents a 
fine view of the city, and indeed of the 
whole region, including the mountains 
of Ephraim on the north, the valley of 
the Jordan on the east, a part of the 
Dead sea on the south-east, and beyond 
it Kerak in the mountains of Moab. Per- 
haps no spot on earth unites so fine a 
vicAv, with so many memorials of the 
most solemn and important events. 
Over this hill the Saviour often climbed 
in his journeys to and from the holy 
city. Gethsemane lay at its foot on the 
west, and Bethanv on its eastern slope, 
Matt. 24 : 3 ; Mark 13 : 3. It was prob- 
ably near Bethany, and not as tradition 
says oii the middle summit, that our 



OME 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



OPH 



Lord ascended to heaven, Luke 24 : 50, 
Acts 1:12, though superstition has built 
the "Church of the Ascension" on the 
pretended spot, and shows the print of 
his feet on the rock whence he ascended ! 
From the summit, three days before his 
death, he beheld Jerusalem, and wept 
over it, recalling tlie long ages of his 
more than parental care, and grieving 
over its approaching ruin. Scarcely any 
thing in the gospels moves the heart 
more than this natural and touching 
scene. No one can doubt that it was God 
who there spoke ; his retrospect, his pre- 
diction, and his compassion alike proved 
it. See Luke 19 : 37-44, in connection 
with Matt. 23 : 35-38, spoken the next 
day. The same spot is associated with 
the predictions of his future judgments 
in the earth, Zcch. 14 : 4. See view of 
the central summit in Getiisemane. 
Also Sepulchres. 

O'MEGA, the last letter of the Greek 
alphabec. See letter A. 

O'MER, a measure of capacity among 
the Hebrews ; the tenth part of an 
ephah ; a little more than five pints. 

OM'RI was general of the army of 
Elah king of Israel ; but being at the 
siege of Gibbethon, and hearing that his 
master Elah was assassinated by Zimri, 
who had usurped his kingdom, he raised 
the siege, and being elected king by his 
array, marched against Zimri, attacked 
him at Tirzah, and forced him to burn 
himself and all his family in the palace 
in which he had shut himself up. After 
his death, half of Israel acknowledged 
Oniri for king, the other half adhered to 
Tibni, son of Ginath, which division con- 
tinued four years. When Tibni was dead, 
the people united in acknowledging Omri 
as king of all Israel, Avho reigned twelve 
years, six years at Tirzah, and six at Sa- 
maria, 1 Kin. 16:8-28. 

Tirzah had previously been the chief 
residence of the kings of Israel; but 
when Omri purchased the hill of Sho- 
meron, 1 Kin. 16 : 24, he built there a 
new city, which he called Samaria, from 
the name of the previous possessor, She- 
mer or Shomer, and there fixed his royal 
seat. From this time Samaria was the 
capital of the kingdom of the ten tribes. 
It appears, under the name of Beth- 
Omri, on the stone tablets recently ex- 
humed by Layard from the ruins of Nin- 
eveh. 

ON. See Heliopolis. 
14* 



ONES'IMUS had been a slave to Phil- 
emon of Colosse, and had run away 
from him, and fied to Rome ; but being 
converted to Christianity through the 
preaching of Paul, he was the occasion 
of Paul's writing the epistle to Phile- 
mon, Col. 4:9; Phile. 10. 

ONESIPH'ORUS, a Christian friend of 
Paul at Ephesus, who came to Pome 
Avhile the apostle was imprisoned there 
for the faith, and at a time when almost 
every one had forsaken him. Tiiis is 
supposed to have occurred during Paul's 
last imprisonment, not long before his 
death. Having found Paul in bonds, 
after long seeking him, he assisted him 
to the utmost of liis power, and without 
regard to danger ; for winch the apostle 
implored the highest benedictions on 
him and his family, 2 Tim. 1 : 16-18 ; 
4:19. 

ONTON, one of the vegetables of 
Egypt for which the Hebrews murmured 
in the desert. Num. 11 : 5. Hasselquist 
says that the onions of Egypt are re- 
markably sweet, mild, and nutritious. 
Juvenal, Pliny, and Lucian satirize the 
superstitious regard of the Egyptians for 
this bulb. 

O'NO, a town of Benjamin, near Lyd- 
da, 1 Chr. 8:12; Ezra 2 : 33. The ' ' plain 
of Ono ' ' is supposed to denote a portion 
of the plain of Sharon near Ono, Nch. 
6:2; 11:35. 

ON' YCHA, an ingredient of the sacred 
incense, whose fragrance perfumed the 
sanctuary alone, Ex. 30: 34. It is con- 
jectured to mean the Blatta Byzantina of 
the shops ; an article which consists of 
the cover or lid of a species of muscle, 
and when burnt emits a musky odor. 
The best onycha is found in the Red sea, 
and is white and large. 

ON'YX, a nail, the eleventh stone in 
the high-priest's breastplate, Ex. 28:20. 
The modern onyx has some resemblance 
to the agate ; and the color of the body 
of the stone is like that of the human 
nail ; hence its name. The Hebrew word 
so translated is not known with certain- 
ty to signify the onyx ; but denoted some 
valuable stone, Gen. 2:12; Ex. 25:7; 
28 : 9-12, 20. A species of marble resem- 
bling the onyx was known to the Greeks, 
and may have been the "onyx-stones" 
stored up by David for the temple, 
IChr. 29:2. 

O'PHEL, a quarter of Jerusalem adja- 
cent to the temple, and therefore occu- 
321 



OPH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ORN 



pied by the Nethinim, Neli. 3 : 26, 27 ; 
11:21. It appears to have been enclosed 
by a wall, and fortified by a strong tow- 
er, 2 Chr. 27:3 ; 33 : 14 ; and is thought 
to be meant by the Hebrew opiiel, trans- 
lated "strong-hold," in Mic. 4:8. There 
can be little doubt that the name be- 
longs to the lower ridge into which 
mount Moriah sinks, south of the area 
of the mosque. It is one hundred yards 
wide, and extends six hundred yards to 
the south, terminating in a bluff forty or 
fifty feet high above the pool of Siloam. 
It is separated from mount Zion on the 
west by the valley called Tyropoeon, 
and is now devoted to the culture of 
olives, figs, and other fruit. 

O'PHIK, 1., one of the sons of Jok- 
tan, who settled in southern Arabia, 
Gen. 10:26-29. 

II. A country to which the ships of 
Solomon traded, and which had for a 
long time been celebrated for the pu- 
rity and abundance of its gold. Job 
22 : 24 ; 28 : 16. " Gold of Ophir" was 
proverbially the best gold, Psa. 45 : 9 ; 
Isa. 13 : 12. The only passages Avhich 
give us any information as to the loca- 
tion of Ophir are 1 Kin. 9:26-28 ; 10:11, 
22; 22:48, with the parallel passages in 
2 Chr. 8:18 ; 9:10, 21 ; 20 : 36, 37 ; from 
which it appears that the so called 
"ships of Tarshish " went to Ophir; 
that these ships sailed from Ezion-geber, 
a port of the Pted sea ; that a voyage 
was made once in three years; that 
the fleet returned freighted with gold, 
peacocks, apes, spices, ivory, algum- 
wood. and ebciny. Upon these data in- 
terpreters have undertaken to determine 
the situation of Ophir ; but they have 
arrived at different conclusions. Jose- 
phus places it in the peninsula of Malac- 
ca. Others have placed it at Sofala, in 
South Africa, where mines of gold and 
silver have been found, which appear to 
have been anciently and extensively 
worked. Others still suppose it to have 
been Southern Arabia. 

OPH'PtAH. I., a town of the Benja- 
mites, located by Eusebius five miles east 
of Bethel ; near which site stands the 
modern village Taivibeh, on a conical 
hill, Josh. 18:23 ; 1 Sam. 13:17. 

II. A town of IManasseh where Gideon 
resided ; and where after his death his 
ephod was superstitiously adored, Judg. 
6:11-24; 8:27. 

ORACLE, a supernatural communica- 
322 



tion ; applied to single divine revelations 
and to the entire word of God, Acts 
7 : 38; Rom. 3:2 ; Heb. 5:12, etc. It is 
also spoken of the covering of the ark 
of the covenant ; as if God there sat 
enthroned, and delivered his oracles, 
2 Sam. 16 : 23. See Mercy-seat. In 
other places, it means the ' ' Holy of Ho- 
lies" in the temple, where the ark was 
placed, 1 Kin. 6:5, 16, 19 ; 8:6. 

Strikingly unlike the true and living 
oracles of God were the famous counter- 
feit oracles of numerous heathen tem- 
ples. The priests who pretended to con- 
vey to applicants the responses of their 
gods, often gave a reply capable of two 
opposite interpretations, when neither 
private information nor their own expe- 
rience or sagacity gave them the clue to 
a safe answer. Thus Pyrrhus, king of 
Epirus, was encouraged to a war with 
Rome, by an oracle which was found 
after his defeat to foretell defeat as much 
as victory: Aio te, Aeacida, Romanos 
vincere posse. 

O'PiEB, and ZE'EB, raven and wolf, two 
Midianite chiefs, captured after the vic- 
tory of Gideon, and slain at the spots 
whither they had tied, and which were 
afterwards called, in memory of them, 
' ' the rock of Oreb ' ' and the wine-press 
or cellar of Zeeb, Judg. 7 : 25. Their 
punishment foretells that of all God's 
enemies, Psa. 83:12; Isa. 10:26. 

OR'GAN, Psa. 150 : 4, a wind instru- 
ment apparently composed of several 
pipes. It cannot, however, mean the 
modern organ, which was unknown to 
the ancients ; but refers probably to the 
ancient syrinx, or pipes, similar to the 
Pandean pipes, a series of seven or more 
tubes of unequal length and size, closed 
at one end, and blown into with the 
mouth at the other, Gen. 4 : 21 ; Job 
21:12. See Music. 

ORPON, Job 9:9, one of the brightest 
constellations of the southern hemi- 
sphere. The Hebrew chesil signifies, ac- 
cording to the best interpreters and the 
ancient versions, the constellation Orion, 
which, on account of its supposed con- 
nection with storms and tempests, Virgil 
calls "nimbosus Orion," stormy Orion. 
In Job 38:31, fetters are ascribed to him ; 
and this coincides with the Greek fable 
of the giant Orion, bound in the heav- 
ens for an unsuccessful war against the 
gods. 

OR'NAN. See Araunah. 



ORP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



OST 



OR'PAH, the Moabitess, Naomi's 
daughter-in-law, who remained with lier 
people and gods, wdien Euth followed 
Naomi and the Lord, Ruth 1 : 4-14. The 
one was taken, and the other left. 

O'SEE, the Greek form of Hosea, Eom. 
9:25. 

OS'PREY, a bird of the eagle kind, 
\mfit for food, Lev. 11 : 13. It is thought 
to be the sea-eagle, or the black eagle 
of Egypt. See Birds. 

OS'SIFRAGE, bone-breaker; in Hebrew 
Peres, to break; an unclean bird of the 
eagle family, Lev. 11 : 13 ; Deut. 14 : 12. 
Some interpreters think the vulture is 
intended ; others, a mountain bird like 
the lammergeyer of the Alps, which 
breaks the bones of wild goats by hunt- 
ing them over precipices. 




OS'TRICH, the largest of birds, and a 
sort of connecting link between fowls 
and quadrupeds, termed by the Persians, 
Arabs, and by Greeks, the "camel-bird." 
It is a native of the dry and torrid re- 
gions of Africa and Western Asia. The 
gray ostrich is seven feet high, and its 
neck three feet long ; it weighs nearly 
eighty pounds, and is strong enough to 
carry two men. The other species, with 
glossy black wings and white tail, is 
sometimes ten feet high. The beautiful 
plumes so highly valued are found on 
the Avings, about twenty on each, those 
of the tail being usually broken and 
worn. There are no feathers on the 
thighs, or under the wings ; and the neck 
is but scantily clothed with thin whitish 
hairs. The weight of the body and the 
size and structure of the wings show that 
the animal is formed for running rather 
than flying. 



The ostrich is described in Job 39: IB- 
IS ; and in various places where our 
translation calls it the "owl," Job 
30:29; Jer. 50:39; or " daughter of the 
owl," Isa. 13 : 21 ; 34 : 13 ; 43 : 20 ; Mic. 
1:8. In these and other passages it fig- 
ures as a bird of the desert. Shy and 
timorous, it is occasionally driven by 
himger to visit and ravage cultivated 
fields ; but is usually found only in the 
heart of the desert, in troops, or small 
groups, or mingling familiarly with the 
herds of wild asses, gnus, and quaggas. 
Its food is often scarce and poor, plants 
of the desert " withered before they are 
grown up;" also snails, insects, and 
various reptiles ; for it has a voracious 
and indiscriminating appetite, swallow- 
ing the vilest and the hardest siibstances. 
Job speaks particularly of the speed of 
the ostrich, " She scorneth the horse and 
his rider." So Xenophcn, the biogra- 
pher of Cyrus, says of the ostriche^ of 
Arabia, that none could overtake them, 
the baffled horsemen soon returning from 
the chase ; and the writer of a voyage to 
Senegal says, "The ostrich sets off at a 
hard gallop; but after being excited a 
little, she expands her wings as if to 
catch the wind, and abandons herself to 
a speed so great, that she seems not to 
touch the ground. I am persuaded she 
would leave far behind the swiftest Eng- 
lish courser." 

She scoops out for herself a circular 
nest in the sand, and lays a large num- 
ber of eggs ; some of which are placed 
without the nest, as though intended for 
the nourishment of the young brood. 
The mother bird, with the help of the 
sun in the tropics, and of her mate in 
the cool nights, performs the process of 
incubation ; but her timidity is such that 
she flies from her nest at the approach of 
danger, and as Dr. Shaw remarks, ' ' for- 
sakes her eggs or her young ones, to 
which, perhaps, she never returns ; or if 
she does, it may be too late either to 
restore life to the one, or to preserve the 
lives of the others. Agreeably to this 
account, the Arabs meet sometimes w^ith 
whole nests of these eggs undisturbed ; 
some of them are sweet and good, others 
are addle and corrupted. They often 
meet with a few of the little ones no 
bigger than well-grown pullets, half 
starved, straggling and moaning about, 
like so many distressed orphans for their 
mother. In this manner the ostrich 
323 



OTH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



OX 



may be said to be ' hardened against her 
yoiing ones, as tliough they were not 
hers ; her labor, ' in hatching and attend- 
ing them so far, ' being vain, without 
fear,' or the least concern of what be- 
comes of them afterwards. This want of 
affection is also recorded in Lam. 4 : 3, 
'The daughter of my people is become 
cruel, like the ostriches in the wilder- 
ness;' that is, apparently by deserting 
her own children, and receiving others 
m return." 

When the ostrich is provoked, she 
sometimes makes a fierce, angry, and 
hissing noise, with her throat inflated, 
and her mouth open ; at other times she 
has a moaning and plaintive cry ; and in 
the night the male repels prowling ene- 
mies by a short roar which is sometimes 
taken for that of a lion, Mic. 1:8. 

OTH'NIEL, son of Kenaz, and first 
judge of the Israelites, delivering them 
from the tyranny of the king of Mesopo- 
tamia, and ruling them in peace forty 
years. His wife Achsa, daughter of his 
uncle Caleb, Avas the reward of his valor 
in taking the citv of Debir, Josh. 15:17 ; 
Judg. 1:13; 3:9", 10. 

OUCH'ES, sockets in which precious 
stones were set, Ex. 28:11, 25 ; 39:6. 

OVEN. See Bread. 



another, Lev. 11 : 17 ; Deut. 14 : 16 ; Isa. 
34:11, the ibis or night-heron. 





THE SCREECH-OWI< ; STRIX FLAMMEA. 

OWL, a night bird of prey, imfit for i 
food. Several species are found in Pal- \ 
estine, and are mentioned in the Bible ; . 
as in Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14:16; Isa. i 
14:23 ; 34:15 ; Zeph. 2:14. One of the \ 
words, however, ti'anslatcd "owl," prob- ; 
ablv means " ostricu," (which see ;) and ! 
324 



THE BULL, OF SYRIA. 

OX, the male of the beeve kind when 
grown, synonymous in the Bible with 
bull; a clean animal, by the Levitical 
law ; much used for food, 1 Kin. 19 : 21, 
and constituting no small part of the 
wealth of the Hebrews in their pastoral 
life. Gen. 24:35; Job 1:14 ; 42:12. Oxen 
were used in agriculture for ploughing, 
1 Kin. 19 : 19 ; and for treading out the 
grain, during which they were not to be 
muzzled, 1 Cor. 9 : 9, but Avell fed, Isa. 
30 : 24. The testing of a new yoke of 
oxen is still a business of great impor- 
tance in the East, as of old, Luke 14:19. 
A passage in Campbell's travels in South 
Africa well illustrates the proverbial ex- 
pression, " as a bullock unaccustomed to 
the yoke," Jer. 31 : 18: "I had frequent 
opportunities of witnessing the conduct of 
oxen when for the first time put into the 
yoke to assist in dragging the wagons. 
On observing an ox that had been in 
yoke beginning to get weak, or his hoofs 
to be worn down to the quick by tread- 
ing on the sharp gravel, a fresh ox was 
put into the yoke in his place. When 
the selection fell on an ox I had received 
as a present from some African king, of 
course one completely unaccustomed to 
the yoke, such generally made a strenu- 
ous struggle for liberty, repeatedly break- 
ing the yoke, and attempting to make 
its escape. At other times such bullocks 
lay down upon their sides or back, and 
remained so in defiance of the Hotten- 
tots, though two or three of them would 
be lashing them with their ponderous 
whips. Sometimes, from pity to the 
animal, I would interfere, and beg them 
to be less cruel. 'Cruel,' they would 
say, ' it is mercy ; for if we do not con- 



PAD 



BIBLE DICTIOISARY. 



PAL 



quer him now, he will require to be so 
beaten all his life' " 

The "wild ox," mentioned in Dent. 
14:5, is supposed to have been a species 
of stag or antelope. See Bulls of Ba- 

SUAN. 



P. 



PA'DAN-A'EAM, the plains of Aram or 
Syria, Gen. 25:20; 28:2; 31:18, or sim- 
ply Padan, Gen. 48 : 7, the plain, in dis- 
tinction from the "mountains" of Aram, 
Num. 23 : 7. See Mesopotamia, and 
Syria. 

PAL'ESTINE denotes, in the Old Tes- 
tament, the country of the Philistines, 
which was that part of the Land of Prom- 
ise extending along the Mediterranean sea 
on the varying western border of Simeon, 
Judah, and Dan, Ex. 15:14; Isa. 14:29, 
31 ; Joel 3 : 4. Palestine, taken in later 
usage in a more general sense, signifies 
the whole country of Canaan, as well 
beyond as on this side of the Jordan ; 
though frequently it is restricted to the 
country on this side that river ; so that 
in later times the words Judea and Pal- 
estine were synonymous. We find also 
the name of Syria-Palestina given to the 
Land of Promise, and even sometimes 
this province is comprehended in Ccele- 
Syria, or the Lower Syria. Herodotus is 
the most ancient writer known who 
speaks of Syria-Palestina. He places it 
between Phoenicia and Egypt. See Ca- 
naan. 

PALM'ER-WOKM. Tliis old English 
term, meaning pilgrim-worm, is used in 
Joel 1:4; 2 : 25 ; Amos 4 : 9, like "can- 
ker-worm" and "caterpillar," for the 
locust in one or another of its various 
species or transitions. These insects are 
very destructive even before they reach 
the winged state. See Locust. 

PALM-TREE, Ex. 15 : 27. This tree 
is called in Hebrew tamar, from its 
straight, upright, branchless growth, for 
which it seems more remarkable than 
any other tree ; it sometimes rises to the 
height of a hundred feet. See Tamar. 

The palm is one of the most beautiful 
trees of the vegetable kingdom. The 
stalks are generally full of rugged knots, 
which render it comparatively easy to 
climb to the top for the fruit. Song 
7 : 7, 8. These projections are the ves- 




tiges of the decayed leaves ; for the trunk 
is not solid like other trees, but its cen- 
tre is filled with pith, round which is a 
tough bark, full of strong fibres when 
young, which, as the tree grows old, 
hardens and becomes ligneous. To this 
bark the leaves are closely joined, which 
in the centre rise erect, but after they 
are advanced above the sheath that sur- 
rounds them, they expand very wide on 
every side the stem, and as the older 
leaves decay, the stalk advances in 
height. With its ever verdant and 
graceful crown continually aspiring tow- 
ards heaven, it is an apt image of the 
soul growing in grace, Psa. 92:12. The 
leaves, when the tree has grown to a 
size for bearing fruit, are six to eight feet 
long, are very broad when spread out, 
and are used for covering the tops of 
houses, and similar purposes. 

The fruit, from which the palm is 
often called the date-tree, grows below 
the leaves in clusters sometimes weigh- 
ing over fifteen pounds, and is of a sweet 
and agreeable taste. The diligent na- 
tives, says Mr. Gibbon, celebrate, either 
in verse or prose, the three hundred 
and sixty uses to which the trunk, the 
branches or kmg leaf-stalks, the leaves, 
fibres, and fruit of the palm are skilfully 
applied, A considerable part of the in- 
habitants of Egypt, of Arabia, and Per- 
sia, subsist almost entirely on its fruit. 
They boast also of its medicinal virtues. 
Their camels feed upon the date stone. 
From the leaves they make couches, bas- 
kets, bags, mats, and brushes ; from the 
325 



PAL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PAR 



branches or stalks, cages for their poul- 
try, and fences for their gardens ; from 
the fibres of the trunk, thread, ropes, 
and rigging ; from the sap is prepared a 
spirituous liquor; and the body of the 
tree furnishes fuel : it is even said tliat 
from one variety of the palm-tree, the 
phcenix farinifera, meal has been extract- 
ed, which is found among the fibres of 
the trunk, and has been used for food. 

Several parts of the Holy Land, no 
less than of Idumrea, that lay contigu- 
ous to it, are described by the ancients 
to have abounded with date-trees. Ju- 
dea particularly is typified in several 
coins of Vespasian by a disconsolate 
woman sitting imder a palm-tree, with 
the inscription, Jud.ea Capta. In Deut. 
34:3, Jericho is called the "city of palm- 
trees;" and several of these trees are 
still found in that vicinity ; but in gen- 
eral they are now rare in Palestine. 
Palm wreaths, and branches waved in 
the air or strown on the road, are asso- 
ciated not only with the honors paid to 
ancient conquerors in the Grecian games 
and in war, but with the triumphant 
entry of the King of Zion into Jerusa- 
lem, John 12 : 12, 13, and with his more 
glorious triumph Avith his people in 
heaven, Rev. 7:9. 

PAL'SY, or paralysis, strikes some- 
times one side or portion of the body, 
and sometimes the whole : affecting the 
power of motion, or the power of sen- 
sation, or both. It is one of the least 
curable of diseases ; but the Saviour 
healed it with a word. Matt. 4 : 24 ; 
12 : 10 ; Mark 2 : 3-12. The " Avithered 
hand," Mark 3:1, was probably an effect 
of the palsy. There is also a palsy of the 
soul, which the Great Physician can heal, 
and he alone. 

PAMPHYL'IA, a province of Asia Mi- 
nor, having Cilicia east, Lycia west, Pi- 
sidia north, and the Mediterranean south. 
It is opposite to Cyprus, and the sfea be- 
tween the coast and the island is called 
the ' ' sea of Pamphylia. ' ' The chief city 
of Pamphylia was Perga, where Paul and 
Barnabas preached. Acts 13:13 ; 14:24. 

PAN'NAG, in Ezek. 27: 17, is the He- 
brew word for some unknown product 
of Palestine, which the Jews sold to 
the Tyrians. It is variously understood 
to mean millet, sweetmeats, a delicate 
gpice, etc. 

PA'PER, PAPYRUS. See Book. 

PA'PHOS, a maritime city on the 
326 



western extremity of the isle of Cyprus. 
It had a tolerable harbor, and was the 
station of a Roman proconsul. About 
sixty furlongs from the city was the cel- 
ebrated temple of Venus, who was hence 
often called the " Paphian goddess." 
The infamous rites in honor of this god- 
dess continued to be practised hundreds 
of years after Paul and Barnabas intro- 
duced the gospel here, though their la- 
bors were blessed with some fruits, Acts 
13:6-13. See Elymas. 

PAR' ABLE, derived from a Greek word 
which signifies, to compare things to- 
gether, to form a parallel or similitude 
of them with other things. What w^e 
call the Proverbs of Solomon, which are 
moral maxims and sentences, the Greeks 
call the Parables of Solomon. In like 
manner, when Job answers his friends, 
it is said he took up his "parable," 
Job 27 : I ; 29 : 1. In the New Testa* 
ment the word parable denotes some- 
times a true history, or an illustrative 
sketch from nature ; sometimes a prov- 
erb or adage, Luke 4:23 ; a truth darkly 
or figuratively expressed. Matt. 15 : 15 ; 
a type, Heb. 9:9 ; or a similitude, Matt. 
24 : 32. The parabolical, enigmatical, 
figurative, and sententious way of speak- 
ing, was the language of the Eastern 
sages and learned men, Psa. 49:4 ; 78:2; 
and nothing was more insupportable 
than to hear a fool utter parables, Pro v. 
26:7. 

The prophets employed parables the 
more strongly to impress prince and peo- 
ple with their threatenings or their prom- 
ises. Nathan reproved David under the 
parable of a rich man who had taken 
away and killed the lamb of a poor 
man, 2 Sam. 12. See also Judg. 9:7-15 ; 
2 Kin. 14 : 9, 10. Our Saviour frequently 
addressed the people in parables, there- 
by verifying the prophecy of Isaiah, 6:9, 
that the people should see without know- 
ing, and hear without understanding, in 
the midst of instructions. This result, 
however, only proved how inveterate 
were their hardness of heart and blind- 
ness of mind ; for in no other way could 
he have offered them instruction more 
invitingly, clearly, or forcibly, than by 
this beautiful and familiar mode. The 
Hebrew writers made great use of it ; 
and not only the Jews, but the Arabs, 
Syrians, and all the nations of the East 
were and still are admirers of this form 
of discourse. 



PAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PAR 



In the interpretation of a parable, its 
primary truth and main scope are chiefly 
to be considered. The minute particu- 
lars are less to be regarded than in a sus- 
tained allegory ; and serious errors are 
occasioned by pressing every detail, and 
inventing for it some spiritual analogy. 

The following parables of our Lord are 
recorded by the evangelists. 

Wise and foolish builders, Matt. 7 : 24-27. 

Children of the bride chamber, Matt. 9 :15. 

New cloth and old garment, Matt. 9 :16. 

Tsew wine and old bottles, Matt. 9 : 17. 

Unclean spirit, 3Iatt. 12 :43. 

Sower, Matt. 13 :3, IS ; Luke 8 :5, 11. 

Tares, .Matt. 13 : 2-^-30, 36-43. 

Mustard .seed, Matt. 13 :31,32 ; Luke 13 :19. 

Leaven, Matt. 13 :33. 

Treasure hid in a field, Matt. 13 :4-l. 

Pearl of great price, Matt. 13 -.45-46. 

Ket cast into the sea. Matt. 13 : 47-50. 

3Ieat3 defiling not. Matt. 15 : 10-15. 

Unmerciful servant. Matt. 18 :23-u5. 

Laborers hired, Matt. 20 :1-16. 

Two sons, 3Latt. 21 : 28-32. 

Wicked husbandmen, Matt. 21 : 33-45. 

Marriage-feast, 3Iatt. 22 : 2-14. 

Fig tree leafing, 3Iatt. 24 : 32-34. 

Man of the house watching, Matt. 24 :43. 

Faithful and evil servants, Matt. 24 : 45-51. 

Ten virgins, Matt. 25 : 1-13. 

Talents, Matt. 25:14-30. 

Kingdom divided against itself, Mark 3 : 24. 

House divided against itself, Mark 3 :25. 

Strong man armed, Mark 3:27; Luke 
11 :21. 

Seed growing secretly, Mark 4 : 26-29. 

Lighted candle, Mark 4 :21 ; Luke 11 :33- 
36. 

Man taking a far journey, Mark 13 : 34-37. 

Blind leading the blind, Luke 6 :39. 

Beam and mote, Luke 6 :41, 42. 

Tree and its fruit, Luke 6 : 43-45. 

Creditor and debtors, Luke 7 : 41-47. 

Good Samaritan, Luke 10 : 30-37. 

Importunate friend, Luke 11 :5-9. 

Kich fool, Luke 12:16-21. 

Cloud and wind, Luke 12 : 54-57. 

Barren fig-tree, Luke 13 :6-9. 

Men bidden to a feast, Luke 14 : 7-11. 

Builder of a tower, Luke 14 : 28-30, 33. 

King going to war, Luke 14 : 31-33. 

Savor of salt, Luke 14 :34, 35. 

Lost sheep, Luke 15 :3-7. 

Lost piece of silver, Luke 15 : 8-10. 

Prodigal son, Luke 15 : 11-32. 

Unjust steward, Luke 10 :l-8. 

Kich man and Lazarus, Luke 16 : 19-31. 

Importunate widow, Luke 18 :l-8. 

Pliari.see and publican, Luke 18 : 9-14. 

Pounds, Luke 19 : 12-27. 

Good shepherd, John 10 :1-R. 

Vine and branches, John 15 :l-5. 

PARADISE, a Greek word signifying 
a park, or garden with trees. The He- 
brew word GAX, garden, is used in a similar 
way, Neh. 2:8; Eccl. 2:5; Song 4:13. 

The Septuagint uses the word Para- 
dise when speaking of the garden of 



Eden, in which the Lord placed Adam 
and Eve. This famous garden is indeed 
commonly known by the name of "the 
terrestrial paradise," and there is hardly 
any part of the world in which it has not 
been sought. See Eden. 

In the New Testament, ' ' paradise ' ' is 
put, in allusion to the paradise of Eden, 
for the place where the souls of the 
blessed enjoy happiness. Thus our Sav- 
iour tells the penitent thief on the cross, 
"To-day shalt thou be with me in par- 
adise ;" that is, in the state of the bless- 
ed, Luke 23:43. Paul, speaking of him- 
self in the third person, says, "I knew 
a man that was caught up into paradise, 
and heard unspeakable words, which it 
is not lawful for a man to utter," 2 Cor. 
12 : 4. And in Rev. 2:7; 22 : 14, the 
natural features of the scene where in- 
nocence and bliss Avere lost, are used to 
depict the w^orld where these are restored 
perfectly and for ever. 

PA'RAN, or El-Paran, Gen. 14 : 6, a 
large tract of desert country lying south 
of Palestine, and -west of the valley El 
Arabah, Avhich runs from the Dead sea 
to the gulf of Akaba. It was in and 
near this desert region that the Israel- 
ites wandered thirty-eight years. See 
Exodus. It extended on the south to 
within three days' journey of Sinai, Num. 

10 : 12, 33 ; 12 : 16, if not to Sinai itself, 
Deut. 33 : 2 ; Hab. 3 : 3. On the north, 
it included the deserts of Kadesh and 
Zin, Num. 13:3, 21, 27. Here Hagar and 
Ishmael dwelt. Gen. 21 : 14, 21 ; and 
hither David, and afterwards Hadad, 
retired for a time, 1 Sam. 25 : 1 ; 1 Kin. 

11 : 18. Burckhardt found it a dreary 
expanse of calcareous soil, covered with 
black flints. Some cities and cultivat- 
ed grounds, however, and considerable 
patches of pasture lands, were anciently 
found in this region. The north-east 
part is traversed from east to west by 
ranges of hills. 

PARCHED GROUND, in Isa. 35:7, 
translated by Lowth ' ' the glowing 
sand," by Henderson "the vapory illu- 
sion," and in German sand-meer and xcas- 
serschein, sand -sea and water -show, is 
understood to refer to the mirage, an 
optical illusion described by almost all 
travellers in tropical deserts. The in- 
experienced wanderer sees at a distance 
what he thinks is a beautiful sheet of 
water ; and imagination clothes the far- 
ther shore with herbage, shrubbery, 
327 



PAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PAR 



buildings, etc. ; but on hasting towards ! 
it he llnds the delightful vision recede i 
and at length disappear, and nothing \ 
remains but the hot sands. QuintusCur- i 
tius long ago gave an account of this ^ 
wonder in his Life of Alexander the 
Great. It is thus described in St. John's 
"Egypt and Nubia :" 

"I had been riding along in a rev- 
ery, when chancing to raise my head, I 
thought I perceived, desertwards, a dark 
strip on the far horizon. What could it 
be ? My companion, who had very keen 
sight, was riding in advance of me, and 
with a sudden exclamation, he pulled 
up his dromedary, and gazed in the 
same direction. I called to him, and 
asked him what he thought of yonder 
strip, and whether he could make out 
any thing in it distinctly. He answer- 
ed, that water had all at once appeared 
there; that he saw the motion of the 
waves, and tall palms and other trees 
bending up and down over them, as if 
tossed by a strong wind. This, then, 
was the mirage. My companion gal- 
loped towards it, and Ave followed him, 
though the Arabs tried to prevent us ; 
and ere long I could with my own eyes 
discern something of this strange phe- 
nomenon. It was, as my friend had 
reported, a broad sheet of water, with 
fresh green trees along its banks ; and 
yet there was nothing actually before us 
but parched yellow sand. 

' ' Far as we rode in the direction of the 
apparition, we never came any nearer to 
it; the whole seemed to recoil, step for 
step, with our advance. We halted, and 
remained long in contemplation of the 
magic scene, until whatever was un- 
pleasant in its strangeness ceased by 
degrees to affect us. Never had I seen 
any landscape so vivid as this seeming 
one ; never water so bright, or trees so 
softly green, so tall and stately. We 
returned slowly to our Arabs, who had 
not stirred from the spot where we left 
them. Looking back once more into 
the desert, we saAv the apparition grad- 
ually becoming fainter, until at last it 
melted away into a dim band, not un- 
like a thin mist sweeping over the face 
of a field." 

The same phenomenon may be allud- 
ed to in the expression, "Avaters that 
fail," Jer. 15 : 18. It is ascribed to the 
unequal refraction of the rays of light, 
caused in some way by excessive heat. 
328 



The Saviour and his proffered blessings 
are not, like earthly hopes, a deception 
and a mockery, but true Avaters of eter- 
nal life. 

PAECH'MENT. See Book. 

PAR'MENAS, one of the first seven 
deacons, Acts 6:5. 

PAPv'THIA is supposed to have been 
originally a province of Media, on its 
eastern side, which was raised into a 
distinct kingdom by Arsaces, b. c. 250. 
It soon extended itself over a great part 
of the ancient Persian empire, and is fre- 
quently put for that empire in Scripture, 
and other ancient Avritings. Parthia 
maintained itself against all aggressors 
for nearly five hundred years, and was 
not subjugated even by the Piomans; 
but in A. D. 22G, one of the descendants 
of the ancient Persian kings united it to 
his empire, and Persia resumed its for- 
mer name and dynasty. 

The Parthians Avere celebrated, espec- 
ially by the poets, for a peculiarity of 
their mode of fighting on horseback, 
Avhich consisted in discharging their ar- 
roAvs Avhile they fled. They Avould seem 
to have borne no very distant resem- 
blance to the modern Cossacks. It is 
said the Parthians Avere either refugees 
or exiles from the Scythian nations. 
JcAvs and proselytes from among them 
were present at Jerusalem at the Pente- 
cost Acts 2:9. 

PAPTI'flON, Eph. 2 : 14. See the 
various courts under Temple. 




RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE ; PERDIX RUBRA. 

PAR'TRIDGE, a Avell- known bird, 
three varieties of which are found in 



TAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PAS 



Palestine. Saul's hunting of David like 
a partridge upon the mountain, 1 Sam. 
26 : 20. may he illustrated by an occa- 
sional practice of the Arabs, who, ob- 
serving that this bird becomes languid 
on being started several times in quick 
succession, at length rush suddenly in 
upon it and knock it over Avith their 
clubs. In Jer. 17 : 11, we may best ren- 
der. As the partridge gathereth eggs 
which she hath not laid ; the meaning 
being that she loses her toil, since the 
young birds, Avhen hatched, forsake her. 

PAR'VAIM, 2 Chr. 3 : G, the region of 
fine gold ; probably Ophir ; or according 
to Gesenius, the East. 

PASH'UE, I., the son of Immer, a 
priest and a chief officer in the temple ; 
he violently opposed the prophet Jere- 
miah, and persecuted him even with 
blows and confinement in the stocks ; 
but all recoiled on his own head, Jer. 
20:1-6. 

II. The son of Malchiah, an enemy of 
Jeremiah, and active in securing his im- 
prisonment, Jer. 21 : 1 ; 88 : 1-6. Many 
descendants of this Pashur returned from 
captivity at Babylon, 1 Chr. 9:12; Ezra 
2:38. 

PAS'SION, Acts 1:3, suffering; the last 
Bufferings and death of Christ. In Acts 
14: 15, James 5 : 17, "lilvc passions" is 
nearly equivalent to "the same human 
nature." 

PASS'OYER, Hebrew Pesacii, Greek 
Pasciia, a passing over, a name given to 
the festival established and to the vic- 
tim offered in commemoration of the 
coming forth out of Egypt, Ex. 12 ; be- 
cause the night before their departure, 
the destroying angel, who slew the first- 
born of the Egyptians, passed over the 
houses of the Hebrews without entering 
them, they being marked with the blood 
of the lamb, which for this reason was 
called the Passover, Mark 14 : 12, 14, 
1 Cor. 5:7, or the paschal lamb. 

llie month of the exodus from Egypt, 
called Abib by Moses, and afterwards 
named Nisan, was ordained to be there- 
after the first month of the sacred or 
ecclesiastical year. On the fourteenth 
day of this month, between the two 
evenings, (see Evening,) they were to 
kill the paschal lamb, and to al)stain 
from leavened bread. The day follow^- 
ing, being the fifteenth, reckoned from 
six o'clock of the preceding evening, was 
the grand feast of the Passover, which 



continiied seven days, usually called 
"the days of unleavened bread," cr 
"the Passover," Luke 22 : 1 ; but only 
the first and the seventh day were pe- 
culiarly solemn. Lev. 23 : 5-8 ; Num. 
28 : 16, 17 ; Matt. 26 : 17. They were 
days of rest, and were called Sabbaths 
by the Jews. The slain lamb was to be 
without defect, a male, and of that year. 
If no lamb could be found, they might 
take a kid. They killed a lamb or a kid 
in each family ; but if any family was 
not large enough to eat the lamb^ they 
might associate another small family with 
them. The Passover was to be slain and 
eaten only at Jerusalem, though tbe re- 
mainder of the festival might be observed 
in any place. The lamb Avas to be roast- 
ed entire, and eaten the same night, with 
unleavened bread and bitter herbs ; not 
a bone of it Avas to be broken ; and all 
that Avas not eaten Avas to be consumed 
by fire, Ex. 12 ; John 19:36. If any one 
Avas unable to keep the Passover at the 
time appointed, he Avas to observe it on 
the second month ; he that Avilfully neg- 
lected it, forfeited the covenant favor of 
God ; Avhile on the other hand, resident 
foreigners Avere admitted to partake of 
it. Num. 9:6-14 ; 2 Chr. £0. The direc- 
tion to eat the Passover in the posture 
and Avith the equipments of travellers, 
seems to have been observed only on the 
first Passover. Besides the private fami- 
ly festival, there Avere public and national 
sacrifices oflered ou each of the seven 
days of unleavened bread, Num. 28 : 19. 
On the second day also the first-fruits of 
the barlev harvest Avere offered in the 
temple, Lev. 23 : 10. 

Jewish writers give us full descrip- 
tions of the Passover feast, from Avhich 
Ave gather a fcAV particulars. Those Avho 
Avere to partake having performed the 
required purifications and being assem- 
bled at the table, the master of the feast 
took a cup of imfermented AA'ine, and 
blessed God for the fruit of the vine, of 
Avhich all then drank. This Avas folloAv- 
ed by a Avashing of hands. The paschal 
lamb Avas then brought in, Avith unleav- 
ened cakes, bitter herbs, and a sauce or 
fruit-paste. The master of the feast then 
blessed God for the fruits of the earth, 
and gaA^e the explanations prescribed in 
Ex. 12:26, 27, specifying each particular. 
After a second cup, Avith a second Avash- 
ing of hands, an imleavened cake Avas 
broken and distributed, and a blessing 
329 



PAS 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PAU 



pronounced iipon the Giver of bread. 
"When all had eaten sufficiently of the 
food before them, a third cup of thanks- 
giving, for deliverance from Egypt and 
for the gift of the law, was blessed and 
drunk. Matt. 26:27; 1 Cor. 10:16; this 
was called " the cup of blessing." The 
repast was usually closed by a fourth cup 
and psalms of praise, Psa. 145 : 10 ; 136, 
etc.; Matt. 26:30. 

Our Saviour partook of the Passover 
for the last time, with his disciples, on 
the evening with which the day of his 
crucifixion commenced, Matt. 26 : 17 ; 
Mark 14 : 12 ; Luke 22 : 7. The follow- 
ing day, commencing with the sunset 
three hours after his death, was the Jew- 
ish Sabbath, and was also observed as " a 
Passover," John 13 : 29 ; 18:28; 19:14, 
31. Compare Matt. 27:62. 

This sacred festival was both com- 
memorative and typical in its nature 
and design ; the deliverance which it 
commemorated was a type of the great 
salvation it foretold. The Saviour iden- 
tified himself with the paschal lamb as 
its great Antitype, in substituting the 
Lord's supper for the Passover. "Christ 
our Passover is sacrificed for us, ' ' 1 Cor. 
5:7; and as we compare the innocent 
lamb slain in Egypt with the infinite 
Lamb of God, the contrast teaches us 
how infinite is the perdition which He 
alone can cause to ' ' pass over ' ' us, and 
how essential it is to be under the shel- 
ter of his sprinkled blood, before the 
night of judgment and ruin overtakes 
us. 

The modern Jews also continue to 
observe the Passover. With those who 
live in Palestine the feast continues a 
week; but the Jews out of Palestine 
extend it to eight days, according to an 
ancient custom, by which the Sanhedrim 
sent two men to observe the first appear- 
ance of the new moon, who immediately 
gave notice of it to the chief of the coun- 
cil. For fear of error, they kept two 
days of the festival. 

As to the Christian Passover, the 
Lord's supper, it was instituted by 
Christ when, at the last Passover supper 
he ate with his apostles, he gave them a 
symbol of his body to eat, and a symbol 
of his blood to drink, under the form 
of bread and wine ; prefiguring that he 
should give up his body to the Jews and 
to death. The paschal lamb which the 
Jews killed, tore to pieces, and ate, and 
330 



whose blood preserved them from the 
destroying angel, was a type and figure 
of our Saviour's death and passion, and 
of his blood shed for the salvation of the 
world. 

PAS'TOR, shepherd, one whose office it 
is to feed and guard the flock of Christ, 
Eph. 4:11 ; 1 Pet. 5:2. See Shepherd. 

PAS'TURAGE. See Shepherd. 

PATARA, a maritime city of Lycia in 
Asia Minor, at the mouth of the river 
Xanthus, celebrated for an oracle of 
Apollo, who was supposed to reside here 
during the six winter months, and the 
rest of the year at Delos. Paul, in pass- 
ing from Philippi to Jerusalem, found 
here a ship for Phoenicia, in which he 
embarked, Acts 21:1. 

PATE, Psa. 7 : 16, an obsolete word for 
head, or top of the head. 

PATH'ROS, Isa. 11:11 ; Jer. 44:1, 15 ; 
Ezek. 29:14 ; 30:14, one of the three an- 
cient divisions of Egypt, namely, Upper 
or Southern Egypt, which Ezekiel speaks 
of as distinct from Egypt, and the origi- 
nal abode of the Egyptians ; as indeed 
Ethiopia and Upper Egypt really were. 
Its early inhabitants, called Pathrusim, 
were descendants of Mizraim, Gen. 10:14. 
See Egypt. 

PAT'ilOS, an island of the iEgean sea, 
to which the apostle and evangelist John 
w^as banished by Domitian, a. d. 95, 
Rev. 1:9. It is a rocky and desolate 
island, about twenty-eight miles in cir- 
cumference, with a bold and deeply 
indented shore ; and was used by the 
Romans as a place of banishment for 
many criminals. It lies between Samos 
and Naxos, about forty miles west by 
south from the promontory of Miletus ; 
and contains at present some four thou- 
sand inhabitants, mostly Greeks. Its 
principal port is a deep bay on the north- 
east side ; the town lying on a high and 
steep hill, the summit of which is crown- 
ed by the old and castle-like monastery 
of St. John. Half way down the hill is 
a natural grotto, now covered by a Greek 
chapel, school, etc. In this cave, over- 
looking the sea and its islands towards 
his beloved Ephesus, tradition says that 
John saw and recorded his prophetic vis- 
ions. The island is now called Patino ; 
and the port Patmo, or San Giovanni di 
Patino. 

PAUL, the distinguished "apostle of 
the Gentiles;" also called Saul, a He- 
brew name. He is first called Paul in 



PAU 



BIi3LE DICTIONARY. 



PAU 



Acts 13:12 ; and as some think, assumed 
this Ivjnian name according to a com- 
mon custom of Jews in foreign hinds, 
or in honor of Sergius Paulus, ver. 7, 
his friend and an early convert. Both 
names, however, may have belonged to 
him in childhood. He was horn at Tar- 
sus in Cilicia, and inherited from his 
father the privileges of a Poman citizen. 
His parents belonged to the tribe of 
Benjamin, and brought up their son as 
"a Hebrew of the Hebrews," Phil. 3 : 5. 
Tarsus was highly distinguished for 
learning and culture, and the opportuni- 
ties for improvement it afforded were no 
doubt diligently impi-oved by Paul. At 
a suitable age he Avas sent to Jerusalem 
to complete his education in the school 
of Gamaliel, the most distinguished and 
right-minded of the Rabbis of that age. 
It does not appear that he was in Jerusa- 
lem during the ministry of Christ ; and 
it was perhaps after his return to Tarsus 
that he learned the art of tent-making, 
in accordance with a general practice 
among the Jews, and their maxim, "He 
that does not teach his son a useful 
handicraft, teaches him to steal," Acts 
18:3; 20:34; 2 Thess. 3:8. 

We next find him at Jerusalem, appar- 
ently about thirty years of age, high in 
the confidence of the leading men of the 
nation. He had profited by the instruc- 
tions of Gamaliel, and became learned in 
the law ; yielding himself to the strictest 
discipline of the sect of the Pharisees, he 
had become a fierce defender of Judaism 
and a bitter enemy of Christianity, Acts 
8:3; 26 : 9-11. After his miraculous 
conversion, of which Ave have three ac- 
counts, Acts 9 ; 22 ; 20, Christ was all in 
all to him. It was Christ who revealed 
himself to his soul at Damascus, Acts 
26 : 15 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 8 ; to Christ he gave 
his whole heart, and soul, mind, might, 
and strength; and thenceforth, living or 
dying, he was "the servant of Jesus 
Christ. ' ' He devoted all the poAvers of 
his ardent and energetic mind to the 
defence and propagation of the gospel of 
Christ, more particularly among the 
Gentiles. His vicAvs of the pure and 
lofty spirit of Christianity, in its Avorship 
and in its practical influence, appear to 
have been peculiarly clear and strong ; 
and the opposition Avhich he Avas thus 
led to make to the rites and ceremonies 
of the JcAvish worship, exposed him 
everywhere to the hatred and malice of 



his countrymen. On their accusation, 
he AA'as at length put in confinement by 
the Roman officers, and after being de- 
tained for tAvo years or more at Ciesarea, 
he Avas sent to Rome for trial, having 
himself appealed to the emperor. There 
is less certainty in respect to the accounts 
AAdiich are given of Paul afterAvards by 
the early ecclesiastical Avriters. Still, it 
Avas a Acry generally received opinion in 
the earlier centuries, that the apostle 
AA^as acquitted and discharged from his 
imprisonment at the end of tAvo years ; 
and that he afterAvards returned to Rome, 
Avhere he Avas again imprisoned and put 
to death by Nero. 

Paul appears to haA^e possessed all the 
learning Avhich Avas then current among 
the Jews, and also to have been ac- 
quainted Avitli Greek literature ; as ap- 
pears from his mastery of the Greek 
language, his frequent discussions Avith 
their philosophers, and his quotations 
from their poets — Aratus, Acts 17 : 28 ; 
Menander, 1 Cor. 15 : 33 ; and Epimeni- 
des, Tit. 1 : 12. Probably, however, a 
learned Greek education cannot Avith 
propriety be ascribed to him. But the 
most striking trait in his character is 
his enlarged vicAv of the universal de- 
sign and the spiritual nature of the re- 
ligion of Christ, and of its purifying and 
ennobling influence upon the heart and 
character of those avIio sincerely profess 
it. From the Saviour himself he had 
caught the flame of universal love, and 
the idea of salvation for all manldnd, 
Gal. 1 : 12. Most of the other apostles 
and teachers appear to haA^e clung to Ju- 
daism, to the rites, ceremonies, and dog- 
mas of the religion in Avhich they had 
been educated, and to have regarded 
Christianity as intended to be engrafted 
upon the ancient stock, Avhich Avas yet 
to remain as the trunk to support the 
new branches. Paul seems to have been 
among the first to rise above this narrow 
A'icAv, and to regard Christianity in its 
true light, as a universal religion. While 
others Avere for Judaizing all those A\'ho 
embraced the ncAv religion by imposing 
on them the yoke of Mosaic observances, 
it was Paul's endeavor to break doAvn 
the middle Avail of separation between 
JcAvs and Gentiles, and shoAv them that 
they Avere all "one in Christ." To this 
end all his labors tended ; and, ardent 
in the pursuit of this great object, he did 
not hesitate to censure the time-serving 
331 



PAU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PAU 



Peter, and to expose his own life in re- 
sisting the prejudices of his countrymen. 
Indeed, his live years' imprisonment at 
Jerusalem, Ciesarea, and Home arose 
chieriy from this cause. 

Tlie following chronological table of 
the principal events in Pauls life may 
he of use in directing and assisting in- 
quiries into this most interesting portion 
of history. The difterent chronologies of 
Hug, Lardncr, and Conybeare and How- 
son, are here presented side by side ; 
and thus the table, while it shoAvs the 
general agreement of chronologists, shows 
also that it is impossible to arrive at en- 
tire certainty in this resi^cct. 



Paul's conA'ersion, Acts 9. In the =,3 6 
twenty-first year of Tiberius 30 o6 36 

He goes to Arabia, and returns to 
Damascus, Gal. 1 : 17 ; and in the 
third year escapes from Damas- 
cus, and visits Jerusalem, Acts 
9 :'ja-it5, in the year 39 39 38 

From Jerusalem he goes to Tarsus, 
Acts y:oO; and after several 
years of labor in Cilicia and Syr- 
ia, Gal. 1 :21, during wliich it is 
supposed most of the sulierings 
occurred which are mentioned in 
2 Cor. 11:J4-J6, he went with 
Barnabas to Antioch in Syria, 
Acts 11 :L5, 'J6, where they labor- 
ed during the year - 44 43 44 

From Antioch lie is sent with Bar- 
nabas to Jerusalem, his second 
visit, to carry relief for the fam- 
ine, and returns to Antioch, Acts 
11:30 -45 44 45 

First great missionary tour, with 
Barnabas, from Antioch to Cy- 
pj-us, Antioch in ri.sidia, Iconi- 
um, Lystra, and Derbe ; and re- 
turning through the same places 
and Attalia to Antioch, Acts 
13:14, about two years, com- 
mencing - - 45 48 

Third visit to Jerusalem, with Bar- 
nabas, to consult respecting cir- 
cumcision, etc., and return to 
Antioch, Acts 15 :l.'-30 --- 53 50 50 

Second missionary tour, from An- 
tioch, through Cilicia, Derbe, 
Lystra, Fhrygia, (Talatia, 'Jroas, 
Keapolis, Philippi, Thessaloni- 
ca, Berea, Athens, and Corinth, 
Acts 15:3.5 to 18:1, where he 
finds Aquila 54 51 52 

After eighteen months at Corinth, 
he makes his fourth visit to Je- 
rusalem, by Cenchrea, Ephesus, 
and Cajsarea, and returns to An- 
tioch, Acts 18 :ll-2'2, in 56 — 54 

Third missionary tour, through 
Galatia and Thrygia, arriving at 
Ephesus, Acts 19:1, in 57 53 54 

And after two years at Ephesus, 
going through Troas and Mace- 
donia to Corinth, Acts 20 : 1 59 56 57 

332 



Fifth visit to Jerusalem, from Cor- 
inth, by Philippi, Troas, Mile- 
tus, Tyre, Ptolemais, and Caesa- 
rea, Acts20 :3 to21 :15 60 68 58 

After two years' imprisonment at 
Jerusalem and Caesarea, he sails 
from Sidon, by Myra, Fair Ha- 
vens, etc., to Malta, where he is 
shipwrecked ; in the spring, he 
proceeds to liome. Acts 21 : 17 to 
28:16 --.-63 61 61 

Two years' imprisonment in Pome, 
and release, Acts 'i8 : 30 65 63 63 

After laboring, as some think in 
Spain, Pom. 15:24, l::8 ; also in 
Ephesus ; 3Iacedonia, 1 Tim. 
1 :3 ; Crete, Tit. 1:5; Asia Mi- 
nor, 2 Tim. 1:15; and Nicopolis, 
Tit. 3 :13, he is again a prisoner 
at Pome, joyfully awaiting mar- 
tyrdom, though almost alone, 
2Tim. 2:9; 4:tj-18 — 65 68 

These various journeys of St. Paul, 
many of them made on foot, should 
be studied through on a map ; in con- 
nection witli the inspired narrative in 
Acts, and with his OAvn pathetic descrip- 
tion of his labors, 2 Cor. 11 : 23-29, 
wherein nevertheless the half is not told. 
When we revicAv the many regions he 
traversed and evangelized, the converts 
he gathered, and the churches he found- 
ed, the toils, perils, and trials he endur- 
ed, the miracles he wrought, and the 
revelations he received, the discourses, 
orations, and letters in which he so ably 
defends and unfolds Christianity, the 
immeasurable good which God by him 
accomplished, his heroic life, and his 
martyr death, he appears to us the most 
extraordinary of men. 

The character of Paul is most fully 
portrayed in his epistles, by wliich, as 
Chrysostom says, he "still lives in the 
mouths of men throughout the Avhole 
world. By them, not only his ow^n con- 
verts, but all the faithful even unto this 
day, yea, and all the saints who are yet 
to be born until Christ's coming again, 
both have been and shall be blessed." 
In them we observe the transforming 
and elevating power of grace in one 
originally turbulent and passionate — 
making him a model of manly and 
Christian excellence ; fearless and firm, 
yet considerate, courteous, and gentle ; 
magnanimous, patriotic, and self-sacri- 
ficing ; rich in all noble sentiments and 
affections. 

Epistles of Paul. — There are fourteen 
epistles in the New Testament usually 
ascribed to Paul, beginning with that to 
the Romans, and ending with that to 



PAV 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PEA 



the Hebrews. Of these the first thirteen 
have never been contested ; as to the 
latter, many good men have doubted 
whether Paul was the author, although 
the current of criticism is in favor of this 
opinion. These epistles, in which the 
principles of Christianity are developed 
for all periods, characters, and circum- 
.stances, are among the most important 
of the primitive documents of the Chris- 
tian religion, even apart from their in- 
spired character; and although they 
seem to have been written without spe- 
cial premeditation, and have reference 
mostly to transient circumstances and 
temporary relations, yet they every- 
where bear the stamp of the great and 
original mind of the apostle, as purified, 
elevated, and sustained by the influences 
of the Holy Spirit. 

It is worthy of mention here, that an 
expression of Peter respecting ' ' our be- 
loved brother Paul ' ' is often a little mis- 
understood. The words ' * in which ' ' in 
2 Pet. 3 : 16, are erroneously applied to 
the ' ' epistles ' ' of Paul ; and not to 
"these things" immediately preceding, 
that is, the subjects of which Peter was 
writing, as the Greek shows they should 
be. Peter finds no foult, either with 
Paul, or with the doctrines of revela- 
tion. 

The following is Larduer's arrange- 
ment of the epistles of Paul, with the 
places where they were written, and the 
dates : 

EPISTLES. PLACES. A. T>. 

1 Thessalonians Corinth 52 

2Thessaloiiians '■ - 52 

Gilatiins J Corinth or "I end of 52 

Ualatmns---.| jrpi^^.gug |orbeginningof 53 
1 Corinthians --Ephesus beginning of 53 

1 Timothy Macedonia - 53 

Titus " ornear it, near end 53 

2 Corinthians - - " ---about Oct. 57 

Romans Corinth '• Feb. 58 

Ephesians Itome " April, 01 

2 Timothy " " ^May, 61 

Philippians " before end of 62 

Colossians " '• " 62 

Philemon " " " 62 

Hebrews " spring, 63 

The arrangement of Hug is somewhat 
different ; and some critics who find evi- 
dence that Paul was released from his 
first imprisonment and lived until the 
spring of a. d. 68, assign the epistles 
Hebrews, 1 Timothy, Titus, and 2 Timo- 
thy to the last year of his life. See Tim- 
othy. 

PAVE'MENT. See Gabbatha. 




PEA'COCKS appear not to have been 
known in Palestine, until imported in 
the navv of Solomon, 1 Kin. 10 : 22 ; 
2Chr. 9:21. See TAnsiiisn. 

PEARLS were ranked by the ancients 
among the most precious substances, 
Rev. 17 : 4, and were highly valued as 
ornaments for women. Tlieir modest 
splendor still charms the orientals, and 
a string of pearls is a favorite decoration 
of eastern monarchs. The kingdom of 
heaven is compared to a goodly pearl, so 
superior to all others that the pearl mer- 
chant sold all that he had to secure it, 
knowing that he could obtain for it the 
highest' price, Matt. 13 : 45, 46. The 
gates of heaven are described as consist- 
ing of pearls; "every several gate was 
one pearl," Rev. 21:21. Tbe Saviour 
forbade his apostles to cast their pearls 
before swine, Matt. 7:6; that is, to ex- 
pose the precious truths of the gospel 
unnecessarily to those who reject them 
with scorn and violence. 

Pearls are a stony concretion in a spe- 
cies of oyster, found in the Persian gulf, 
on the coast of Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, 
etc., and in smaller quantities in various 
other places in both hemispheres. It is 
not known whether the pearl is a natu- 
ral deposit, or the consequence of disease, 
or of the lodging of some foreign body, 
as a grain of sand, within the shells. 
The pearl-oyster grows in clusters, on 
rocks in deep water ; and is brought up 
by trained divers, onlv during a few 
333 



PEE BIBLE DICTIONARY 



PEN 




weeks of calm weather in spring. The 
shell itself )delds the well-known "moth- 
er of pearl." 

PEEP, in Isa. 8:19, denotes the stifled, 
piping voice of necromancers. 

PE'KAH, son of Eemaliah, and gen- 
eral of the army of Pekahiah king of 
Israel. He conspired against his master, 
attacked him m the tower of his royal 
palace of Samaria, and having slain him, 
B. c. 758, he reigned in his place twenty 
years. In the latter part of his evil 
reign he formed an alliance with the 
Syrians of Damascus, and they attacked 
Ahaz king of Judah, who in turn sought 
the aid of Assyria. The result was, that 
Damascus was taken by Tiglath-pileser 
king of Assyria, and with it all the lands 
of Israel east of the Jordan and north of 
the sea of Galilee, their inhabitants being 
carried captive. Shortly afterwards Ho- 
shea son of Elah conspired against Pekah, 
slew him, and reigned in his stead, 2 Kin. 
15:25-38; 16:1-9; Isa. 7; 8:1-9; 17. 

PEKAHIAH, son and successor of 
Menahem king of Israel, was a wicked 
prince, and reigned but two years. Pe- 
kah, son of Ptcmaliah, conspired against 
him, and killed him in his o^vn palace, 
2 Kin. 15:22-25. 

PE'LEG, son of Eber, and fourth in 
descent from Shem. lie was called Pe- 
leg, division, because in his time the earth 
was divided, Gen. 10:25; 11:16. 

PEL'ETHITES are always mentioned 
together with the Cherethites, as consti- 
tuting the king's body-guard, 2 Sam. 
8 : 18 ; 22 : 23. The word, if not the 
name of a Jewish or a Philistine family, 
is supposed to signify runners; and thus 
they would seem to have been the royal 
messengers ; just as the Cherethites, from 
a Hebrew word signifying to cut of, were 
the king's executioners. See Chere- 
thites. 

334 




PEL'ICAN, Lev. 11 : 18, sometimes 
translated cormorant, Isa. 34:11; Zeph. 
2 : 14 ; a voracious waterfowl, somewhat 
gregarious and migratory, frequenting 
tropical climates, and still found on the 
waters of Egypt and Palestine. It fully 
equals the swan in size, and resembles it 
in shape and color. Its plumage is of a 
grayish white, except the long feathers, 
which are black. Its great peculiarity 
is its broad, flat bill, fifteen inches long ; 
and the pouch of the female under the 
bill, used for the temporary storage of 
food, and said to be able to hold fifteen 
quarts. When empty, this pouch is not 
seen ; but when full, it presents a very 
singular appearance. The pelican is a 
dull, indolent, and melancholy bird ; and 
its voice is harsh and dissonant, Psa. 
102 : 6. Its Hebrew name is probably 
derived from its habit of emptying its 
pouch of the food stored in it, by com- 
pressing it against its breast. The young 
then receive their food from their moth- 
er's bill ; and the current tradition that 
she tears her own breast to feed them 
with her blood, may have this origin. 
The pelican's bill also, terminating in a 
strong, curved, crimson tip and resting 
on the white breast, might seem to be 
tinq-ed with blood. 

PEN. The ancient pen was a stylus 
of hardened iron, Jer. 17 : 1, sometimes 
pointed Avith diamond, for writing on 
hard substances, like metallic plates : 
when waxen tablets were used, the stylus 
had one end made broad and smooth, 
for erasing errors, 2 Kin. 21 : 13. For 
parchment, cloth, and similar substances, 
a reed pen was used, or a fine hair pen- 
cil, with ink, Judg. 5 : 14 ; Job 19 : 24; 
Isa. 8:1; Jer. 36:23; 3 John 13. 



FEN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TER 



PENI'EL, or Penu'el, a town beyond 
the Jordan, and near the Jahhok ; de- 
fended by a strong tower, which Gideon 
broke down because the men of Penuel 
refused to aid him against the Midianites, 
Judg. 8 : 8-17. It was restored by Jero- 
boam I., 1 Kin. 12 : 25. It received its 
name, the face of God, from Jacob's there 
wrestling with the Angel Jehovah face 
to face, Gen. 32: 30. 

PENIN'NAH, the second wife of Elka- 
nah the father of Samuel. See Hannah. 
Their story illustrates the evils of polyg- 
amy, 1 Sam. 1. 




PEN'NY, the Greek drachma, or Po- 
man denarius, equivalent to about four- 
teen cents. In reading the Scripture 
passages in which this word occurs, we 
should consider that the real value of 
money, to purchase labor or commodi- 
ties, was far greater then than now ; and 
also that even the nominal value of the 
drachma would be better expressed by 
"shilling," or "franc," than by "pen- 
ny." Thus, "tAvo hundred shillings' 
worth of bread would not suffice, ' ' Mark 
C : 37 ; "he took out two francs and gave 
them to the host," Luke 10 : 35. So in 
Rev. 6 : G, "a measure of wheat for a 
penny ' ' expresses to the English reader 
the idea of great plenty ; Avhereas the 
original indicates a distressing scarcity. 
A drachma in Christ's time was good 
wages for a day's labor in a vineyard. 
Matt. 20:2. 

PEN'TATEUCH, the five hoohs, the 
books of Moses ; that is. Genesis, Exo- 
dus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy. 
See articles on those books, and also 
Moses. 

PEN'TECOST, the fiftieth, a feast cele- 
brated the fiftieth day after the sixteenth 
of Nisan, which was the second day of 
tbe feast of the passover. Lev. 23:15. 16. 
The Hebrews call it the ' ' feast of weeks, " 
Ex. 34 : 22, because it was kept seven 
weeks after the passover. They then 
offered the first-fruits of their wheat har- 
vest, which at that time was completed, 
Deut. 16 : 9, 10. These first-fruits con- 
335 



sisted in two loaves of leavened bread, 
of five pints of meal each. Lev. 23 : 17. 
Besides this offering, there were special 
sacrifices prescribed for this festival 
Num. 28:26-31. 

The feast of Pentecost was instituted, 
first, to oblige the Israelites to repair 
to the temple of the Lord, and there 
acknowledge his dominion over their 
country and their labors, by oflcring to 
him the first-fruits of all their harvests. 
Secondly, to commemorate, and to ren- 
ner thanks to God for the law given 
from mount Sinai, on the fiftieth day 
after their coming out of Egypt. It was 
on the day of Penteccst, that the Holy 
Spirit was first poured out upon the 
apostles and the Christian church. Acts 
2:1-3. On this occasion, as on the Pass- 
over seven weeks before, Judaism was at 
the same time honored and gloriously 
superseded by Christianity. The paschal 
lamb gave place to "Christ our Pass- 
over ;" and the Jewish feast in memory 
of the giving of the law, to the gift of 
the Holy Spirit for "every nation under 
heaven," ver. 6. This gift was for the 
whole period of the gospel dispensation ; 
and the mighty eftects then produced 
foreshow the yet greater works the Spir- 
it will perform in answer to prayer. 

PE'OR, a mountain of Moab, from 
which Balaam surveyed the camp of 
Israel, Num. 23 : 28. It probably lay a 
few miles north-east of the Dead sea, but 
is not now recognized. This name and 
A'icinity are also associated with an idol 
of the Moabites, Deut. 4:8. See Baal. 

PE'REZ-LZ'ZAH, 2 Sam. 6:8. See 
Uzzah. 

PER'FUMES. The use of perfumes 
was common among the Hebrews and 
the orientals generally, before it was 
known to the Greeks and Ecmans. Mo- 
ses also speaks of the art of the per- 
fumer, in the English Bible "apothe- 
cary ;" and gives the composition of two 
perfumes, of which one was to be oflercd 
to the Lord on the golden altar, Ex. 
30 : 34-38, and the other to be used for 
anointing the high-priest and his sons, 
the tabernacle, and the vessels of divine 
service, Ex. 30 : 23-33. The Hebrews 
had also perfumes for embalming their 
dead. The composition is not exactly 
known, but they used myrrh, aloes, and 
other strong and astringent drugs prc'p- 
er to prevent infection and corruption. 
See Embalming, and Ointment. 



FEK 



BIBLE DICTIOjS^ARY. 



PEil 



PER'GA, a city of Pamphylia, Acts 
13 : 13 ; li : 25. This is not a maritime 
city, but is situated on the river Oestrus, 
at some distance from its mouth, which 
has long been obstructed by a bar._ It 
was one of the most considerable cities 
in Pamphylia; and when that province 
was divided into two parts, this city be- 
came the metropolis of one part, and 
Side of the other. On a neighboring 
mountain was a splendid temple of Di- 
ana, which gave celebrity to the city. 

PER'GAMOS, now Bergamo, a city of 
Mysia, in Asia Minor, and the residence 
of the Attalian princes. There was here 
collected by the kings of this race a no- 
ble library of two hundred thousand vol- 
umes, which, after the country was ceded 
to the Romans, was transported to Egypt 
for Cleopatra, and added to the library 
at Alexandria. Hence the word parch- 
ment, from the Latin pergamentum, 
Greek pergamene ; great quantities of 
this material being here used, and its 
manufacture perfected. Pergamos was 
the birthplace of Galen, and contained a 
famous temple of Esculapius the god of 
medicine, who was worshipped under 
the form of a living serpent. A Chris- 
tian church was established here in the 
apostolic age, and was addressed by St. 
John, Rev. 1 : 11 ; 2 : 12. The modern 
city, called Bergamo, lies twenty miles 
from the sea on the north side of the 
river Caicus, and contains twelve thou- 
sand inhabitants. A large castle in ruins 
stands on the highest of three mountains 
which environ the town, and many re- 
mains of the ancient city still exist. 

PERTZZITES, Gen. 15:20, ancient in- 
habitants of Palestine, who had mingled 
with the Canaanitcs, or were themselves 
descendants of Canaan. They appear to 
have dwelt in the centre of Canaan, Gen. 
34:30; Josh. 11:3; 17:15; Judg. 1:4,5; 
but there were some of them on each side 
of the river Jordan, in the mountains, and 
in the plains. In several places of Scrip- 
ture, tlie Canaanites and Perizzites are 
mentioned as tlie chief people of the coun- 
try ; as in the time of Abraham and Lot, 
Gen. 13 : 7. Some remnants of this race 
existed in Solomon's day, and were sub- 
jected by him to a tribute of service, 
1 Kin. 9:20. See Canaanites. 

PER'SIA, in Hebrew Paras, Ezek. 
27 : 10, a vast region in Asia, the south- 
western province of which lying between 
ancient Media on the north and the Per- 
330 



sian gulf on the south, appears to have 
been the ancient Persia, and is still call- 
ed Pharsistan, or Ears. The Persians, 
who became so famous after Cyrus, the 
founder of their more extended monar- 
chy, were anciently called Elamites ; and 
later, in the time of the Roman emper- 
ors, Parthians. See Parthia. 

The early history of the Persians, like 
that of most of the oriental nations, is 
involved in doubt and perplexity. Their 
descent is traced to Shem, through his 
son Elam, after whom they were original- 
ly named. It is probable that they enjoy- 
ed their independence for several ages, 
with a monarchical succession of their 
own ; until they were subdued by the 
Assyrians, and their country attached as 
a province to that empire. Erom this pe- 
riod, both sacred and profane writers dis- 
tinguish the kingdom of the Medes from 
that of the Persians. It is not improba- 
ble that, during this period, petty revo- 
lutions might have occasioned temporary 
disjunctions of Persia from Assyria, and 
that the Persian king was quickly again 
made sensible of his true allegiance. 
When Media became independent, under 
Dejoces and then Phraortes, Persia be- 
came also subject to its sway, as a tribu- 
tary kingdom. Media having vanquish- 
ed her great rival Assyria, enjoyed a long 
interval of peace, during the reign of 
Astyages, son of Cyaxares. But his suc- 
cessor, Cyaxares the Second, imited with 
the Persians against the Babylonians, 
and gave the command of the combined 
j armies to Cyrus, who took the city of 
Babylon, killed Belshazzar, and termi- 
nated that kingdom 538 b. c. 
I Cyrus succeeded to the thrones of Me- 
I dia and Persia, and completed the union 
between those countries, which appear 
j to have been in reality but two nations 
i of the same race, having the same relig- 
ion, (see Magi and Media,) and using 
j languages near akin to each other and 
j to the ancient Sanscrit. Previously to 
' their union under Cyrus, Daniel speaks 
\ of the law of the Medes and Persians as 
being the same. The union was effected 
1 B. c. 536. The principal events relating 
i to Scripture, Avhich occurred during the 
! reign of Cyrus, were the restoration of 
! the Jews, the rebuilding of the city and 
! temple, and the capture of Babylon, b. c. 
I 539, Ezra 1 : 2. His dominion extended 
; from the Mediterranean to the region of 
1 the Indus. Cambyses his successor, b. c. 



PER 



BIDLE DiCTlUNAKY 



TET 



629, added Egypt to the Persian realm, 
and the supremacy of Egypt and Syria 
was often in contest dming subsequent 
reigns, Ezra 4 : G. He was followed Ly 
Smerdis the Magian, b. c. 622, Ezra 4:7 ; 
Darius Hystaspis, b. c. 621, Ezra 6:6; 
Xerxes, the Ahasuerus of the book of 
Esther, b. c. 486 ; Artabanus, b. c. 465 ; 
Artaxerxes Longimanus, b. c. 464, Neh. 
2:1; Xerxes II., b. c. 424; Sogdianus 
and Darius Nothus. b. c. 424 ; Arta- 
xerxes Mnemon, b. c. 404 ; Artaxerxes 
Ochus, B. c. 364 ; Arses, b. c. 338 ; and 
Darius Codomanus, b. c. 336, who was 
subdued and slain by Alexander of Mace- 
don, B. c. 330. In the seventh century 
Persia fell under the power of the Sara- 
cens, in the thirteenth it was conquered 
by Genghis Khan, and in the fourteenth 
by Tamerlane. Modern Persia is bound- 
ed north by Georgia, the Caspian sea, 
and Tartary ; east by Affghanistan and 
Eeloochistan ; south by Ormus ; and west 
by the dominions of Turkey. Its inhab- 
itants retain co a remarkable extent the 
manners and customs of ancient Persia, 
of which we have so vivid a picture in 
Esther, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Daniel. 

PER'SIS, a Ptoman lady, whom Paul 
salutes, Rom. 16:12, and calls his belov- 
ed sister. 

PES'TILENCE, or Plague, in the He- 
brew tongue, as in most others, expresses 
all sorts of distempers and calamities. 
The Hebrew word which properly signi- 
fies * ' the plague ' ' is extended to all epi- 
demical and contagious diseases. The 
prophets generally connect together the 
sword, the pestilence, and the famine, 
as three evils which usually accompany 
each other. 

The glandular plague, which in mod- 
ern times has proved so fatal in the East, 
is the most virulent and contagious of 
diseases. In the fourteenth century it 
overran Europe, Asia, and Africa, and 
26,000,000 are estimated to have died of 
it within three years. Like the Asiatic 
cholera, it is one of the most appalling 
scourges sin has brought on this world ; 
and may in this point of view correspond 
with the * ' plagues ' ' referred to in the 
Bible. Ex. 9:14; 11:1 ; 1 Kin. 8:37. 

PE'TER. This name in Greek signi- 
fies a rock, as does also the name Cephas 
in Syriac. Peter was one of the twelve 
apostles, and was also called Simon, 
i\Iatt. 10 : 17, and Simeon, Acts 15 : 14. 
He was of Bethsaida, and was the son of 
15 



Jonas, a fisherman, which occupation he 
also followed. After his marriage he 
resided at Capernaum, Matt. 8:14, Luke 
4:38, though called at a later period to 
labor elsewhere as an apostle, and it 
would seem often accompanied in his 
journeys by his wife, 1 Cor. 9:5. When 
j first introduced to Jesus by his brother 
Andrew, he received from Him the name 
! of Peter, John 1 : 42, probably in refer- 
I ence to the boldness and firnmess of hie 
character, and his activity in promoting 
his Master's cause. He received his sec- 
I ond call, and began to accompany Christ, 
i at the sea of Galilee near his residence, 
! and thenceforth learned to be a " fisher 
i of men," Matt. 4:18-20; Luke 5:1-11. 
Many remarkable incidents are recorded 
in the gospels, which illustrate his char- 
acter. Among these are, his attempt to 
walk on the water to meet Christ, Matt. 
j 14 : 29 ; his avowal of the Messiahship 
i and divinity of the Saviour, Matt. 16 : 16 ; 
I his errors as to the design of Christ's in- 
carnation. Matt. 16 : 22, 23 ; his warm 
attachment to the divine Teacher, John 
6 : 67-69 ; his cutting oft the ear of Mal- 
chus, John 18 : 10 ; his boastful deter- 
mination to adhere to his Master un- 
der all circumstances, and his subse- 
quent denial of Him with oaths. Matt. 
26 : 74 ; Mark 14 : 29 ; John 13 : 37, 38 ; 
his poignant repentance. Matt. 26 : 75, 
and our Lord's forgiveness, after receiv- 
ing an assurance of his love, which was 
i thrice uttered as his denial of Christ 
j had been, John 21 : 15-18. The death 
j and resurrection of Christ, and the cir- 
I cumstances which accompanied them, 
I led to a wonderful change in the apos- 
j tie's mind, and thenceforward his bold 
I and steadfast course is worthy of his 
' name. On the day of Pentecost, he wtis 
one of the principal witnesses for the 
Saviour ; in compan}' with John he soon 
after healed a lame man at the temple 
gate, addressed the assembled crowd, 
was imprisoned, and fearlessly vindicat- 
ed himself before the Sanhedrim, Acts 
4 : 8-21. We find him afterwards de- 
nouncing the judgment of God on a 
guilty couple who had dared to lie to 
the Holy Ghost, Acts 5 : 1-11 ; visiting 
Samaria, and rebuking Simon the ma- 
gician. Acts 8 : 5-24 ; healing xEneas and 
raising Dorcas to life at Lydda, Acts 
9 : 32-43 ; seeing at Joppa a vision which 
prepared him to preach the gospel to 
the gentile Cornelius, Acts 10; impris- 
337 



PlIA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



BHA 



oned by Hercxl Agrippa, and delivered 
by an angel, Acts 12 : 8-19 ; and taking 
a part in the council at Jerusalem, Acts 
15:7-11. The Bible gives us little infor- 
mation as to his subsequent labors ; but 
it is probable that the three apostles who 
were most distinguished by the Saviour 
while upon earth continued to be favored 
as chief instruments in advancing his 
cause. Paul speaks of "James, Cephas, 
and John, wdio seemed to be pUlars," 
Gal. 2:9. Yet in the same chapter we 
find him publicly reproving Peter for his 
wavering course in respect to the de- 
mands of Judaizing Christians, which he 
had been one of the lirst to repel at Je- 
rusalem, Acts 15 : 9. He seems to have 
labored at Corinth, 1 Cor. 1 : 12 ; 3 : 22, 
and at Babylon, 1 Pet. 5 : 13. Papal 
writers affirm that he was the bishop of 
Rome. But the evidence is strongly 
against this assertion. Paul wrote to 
the Roman Christians, giving them di- 
rections and saluting the principal per- 
sons by name ; he also wrote six letters 
from Rome ; but in none of these letters, 
nor in the narrative in Acts, is there the 
slightest intimation that Peter was or 
had been at Rome. And as Peter never 
resided at Rome, he was never made the 
head of the church universal. Whatev- 
er honor and authority he received from 
Christ, in establishing the first institu- 
tions of Christianity and declaring what 
it enjoined and from what it released. 
Matt. 16 : 18, 19, the other apostles also 
received. Matt. 18 : 18 ; John 20 : 23 ; 
1 Cor. 5 : 3, 5 ; Eph. 2 : 20 ; Rev. 21:14. 
There is no evidence that he had any 
supremacy over them, nor that he had 
any successor in that influence which 
was naturally accorded to him as one of 
tlie oldest, most active, and most faith- 
ful of those who had ' ' seen the Lord. ' ' 

Epistles of Peter. We have two 
epistles attributed to Peter by the com- 
mim consent of the Christian church. 
The genuineness of the first has never 
been disputed ; it is referred to as his 
accredited work by several of the apos- 
tolical fathers. It appears to have been 
addressed to Christian churches in Asia 
^Minor, composed primarily of converted 
Jews and proselytes, but including many 
converts from paganism, 1 Pet. 4:3. It 
was written probably at Babylon on the 
Euphrates, 1 Pet. 5 : 13. See Babylon. 
Some, liowever, interpret this of Rome, 
and others of a petty town in Egvpt call- 
338 



cd Babylon. The "fiery trials " through 
which the church was then passing are 
supposed to have been the persecutions 
in the latter years of Nero's reign, which 
termmated a. d. 68. Peter exhorts them 
to faith, obedience, and patience, in view 
of the truth of the gospel and the cer- 
tainty of salvation in Christ. 

The second epistle was addressed to 
the same persons as the fomier one ; its 
general design being to confirm the doc- 
trines which had been delivered in that, 
and to excite the Christian converts to a 
course of conduct becommg in every re- 
spect their high profession of attachment 
to Christ. This epistle was less confident- 
ly ascribed to the great "apostle of the 
circumcision," by the early church, thtui 
the first epistle. ITiere is no sufiicient 
ground, however, for doubting its canon- 
ical authority, or that Peter was its au- 
thor, 2 Pet. i : 1 , 18 ; 3 : 1. Compare also 
1 Pet. 3:20 ; 2 Pet. 2:5. In many pas- 
sages it resembles the epistle of Jude. 




PHA'RAOH is properly an. Egyptian 
word adopted into tlie Hebrew, and sig- 
nifies kiny ; so that when we find this 
name, it means everywhere the king. 
Thus, also, Pharaoh Hophra is simply 
king Hophra. The above cut, from an 
Egyptian monument, represents a Pha- 
raoh's daughte}-, probably Shishak's. 

Of the kings of Egypt, there are not 
less than twelve or thirteen meniioned 
in Scripture, all of whom bore the gen- 
eral title of Pharaoh, except four. Along 
with this title, two of them have also 
other proper names, Necho and Hophra 



PlIA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PHA 



The following is their order. Some of 
them have been identified, by the labors 
of Champollion and others, with kings 
whose proper names we know from other 
sources, wliile otliers still remain in ob- 
scurity. Indeed, so brief, obscure, and 
conflicting are the details of Egyptian 
history and ancient chronology, that no 
name before that of Shishak can be re- 
garded as identified beyond dispute. 

1. Pharaoh, Gen. 12 : 15, in the time of Abra- 
ham, B. c. 1920. He was probably a king of 
the Theban dynasty. 

2. Pharaoh, the master of Joseph, Gen. 
37 : 36 ; 39-50 ; Acts 7 : 10, 13, B. c. 1728. Some 
suppose that the Pharaoh to whom Joseph 
became prime minister was the sou of the one 
mentioned in Gen. 37 : 36. 

3. Pharaoh, who knew not Joseph, and un- 
der whom Moses was born, b. c. 1571, Ex. 1:8; 
Acts 7 :18; Heb. 11 :23. 

Very probably there was another Pharaoh 
reigning at the time when Moses fled into 
Midian, and who died before Moses at tlie age 
of eighty returned from Midian into Egypt, 
Ex. -A : 11-23 ; 4 : 19 ; Acts 7 : 23. 

4. Pharaoh, under whom the Israelites left 
Egypt, and who perished in the Ked sea, Ex. 
5-14 ; 2 Kin. 17 : 7 ; Neh. 9 : 10 ; Psa. 135 : 9 ; 
136 : 15 ; Rom. 9 : 17 ; Heb. 11 : 27, b. c. 1491. 

5. Pharaoh, in the time of David, 1 Kin. 
11 : 18-22, B. c. 1030. 

6. Pharaoh, the father in law of Solomon, 
1 Kin. 3 : 1 ; 7 : 8 ; 9 : 16, 24, b. c. 1010. 

7. Shishak, near the end of Solomon's reign, 
and under Kehoboam, b. c. 975, 1 Kin. 11 :40; 
14 :25 ; 2 Chr. 12 :2. From this time onward 
the pnyper names of the Egyptian kings are 
mentioned in Scripture. See Shishak. 

8. Zerah, king of Egypt and Ethiopia in the 
time of Asa, b. c. 930 ; called Usorchou by liis- 
torians. See Zerah. 

9. So, or Sevechus, contemporary with Ahaz, 
B. c. 730, 2 Kin. 17 :4. See So. 

10. TiRHAKAH, king of Ethiopia and Egypt, 
in the time of Hezekiah, b. c. 720, 2 Kin. 19 : 9; 
Isa. 37:9. The Tearcho of Strabo, and the 
Taracles of Manetho. See Tirhakah. 

11. Phar.\oh Xecho, in the time of Josiah, 
B. c. 612, 2 Kin. 23 :29, 30, etc. ; 2 Chr. 35 :20- 
24, etc. Necho, the son of Psammeticus. See 
Nechj. 

12. Pharaoh Hophra, contemporary with 
Nebuchadnezzar. He was the grandson of 
Necho, and is the Apries of Herodotus. Zed- 
ekiah formed an alliance with him against 
Nebuchadnezzar, and he drove the Assyrians 
from Palestine, took Zidon and Tyre, and re- 
turned to Egypt with great spoil. He seems 
to have done nothing to prevent the subse- 
quent destruction of Jerusalem, Jer. 37 : 1-5 ; 
47 : 1 ; Ezek. 29-32. He reigned twenty-five 
years, and was dethroned by his army after 
an unsuccessful expedition against Gyrene, 
as was foretold, Jer. 44 :30. 

PHAR'ISEES, a numerous and domi- 
nant sect of the Jews, agreeing on some 
main points of doctrine and practice, but 
divided into different parties or schools 
on minor points ; as for instance, the 



schools or followers of Hillel and Sham- 
mai, who were celebrated nabbins or 
teachers. The name is commonly de- 
rived from the Hebrew pdrash, to sep- 
arate, as though they were distinguished 
from the rest of the nation by their supe- 
rior wisdom and sanctity. They first ap- 
peared as a sect after the return of the 
Jews from captivity. In respect to their 
tenets, although they esteemed the -writ- 
ten books of the Old Testament as the 
sources of the Jewish religion, yet they 
also attributed great and equal authority 
to traditional precepts relating principally 
to external rites : as ablutions, fastings, 
long prayers, the distribution of alms, 
the avoiding of all intercourse with Gen- 
tiles and publicans, etc. See Matt. 6:5 ; 
9:11; 23:5; Mark 7:4; Luke 18:12. In 
superstitious and self-righteous formal- 
ism they strongly resembled the Romish 
church. They were rigid interpreters 
of the letter of the Mosaic law, but not 
unfrequently violated the spirit of it by 
their traditional and philosophical inter- 
pretations. See Matt. 5:31, 43 ; 12 : 2 ; 
19:3; 23 : 23. Their professed sanctity and 
close adherence to all the external forms 
of piety, gave them great favor and influ- 
ence with the common people, and espec- 
ially among the female part of the com- 
munity. They believed with the Stoics, 
{ that all things and events were controlled 
by fate ; yet not so absolutely as entirely 
I to destroy the liberty of the human will. 
{ They considered the soul as immortal, 
: and held the doctrine of a future resur- 
' rection of the body, Acts 23 : 8. It is also 
supposed by some that they admitted 
"; the doctrine of metempsychosis, or the 
transmigration of souls; but no allu- 
sion is made to this in the New Testa- 
j ment, nor does Josephus assert it. In 
I numerous cases Christ denounced the 
j Pharisees for their pride and covetous- 
ness, their ostentation in prayers, alms, 
tithes, and fasts, Matt. 6:2, 5, Luke 
I 18 : 9, and their hypocrisy in employing 
I the garb of religion to cover the profli- 
I gacv of their dispositions and conduct : 
as Matt. 23 ; Luke 16 : 14 ; John 7 : 48, 
49 ; 8 : 9. By his faithful reproofs he 
early incurred their hatred. Matt. 12: 14 : 
they eagerly sought to destroy him, and 
his blood was upon them and their chil- 
dren. On the other hand, there appear 
to have been among them individuals of 
probity, and even of genuine piety ; as 
in the case of Joseph of Arimathea, Nic- 
339 



PHxi 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PHI 



odemus, the aged Simeon, etc., Matt. 
27 : 57 ; Luke 2 : 25 ; John 3:1. Saul of 
Tarsus was a Pharisee of the strictest 
sect, Acts 26:5; Gal. 1:14. The essen- 
tial features of their character are still 
common in Christian lands, and are no 
less odious to Christ than of old. 

PHAR'PAR, a river of Damascus. See 
in Abana. 

PHE'BE, or Phce'be, a Christian wom- 
an of Cenchrea, the eastern port of Cor- 
inth, hearer of the epistle of Paul to the 
Romans, in which he commends her to 
their confidence and Christian love. She 
appears to have been a deaconess of the 
church, and to have had both the means 
and the disposition to do good abun- 
dantly. Paul says, "she hath been a 
succorer of many, and of me also," Rom. 
16:1, 2. One who succors a faithful ser- 
vant of Christ may thereby aid in the 
accomplishment of immeasurable good. 
The Holy Spirit presents the character 
and works of Phoebe as worthy of all 
imitation. Such mothers in Israel will 
he held in everlasting remembrance. 

PHE'NICE, a city near the south coast 
of Crete, having a harbor, now called Lu- 
tro, opening to the south-east. Paul, on 
his voyage to Rome from Ca^sarea, was 
unable to make this port, Acts 27:12. 

PHENI'CIA, or Phenice. See Phoe- 
nicia. 

PHTCHOL, apparently the title borne 
by the ' ' captain of the host ' ' of the king 
of Gerar, in the time of Abraham and 
Isaac, Gen. 21:22; 26:26. 

PHILADEL'PHIA, a city of Lydia, in 
Asia Minor, where was one of the seven 
Asiatic churches, highly praised by Christ 
for its fidelity. Rev. 3 : 7-13. Philadel- 
phia was so called from Attains Philadel- 
phus, king of Pergamos, by whom it was 
founded. It stood between the river 
Hermus and mount Tmolus, about twen- 
ty-eight miles south-east of Sardis. It 
suffered greatly by frequent earthquakes, 
and it was anciently matter of surprise 
that the city was not on this account 
abandoned. It is now a mean and ill- 
huilt town, of large extent, with a pop- 
ulation of 12,000, including about 1,000 
Greek Christians, who have a resident 
bishop and about twenty inferior cler- 
gy. There are five churches, and six 
mosques, one of which the native Chris- 
tians believe to have been the church in 
which worshipped the primitive Chris- 
tians whom John addressed. 
340 



PHILE'MON, a rich citizen of Colosse, 
in Phrygia, to whom Paul wrote an epis- 
tle, on occasion of sending back to him 
his servant Onesimus. Philemon, convert- 
ed by the instrumentality of Paul, is ex- 
horted to receive Onesimus as " a brother 
beloved." Paul was then a prisoner at 
Rome. His letter is universally admired 
for its delicacy, courtesy, and manliness. 
See OxEsiMus, and Epistle. 

PHILE'TUS, a heretic, excluded from 
the church for denying the" resurrection, 
and promoting infidelity, 2 11m. 2 : 17, 
18. See Hymeneus. 

PHILTP, I., THE tetrarch, a son of 
Herod the Great, by his wife Cleopatra. 
In the division of Herod's kingdom, 
he was made tetrarch of Batanea, Tra- 
chonitis, and Auranitis, Luke 3:1. See 
Herod I. From him the city of Csesarea 
Philippi took its name. 

II. Herod Philip, another son of Her- 
od the Great by Mariamne the daughter 
of Simon, not his favorite Mariamne. 
By Josephus he is called Herod. He 
lived a private life, having been disin- 
herited by his father ; and was the for- 
mer husband of Herodias, Matt. 14 : 3. 
See Herodias. 

III. The apostle, a native of Beth- 
saida, a disciple at first of John the Bap- 
tist, and one of the twelve who were ear- 
liest called to follow Christ, Matt. 10:3; 
John 1:43-48 ; Acts 1:13. He is several 
times mentioned in the gospels, John 
6:5-7; 12:21; 14:8-10. Tradition says 
that he preached the gospel in Phrygia, 
and died at Hierapolis in Syria. 

IV. The DEACON and evangelist, Acts 
6:5; 21 : 8 ; Eph. 4 : 11 ; a resident of 
Casarea, at least during one portion of 
his life, having four daughters who were 
endowed with the gift of prophecv. Acts 
2:17 ; 21:8, 9. After the death of Ste- 
phen, when the Christians were driven 
from Jerusalem, except the apostles, he 
preached the gospel in Samaria with 
great success, and wrought many mira- 
cles. From the midst of these happy 
scenes he was called away to labor in a 
distant spot, with a single soul ; but the 
gospel light was carried by the Ethio- 
pian eunuch into the darlcness of Africa, 
and is supposed to have there enlight- 
ened multitudes. In the narrative of 
Luke, Philip is incidentally distinguish- 
ed from the apostles, Acts 8 : 1, 14, 16. 
He preached the gospel in the cities on 
the coast, from Ashdod to Caesarea, 



PHI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PHI 



where at a later period Paul and his 
companions were his guests for "many 
days," Acts 21:8-16. His subsequent 
history is imknown. 

PHILIP'PI, a city of proconsular Mac- 
edonia, so called from Philip king of 
Macedon, who repaired and beautified 
it ; whence it lost its former name of 
Dathos. It was constituted a Roman 
"colony" by Augustus, and as such 
possessed certain peculiar privileges, 
which made it a " chief city of that part 
of Macedonia." This expression, how- 
ever, is supposed to mean, in Acts 16: 12, 
that it was the first city the traveller 
met after landing at its port Neapolis, 
from which it lay ten miles north-west 
on an extensive plain. Here was fought 
the celebrated battle in which Brutus 
and Cassius were overthrown by Octa- 
vius and Antony, b. c. 42. Here, too, 
Paul first preached the gospel on the 
continent of Europe, a., d. 52, having 
been led hither from Troas by a heaven- 
ly vision. The first convert was Lydia ; 
and the church which at once sprang up 
here was characterized by the distinguish- 
ed traits of this generous and true-heart- 
ed Christian woman. Having cast out a 
spirit of divination from a young damsel 
here, Paul and Silas were seized and cru- 
elly scourged and imprisoned. But their 
bonds were miraculously loosed, their 
jailor converted, and they permitted to 
pass on to Amphipolis. Luke appears to 
have remained here, and to have rejoin- 
ed Paul when he again visited Philippi 
on his fifth journey to Jerusalem, a. d. 
58, Acts 16 : 8-40 ; 20 : 3-6. The site is 
now strown with ruins. 

Paul's EPISTLE TO THE PiiiLiPPiANS, writ- 
ten during his first imprisonment at 
Rome, A. D. 62, gratefully and warmly 
acknowledges the receipt of their gift by 
the hand of Epaphroditus, and their con- 
tinued affection towards him ; also their 
irreproachable Christian walk, and their 
firmness under persecution, Phil. 1:7, 
28, 29 ; 2:12 ; 4:10-15. See also 2 Cor. 
8"1 '^ 

"PHILIS'TINES, a celebrated people, 
who inhabited the southern seacoast of 
Canaan, which from them took the name 
of Philistia, Psa. 60 : 8 ; 108:9, or Pales- 
tine. They seem originally to have mi- 
grated from Egypt to Caphtor, by which 
some understand Crete, and others with 
the ancients Cappadocia, Gen. 10 : 14, 
and thence to have passed over to Pal- 



estine under the name of Caphtorira, 
where they drove out the Avim, who 
dwelt from Hazerim to Azzah, that is, 
Gaza, and dwelt in their stead, Deut. 
2 : 23. The country they inhabited lay 
between the higher land of Judea and 
the Mediterranean, and was in the main 
a level and fertile territory. It resem- 
bles our own western prairies ; and bears 
splendid crops year after year, though 
miserably cultivated and never ma- 
nured. 

The Philistines were a powerful people 
in Palestine, even in Abraham's time, 
B. c. 1900, for they had then kings and 
considerable cities. Gen. 20 : 2 ; 21 : 32 ; 
Ex. 13 : 17. They are not enumerated 
among the nations devoted to extermi- 
nation with the seed of Canaan. Joshua, 
however, did not hesitate to attack them 
by command from the Lord, because they 
possessed various districts promised to 
Israel. But these conquests must have 
been ill-maintained, since under the 
judges, at the time of Saul, and at the 
beginning of the reign of David, the 
Philistines had their own kings and lords. 
Their state was divided into five little 
principalities, at the head of each of which 
was a "lord," namely, Gaza, Ashkelon, 
Ashdod, Gath, and Ekron — and they op- 
pressed Israel during the government of 
the high-priest Eli, that of Samuel, and 
during the reign of Saul, for about one 
hundred and twenty years. Shamgar, 
Samson, Samuel, and Saul opposed them, 
and were victorious over them with great 
slaughter, at various times, but did not 
destroy their power, Judg. 3:14; 1 Sam. 
4 ; 7 ; 14 ; 31. They maintained their 
independence till David subdued them, 
2 Sam. 5 : 17 ; 8, from which time they 
continued in subjection to the kings of 
Judah, down to the reign of Jehoram, 
son of Jehoshaphat, when they revolt- 
ed, 2 Chr. 21 : 16. Jehoram made war 
against them, and probably reduced 
them to obedience ; for it is observed that 
they revolted again from Uzziah, who 
kept them under his sway during his 
whole reign, 2 Chr. 26:6, 7. During the 
unfortunate reign of Ahaz, the Philis- 
tines made great havoc in the territory 
of Judah ; but his son and successor 
Hezekiah again subdued them, 2 Chr. 
28 : 18 ; 2 Kin. 18 : 8. They regained 
their full liberty, however, under the 
later kings of Judah ; and we see by the 
menaces uttered against them by the 
341 



PHI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PHI 



prophets Isaiah, Amos, Zephaniah, Jer- 
emiah, and Ezekiel. that they brought 
many calamities on Israel, for which God 
threatened to punish them with great 
misfortunes, Jer. 47 ; Ezek. 25:15; Amos 
1 : 6-8 ; Obad. 19 ; Zech. 9 : 5. See also 
Neh. 13 : 23. They were partially sub- 
dued by Esar-haddon king of Assyria, 
and afterwards by Psammetichus king 
of Egypt ; and there is great probability 
that they were reduced by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, as well as the other people of 
Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine, during 
the siege of Tyre. They afterwards fell 
under the dominion of the Persians ; 
then under that of Alexander the Great, 
who destroyed Gaza, the only city of the 
Philistines ' that dared to oppose him. 
They appear to have become entirely 
incorporated with the other inhabitants 
of the land under the Maccabees, and 
are no more mentioned as a distinct peo- 
ple. The ancient Philistines appear in 
sacred history as a warlike people, not 
strangers to the arts of life, Judg. 15 : 5 ; 
1 Sam. 13 : 20 ; worshippers of Baal and 
Ashtoreth, under the names of Baal-ze- 
bub and Dagon ; having many priests 
and diviners, 1 Sam. 6:2; 2 Kin. 1:2; 
Isa. 2:6. They appear to have been of 
the race of Shem, their language being 
akin to the Hebrew, yet distinct from it, 
Neh. 13 : 24. Their land, once rich and 
covered with cities and towns, is now 
desolate, Zeph. 2:4-7. 

PHILOS'OPHY, love of icisdom, in the 
New Testament means the vain and per- 
nicious speculations of human reason; 
the wisdom of this world, and ' ' science 
falsely so called," 1 Cor. 1 : 18-27 ; 1 Tim. 
6:20, in opposition to gospel truth. Paul 
cautioned the Colossians lest any man 
should spoil or plunder them through 
" philosophy," Col. 2:8 ; and it is one of 
the most melancholy proofs of the deprav- 
ity of the human heart, that it has been 
able so to pervert that noble faculty, 
the reason. The loftiest human intel- 
lects have often been the blindest as to 
religious truth ; and the range and vigor 
of men's reasoning powers have been the 
measure, not of their knowledge and 
love of God, but of their pride, rebellion, 
and folly. Matt. 11 : 25 ; 1 Cor. 2 : 14 ; 
3:18-20. In Athens, the Epicurean and 
Stoic philosophers made a jest of Paul's 
discourses; and in many places of his 
epistles, he opposes the false wisdom of 
the age, that is, the pagan philosophy, 
342 



to the wisdom of Jesus Christ, and the 
true religion, which to the philosophers 
and sophists seemed to be mere folly, 
because it was built neither on the elo- 
quence nor the subtlety of those who 
preached it, but on the power of God, 
and on the operations of the Holy Ghost 
in the hearts and minds of believers ; 
and because it did not amuse and flatter 
man, but proved him a guilty rebel 
against God, in perishing need of a Sav- 
iour. 

As there arose, under the influence 
of philosophy, several sects among the 
Greeks, as the Academics, the Peripa- 
tetics, and the Stoics, so also there arose 
among the Jews several sects, as the 
Essenes, the Pharisees, and the Saddu- 
cees. The Pharisees had some resem- 
blance to the Stoics, the Sadducees to 
the Epicureans, and the Essenes to the 
Academics. The Pharisees were proud, 
vain, and boasting, like the Stoics ; the 
Sadducees, who denied the immortality 
of the soul, and the existence of spirits, 
freed themselves at once, like the Epi- 
cureans, from all solicitude about futu- 
rity : the Essenes were more moderate, 
more simple and religious, and therefore 
approached nearer to the Academics. 

The danger against which Paul warn- 
ed the church in his day still exists. 
Pride of intellect naturally allies itself 
with the atheism and impenitence of the 
heart, refuses to yield to the claims of 
revelation, and rejects whatever dis- 
pleases its taste or rises above its com- 
prehension. True wisdom, on the con- 
trary, is humble and docile. "Whoso- 
ever shall not receive the kingdom of 
God as a little child, shall in no wise 
enter therein." 

PHIN'EHAS, I., son of Eleazar, and 
grandson of Aaron the high-priest. His 
zealous and decided character was shown 
in the prompt execution of the profligate 
prince of Judah, and his companion a 
woman of Midian, in the plains of Moab, 
Num. 25. For this bold and timely ser- 
vice, the high-priesthood was secured to 
his family, also remaining faithful ; and 
except during an interval from Eli to 
Zadok, his posterity were at the head of 
the priesthood till the destruction of the 
temple. Phinehas led the host of Israel 
in the subsequent battle with the Mid- 
ianites. Num. 31:6; Psa. 106:30, 31. 
He was at the head of the deputation 
sent to remonstrate with the tribes be- 



PilCE 



BiDLE DICTIONAllV 



PilY 



yond the Jordan respecting the altar 
they had erected, Josh. 22 : 5-84. Dur- 
ing the life of his father, he was super- 
intendent of the Levites, Num. 3 : 82 ; 
and afterwards became the high-priest, 
Josh. 24 : 83, and as such communicated 
the will of God as to the punishment of 
the men of Giheah, Judg. 20:28. 

II. A son of Eli the high-priest. See 

HOPHNI. 

PHCENrCIA, Phenicia, or Phenice, 
Acts 15 : 8, in its largest sense, designat- 
ed a narrow strip of country extending 
nearly the Avhole length of the eastern 
coast of the Mediterranean sea, from An- 
tioch to the borders of Egypt. But Phoe- 
nicia Proper was included between the 
cities of Laodicea in Syria and Tyre, and 
comprehended mainly the territories of 
Tyre and Sidon. Before Joshua conquer- 
ed Palestine this country was possessed 
by Canaanites, sons of Ham, divided into 
eleven families, of which the most pow- 
erful was that of Canaan, the founder of 
Sidon, and head of the Canaanites prop- 
erly so called, wdioni the Greeks named 
Phoinicians. Only these preserved their 
independence under Joshua, and also 
under David, Solomon, and the succeed- 
ing kings ; but they were subdued by 
the kings of Assyria and Chaldea. Af- 
terwards, they w^ere successively subject 
to the Persians, Greeks, and Romans. 

The Phoenicians were long renowned 
as a rich, cultivated, and powerful peo- 
ple. They were a confederacy of com- 
mercial cities, each of which with the 
adjacent territory was subject to its own 
king. Their coast was crowded with 
towns ; and their fleets were the first to 
lose sight of the shores, traverse the 
whole Mediterranean, and establish their 
commerce and their colonies even on re- 
mote coasts of Europe and Africa. The 
productions of all known lands were 
exchanged in their markets, Ezek. 27. 
Carthage, the early rival of Rome, was 
a Phoenician colony ; as were also Cadiz 
and Tarshish in Spain, Ezek. 38 : 13. 
Their language was almost identical with 
that of the Jews, and may be traced in 
the names of several Spanish cities. Sol- 
omon was indebted to them for aid in 
erecting the temple, and in building and 
navigating his ships. See Tyre. Their 
territory lay between the seashore and 
the summits of Lebanon ; and being well 
watered and fertile, it produced at its 
various elevations a rich variety of agri- 



cultural products. Its inhabitants were 
worshippers of Baal and Ashtoreth . 

At this day, Pluenicia is in subjection 
to the Turks, and belongs in the paslia- 
lic of Acre, not having had any natioiKil 
or native kings, or any independent form 
of government, for more than two thou- 
sand years. The name Ph«nicia is not 
in the books of Hebrew Scripture ; but 
only in the Maccabees and the New Tes- 
tament. The Hebrew always reads Ca- 
naan, Isa. 28 : 11, margin. Matthew- 
calls the same person a Canaanitish wom- 
an, 15:22, whom Mark calls a Syro-Phou- 
nician, 7 : 2G, that is, a Phoenician of 
Syria, because Phoenicia then made a 
part of Syria. 

PHlvYGTA, an inland province of Asia 
Minor, bounded north by Bithynia and 
Galatia, east by Cappadocia, south by 
Lycia, Pisidia, and Isauria, and west by 
Mysia, Lydia, and Caria. It was called 
Phrygia Pacatiana, and also Phrygia 
Major, in distinction from Phrygia Mi- 
nor, which was a small district of Mysia 
near the Hellespont, occupied by some 
Phrygians after the Tiojan war. Tlie 
eastern part of Phrygia Major was also 
called Lycaonia. This region was a high 
table land, fruitful in corn and wine, 
and celebrated for its fine breed of cattle 
and of sheep. Of the cities belonging to 
Phrygia, Laodicea, Hierapolis, Colosse, 
and Antioch of Pisidia, are mentioned in 
the New Testament. St. Paul twice 
travelled over it, preaching the gospel, 
Acts 2:10; 16:6; 18:23. 

PHUT, or Put, a son of Ham, Gen. 
10:6, whose posterity are named with 
Cush and Ludim as serving in Egyptian 
armies, and as part of the host of Gog, 
Jer. 46 : 9 ; Ezek. 27 : 10 ; 80 : 5 ; 38 : 5 ; 
Nah. 3:9. In several of these passages 
Phut is translated Libyans. Josephus 
identifies them with the Mauritanians, 
in Northern Africa towards the west. 
See Libya. 

PHYLACTERIES were little rolls of 
parchment, in which were written cer- 
tain words of the law, and which were 
worn by the Jews upon their foreheads, 
and upon the left arm. The custom was 
founded on a mistaken interpretation of 
Ex. 13 : 9, 16, "And it shall be for a 
token upon thy hand, and for frontlets 
between thine eyes. ' ' 

Leo of Modena informs us particularly 
about these rolls. Those worn upon the 
forehead have been described under the 
343 



PIIY 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PIL 



article Frontlets, which see. Those that I 
were to be fastened to the arms were two ! 
rolls of parchment written in square let- i 
ters, with an ink made on purpose, and j 
with much care. They were rolled up to i 
a point, and enclosed in a sort of case of ! 
black calf-skin. They then were put j 
upon a square bit of the same leather, 
whence hung a thong of the same, of 
about a finger's breadth and a cubit and 




a half long. These rolls were placed at 
the bending of the left arm, and after 
the thong had made a little knot in the 
form of the letter Yodh (n,) it was 
wound about the arm in a spiral line, 
which ended at the top of the middle 
finger. They were called the Tephila of 
the hand. 

The phylactery, from a Greek word 
signifying preservative, was regarded not 
only as a remembrancer of God's law, 
but as a protection against demons. It 
was probably introduced at a late period 
in the Old Testament history. Our Sav- 
iour reproaches the pride and hypocrisy 
of the Pharisees, shown in making their 
phylacteries broad as a sign of their supe- 
rior wisdom and piety. Matt. 23:5. Da- 
vid, on the other hand, says, ' ' Thy word 
have I hid in my heart, that I might not 
sin against thee," Psa. 119:11. 

PHYSPCIANS. The medical skill of 
the Egyptians was widely celebrated. 
Each physician confined his practice to 
diseases of a single class, and thus a 
large household would require the at- 
tendance of numerous physicians, Gen. 
60:2. The Hebrews also had profession- 
al physicians, Ex. 21 : 19 ; Prov. 17 : 22 ; 
Matt. 9 : 12 ; Luke 4 : 23 ; 8:43. In the 
early ages they had little anatomical 
skill, partly on account of the ceremo- 
nial defilement caused by touching a 
corpse. They gave their attention to 
eKternal rather than to internal injuries 
and diseases, Isa. 1:6; Ezek. 30 : 21 ; 
though they also prescribed for internal 
and mental disorders, 1 Sam. 16 : 16 ; 
2 Chr. 16 : 12. They made use of salves, 
balms, and poultices, hyssop, oil baths, 
mineral baths, and river bathing, with 
:i44 



many other remedies, Jer. 46:11. Many 
wickedly had recourse to amulets and 

enchantments. 

PI-BESETH, a city of Egypt, called 

by the Greeks Bubastos, and containing 
a famous temple of the goddess Biibastis, 
who was compared to the Diana of South- 
em Europe. This temple was annually 
visited by immense multitudes. The 
ruins of Pi-beseth, on the eastern arm 
of the Nile near the ancient canal to 
Suez, consist of extensive mounds of 
bricks and broken pottery, E/ek. 30:17. 
PIG'EONS. See Doves. 
PI-HAHI'ROTH, a place near the gulf 
of Suez, on its north-west side. It was 
the third and last encampment of the 
Hebrews, before crossing the Eed sea, 
Ex. 14 : 2, 9 ; Num. 33 : 7. Its exact lo- 
cation cannot now be determined. See 
Exodus. 

PI'LATE, or Pon'tius Pi'late, was the 
fifth or sixth Koman procurator in the 
province of Judea, after the banishment 
of Archelaus. He was appointed a. d. 26, 
and continued in the province ten years, 
usually residing at Coesarea. Pilate be- 
came odious both to the Jews and to the 
Samaritans for the severity and cruelty 
of his administration, Luke 13 : 1 ; and 
being accused by the latter before Vitel- 
lius, the governor of Syria, he was re- 
moved from his office and sent to Eome 
to answ^er to their accusations before the 
emperor. Before his arrival, Tiberius 
was dead ; and Pilate is said to have 
been banished by Caligula to Vienna in 
Gaul, and there to have died by his own 
handi. 

The character of Pilate is graphically 
described m the gospels. When Jesus 

j had been condemned by the high-priest 
and the Sanhedrim, he was brought be- 

; fore Pilate the governor, without whose 

{ consent he could not be executed. Pi- 

I late saw in Jesus an innocent victim of 
Jewish malice, and desired to save him. 

I Though dull and ignorant as to religious 
truth, he had some dim sense of the su- 
periority of Christ's character, and feared 
to wrong him. All that he saw of Christ 
deepened this feeling ; and he tried every 
method to soften the obduracy of the 
Jews. But he had not the firmness 
of character, the deep-rooted principle 
of justice, and the consciousness of rec- 
titude necessary to carry him through ; 
and after repeated efforts, Luke 23 : 7, 14- 
20 ; John 18 : 31, 38 ; 19:4-6, 9-12, 15, 



PIL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PIT 



he at length gave way, and sacrificed a 
righteous man, rather than to provoke 
complaints against his administration 
and an investigation by the emperor. 
His washing of his hands, and his in- 
scription upon the cross, only condemned 
himself. He would probably send a de- 
tailed report of his procedures to Tiberi- 
us ; and the early fathers mention such 
an account as circulating in their day. 
The "Acts of Pilate," however, now in 
existence, are a subsequent fabrication. 
The Roman historian Tacitus, speaking 
of Christians, says, ' ' The author of this 
name was Christ, who was capitally pun- 
ished in the reign of Tiberius, by Pontius 
Pilate." 

PIL'LAR sometimes means a monu- 
mental column, Gen. 35 : 20 ; 2 Sam. 
18 : 18 ; or a column ctf cloud or smoke, 
Ex. 13 : 21 ; Judg. 20 : 40. The stately 
column which adorns and supports the 
front of a temple, Judg. 16 : 25-30 ; Job 
9:6; 26 : 11, illustrates the position of 
prophets, Jer. 1:18, apostles, Gal. 2 : 9, 
believers. Rev. 3 : 12, and the church 
itself, respecting the truth, 1 Tim. 3:15. 

PILLED, peeled, as a tree of its bark. 
Gen. 30:37. 

PIL'LOWS were placed on the divans 
around an Eastern reception-room. The 
luxurious appliances mentioned in Ezek. 
13 : 18, 19, were temptations to ease and 
A'^oluptuousness ; and emblems of similar 
soporifics for the conscience. 

PINE, in Neh. 8 : 15, denotes some 
tree of a resinous nature. A different 
word in Isa. 41:19 ; 60:13, probably in- 
dicates the pine ; a noble emblem of the 
promised prosperity of the church. Sev- 
eral varieties of pine abound upon mount 
Lebanon, the largest of which is the 
sunobar kuhar ; also found on several 
sandy plains of Palestine. Its wood is 
much used for beams and rafters. 

PIN'NACLE, literally a wing ; proba- 
bly some part of the battlements on the 
outer wall of the temple, perhaps of Sol- 
omon's porch, accessible by stairs, Matt. 
4:5, 6. Josephus describes a gallery 
constructed by Herod to overhang the 
deep valley of the Kidron, and saj^s that 
the beholder on looking down from it 
would become dizzy. See Temptation. 

PIPE, a musical wind instrument, con- 
sisting of a tube with holes, like a flute 
or clarionet, 1 Sam. 10 : 5 ; 1 Kin. 1:40 ; 
Isa. 5 : 12 ; 30 : 29 ; Jer. 48 : 36 ; Matt. 
9:23. The double pipe had two tubes, 
15* 



uniting in the mouth-piece; the tube 
played with the left hand emitting a 
few deep sounds, and serving as a base. 
The Scotch Deputation of Inquiry speak 
of overtaking among the hills of Judea 
"an Arab playing with all his might 
upon a shepherd's pipe made of two 
reeds. This was the first time we had 
seen any marks of joy in the land, for 
certainly 'all joy is darkened, the mirth 
of the land is gone,' " Isa. 24 : 11. See 
Music. 

PIS'GAH, a mountain ridge, the north- 
ern part of the Abarim range, east of the 
Dead sea ; Nebo was one of its summits, 
Deut, 32 : 49 ; 34 : 1 . It was in the south- 
ern part of the kingdom of Silion, Num. 
21:20; 23:24; and afterwards belonged 
to the Reubenites, Josh. 12 : 3 ; 13:20. 

PISIDTA, a province of Asia Minor, 
separated from the Mediterranean by 
Pamphylia, lying on mount Taurus and 
the high table land north of it, and run- 
ning up between Phrygia and Lycaonia 
as far as Antioch its capital. The Pisid- 
ians, like most of the inhabitants of the 
Taurus range, were an unsubdued and 
lawless race ; and Paul in preaching the 
gospel at Antioch and throughout Pi- 
sidia, Acts 13:14 ; 14:24, was in peril by 
robbers as well as by sudden storms and 
floods in the mountain passes. Churches 
continued to exist here for seven or eight 
centuries. 

PI'SON, one of the four rivers that 
watered Paradise, Gen. 2 : 11, 12, and 
which ran through all the land of Havi- 
lah, where excellent gold was found. It 
has, of course, been placed as variously 
as the garden of Eden, to which article 
and Euphrates the reader is referred. 

PIT, a reservoir, either natural or arti- 
ficial, for water. Pits were sometimes 
used as dungeons. Gen. 37 : 20 ; Jer. 38 : 6 ; 
or being slightly covered, and baited, 
they served as traps to catch wild beasts, 
a device which illustrates the plots of 
designing men and women, Psa. 119:85 ; 
Prov. 22:14 ; 26:27 ; Ezek. 19 : 4. The 
word pit is also used to denote the grave, 
Psa. 28:1 ; 30:3, 9 ; and heU, Rev. 20:1. 

PITCH, Gen. 6 : 14, Ex. 2:3, translat- 
ed "slime" in Gen. 11:3; 14:10, is 
properly bitumen or asphaltum, ancient 
ly found on and near the Dead sea, which 
was hence called the lake Asphaltites. 
It abounded in the vicinity of Babylon, 
and was used as fuel. The ark of Noah 
and that of Moses were rendered water- 
345 



PIT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PLO 



proof by it ; and the bricks of the tower 
of Babel were cemented with it. It is 
commonly found in a solid state ; but 
being liquified by heat, and used as a 
mortar, it becomes as hard as the rocks it 
cements together. It is still thrown up 
by earthquakes from the bottom of the 
Dead sea, and floats to the shore some- 
times in large masses. See Sea III. 

PI'THOM, one of the cities built by 
the children of Israel for Pharaoh in 
Egypt, during their servitude, Ex. 1:11. 
This is probably the Pathumos mention- 
ed by Herodotus, which he places near 
Pi-beseth and the Pelusiac arm of the 
Nile, not far from the canal made by the 
kings Necho and Darius to join the Ked 
sea with the Nile. See Egypt. 

PLAGUE. See Pestilence. 

PLAIN. See Canaan, and Oak. 

PLAN'ETS, 2 Kin. 23 : 5. The Hebrew 
word means inns or lodgings, and is used 
with reference to the sun, denoting the 
twelve constellations of the zodiac, the 
houses of the sun in its annual apparent 
course round the heavens. These con- 
stellations are here spoken of as objects 
of idolatrous worship in Judah. Com- 
pare Gen. 37 : 9. 

PLEDGE. The Jewish law protected 
the poor who were obliged to give secu- 
rity for a loan or the fulfilment of a con- 
tract. If a man pawned his robe, the 
usual covering for the cool nights, it 
must be returned on the same day, Ex. 
22:26, 27. The creditor could not enter 
a house and take what he pleased ; and 
the millstone being a necessary of life. 



could not be taken, Deut. 24 : 6, 10, 11. 
Compare Job 22 : 6 ; 24 : 3, 7. Idolaters 
sometimes disregarded these prohibi- 
tions, Amos 2:6-8. See Loans. Pledges 
are necessary from the vicious, who can- 
not be trusted, Prov. 20:16. 

PLEI'ADES, a cluster of seven stars in 
the neck of Taurus, or the Bull, one of 
the twelve signs of the zodiac. The sun 
enters Taurus about the middle of April ; 
and the appearance of the Pleiades, there- 
fore, marks the return of spring, Job 
9:9; 38:31; Amos 5:8. 




AXCIENT PLOUGH, YOKES, SHARES, AND GOAD. 

PLOUGH, a slight and inefficient in- 
strument in the East, but used from the 
earliest times. Gen. 45:6; Deut. 22:10; 
Job 1 : 14. See cut in Merom. The 
plough now generally used in Syria con- 
sists substantially of but three parts : 
the beam or pole fastened to the yoke ; 
the ploughshare ; and the handle. The 
two latter parts, and even all three, are 
sometimes formed of a single branch of 
a tree with two limbs projecting in op- 
posite directions. The ploughshare is 




PLOUGHING AND SOWING ; FROM AN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PAINTING. 



sometimes defended by a strip of iron, 
Isa. 2:4; Joel 3:10. As the handle was 
single, and with attention was easily 
managed by one hand, Luke 9 : 62, the 
346 



ploughman brandished in the other a 
formidable goad, six or eight feet long, 
armed at the point with a pike, and at 
the heavy end, which was two inches 



POE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



POE 



thick, with a small iron spade for clear- 
ing the share from clay, Judg. 3 : 31 : 
1 Sam. 13:21 ; Acts 9:5. Ploughs were 
drawn by oxen, asses, and heifers, Deut. 
22:10; Judg. 14:18; at this day camels 
and cows are also used in Palestine. 
Ploughing commenced soon after the 
autumnal rains had set in, towards the 
last of October. 

POETRY OF THE Hebrews. Of all the 
fine arts, poetry alone was cultivated 
among the Hebrews ; and under the in- 
spiration of the Almighty was carried to 
the highest degree of peifection. The 
poetry of this people was almost wholly 
lyric ; whether didactic, elegiac, pasto- 
ral, or prophetic, it was still lyric. 
The essence of lyric poetry is the vivid 
expression of internal emotions. It is 
therefore subjective ; in opposition to 
epic poetry, which treats of external ob- 
jects, and is therefore objective. The 
chief subject of Hebrew poetry was re- 
ligion, and then patriotism ; which, 
under the theocracy, was very nearly 
allied to religion. The most obvious 
and striking characteristic of the poetry 
of the Hebrews is sublimity. Religious 
poetry was in ancient times almost pe- 
culiar to the Jews ; the little that is 
found among other ancient nations is 
unworthy of comparison with it ; as also 
is the Koran, which is an attempted imi- 
tation of the poetical parts of the Old 
Testament. The present prevailing views 
of the nature of Hebrew poetry were first 
developed by Bishop Lowth in his Lec- 
tures on the Poetry of the Hebrews. 

Hebrew poetry differs from Hebrew 
prose in three respects : 1. In the pe- 
culiar poetical nature of the contents ; of 
which the characteristics are sublimity, 
boldness, abruptness, lofty metaphors, 
personifications, etc. 2. In the peculi- 
arities of the poetic dialect or diction, 
which, however, are not so striking as 
among the Greeks and Romans. 3. In 
rhythm, which differs from metre ; the 
latter importing a measure of syllables 
or feet, the former a harmonious arrange- 
ment of words and members. It is the 
opinion of those best acquainted with 
the subject, that the Hebrews had no 
prosody, that is, no measure of syllables 
into poetic feet, as dactyles, trochees, 
and spondees. It is believed that the 
Hebrew poetry, much of which was de- 
signed to be sung or chanted, was char- 
acterized by a certain melodious flow and 



cadence which is now irrecoverably lust, 
together with the true pronunciation of 
the language. 

But aside from this, the rhythm ot 
Hebrew poetry consii^ts in what is called 
its PARALLELISM, of which the fundament 
tal principle is, that every verse must 
consist of at least T^Y0 corresponding 
parts or members. 

The parallelism ot Hebrew poetry oc- 
curs either in the thought, or solely in 
the form. Of the former there are three 
kinds : namely, 

1. Synonymous ; where the two mem- 
bers express the same idea in different, 
but closely, and often literally, corre- 
sponding words : as for example, 

What is man, that thou art mindful ot him? 
And the son of man, that thou dost visit him? 

Psa. 8 : 4. 
Why do the heathen rage V 
And the people imagine a vain thing 1 

Fsa. 2 : 1. 
He that sitteth in the heavens shall laugh ; 
The Lord shall have them in derision. 

Psa. 2 :4. 
Doth the wild ass bray when he hath grass ? 
Or loweth the ox over his fodder ? 

Job 6.5. 

So also the song of Laniech, Gen. 
4:23, and Job 7:1, etc. 

2. Antithetical ; where an antithesis 
of thought is expressed by corresponding 
members : as for example, 

The house of the wicked shall be overthrown , 
But the tabernacle of the upright shall flour- 
ish. Prov. 14:11. 

A soft answer turneth away wrath ; 
But grievous words stir up anger. 

Prov. 15:1. 

3. Synthetic ; which is a mere juxta- 
position ; or rather, the thought is car- 
ried forward in the second member with 
some addition ; the correspondence of 
Avords and construction being as before : 
as for example, 

The law of the Lord is perfect, converting the 

soul : 
The testimony of the Lord is sure, making 

wise the simple. 
The statutes of the Lord are right, rejoicing 

the heart : 
The commandment of the Lord is pure, en- 
lightening the eyes. 
The fear of the Lord is clean, enduring for 

ever. 
The judgments of the Lord are true and right- 
eous altogether. 

Psa. 19:7,8, 9. 

Mere rhythmical parallelism is that in 
which no similarity or correspondence 
of thought exists ; but the verse is di- 
347 



POE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



POM 



vided by the ccesura, as it were, into cor- 
responding numbers. This is the most 
imperfect species of parallelism, and may 
be compared with the hexameter, divid- 
ed by the caBsura : as for example, 

Yet have I set my king 
Upon my lioiy hill of Zion. 
^ Psa. 2:6. 

Many there be which say of ray soul, 
Thei-e is no help lor him in God. 

Fsa. 3:2. 

This is most common in the book of 
Lamentations, where there is hardly any 
other species of parallelism. 

Thus far we have had regard to the 
simplest and most perfect parallelisms 
of two members, such as are more usu- 
ally found in the Psalms, Job, etc. But 
in the prophets and a few of the psalms, 
we find a less regular, and sometimes 
compound parallelism. Thus the paral- 
lelism is irregular when one member is 
shorter than the other ; as Hosea 4:17 : 

Ephraim is joined to idols ; 

Let him alone. 

Of compound parallelisms there are va- 
rious kinds ; as when the verse has three 
members either parallel with each other, 
as in Job 3:4, or two of them standing 
opposed to the third : as for example, 

For the ways of the Lord are right, 
And the just shall walk in them, 
But the transgressors shall fall therein. 
Hos. 14 : 9. 

Or when the verse has four members, 
either compounded of two simple paral- 
lels, or the first line answering to the 
third and the second to the fourth, or 
all four nearly parallel to each other ; 
as for example. 

The ox knoweth his owner, 
And the ass his master's crib ; 
But Israel doth not know. 
My people doth not consider. 

Isa. 1:3. 

As the heaven is high above the earth, 

So great is his mercy towards them that fear 

him ; 
As far as the east is from the west. 
So far hath he removed our transgressions 

from us. 

Psa. 103:11,12. 

They have mouths, but they speak not ; 
I^yes have they , but they see not ; 
They have ears, but they hear not ; 
Neither is there any breath in their mouths. 
Psa. 135:16,17. 

We may name Psalms 2 and 15 as afford- 
ing examples of most of the species of 
poetic parallelism. 

In the common manuscripts and edi- 
348 



tions of the Hebrew Bible, the members 
of the parallelisms in the poetical parts 
are not written or printed separately ; 
but the accents serve to divide them. 
In other editions, however, the mem- 
bers are printed separately. It is mat- 
ter of regret that this mode was not 
adopted in our English version; since 
in many cases the common reader has 
now no means of distinguishing whether 
what he reads is poetry or prose in He- 
brew. 

The preceding principles refer solel)'- 
to the rhythm of Hebrew poetry. Be- 
sides this, there are other peculiarities ; 
as for example, the strophe, as in Psa. 
107, and in Psa. 42, 43, where verses 5, 
11, and 5, are a burden or refrain, re- 
peated at the end of each strophe. So 
also the alphabetic psalms and poems, 
(see Letters ;) and the psalms of degrees, 
in which the chief words of each verse 
are taken up and repeated at the begin- 
ning of the next verse. See Degrees. 

More than a third of the Old Testa- 
ment is poetry in Hebrew, including 
most of Job, the Psalms, Solomon's 
books, and the greater part of the 
prophets ; technically, however, in the 
usage of the Jews, the three poetic booka 
of the Old Testament are Job, Psalms, 
and Proverbs, which have a system of 
accentuation peculiar to themselves. 
Poetic fragments are also found here and 
there in the historical books, as in Gen. 
4 : 23, 24 ; Ex. 32 : 18 ; Num. 21 : 14, 15, 
18, 27-30; 23:7, 18; 24:3, 15. In the 
New Testament, also, many passages oc- 
cur in which this Hebrew style seems to 
be transferred to the Greek, Matt. 8 : 20 ; 
Luke 1 :46, 47 ; Rom. 11 : 33-35 ; Rev. 18 ; 
19:1-3. 

POLL, the head. Num. 2:47. To poll 
the head is to cut off the hair, 2 Sam. 
14:25. 26; Ezek. 44:20. 

POLLUX. See Castor. 

POME'GRANATE, grained apple, the 
Punica Granatum of Linnteus ; called 
also Malum Granatum, in French pomme 
granate, whence its English name. The 
tree grows wild in Persia and Syria, as 
generally in the south of Europe and 
north of Africa. It is low, with a straight 
stem, reddish bark, many and spread- 
ing branches, dark gi-een lancet-formed 
leaves, and large and beautiful crimson 
blossoms. The fruit is of the size of an 
orange, of a tawny brown, with a thick, 
astringent coat, containing an abundance 



POM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



POT 




of seeds, each enveloped in a distinct, 
very juicy, pink coat, whose flavor, in a 
wild state, is a pm-e and very strong 
acid ; but in the cultivated plant, SAveet 
and highly agreeable. The ripe pulp 
Avas eaten by itself, or with a sprinkling 
of sugar; or its juice was made into a 
sherbet. The value of the fruit and the 
beauty of the flower made the pome- 
granate welcome in gardens. Song 4:13; 
6:7, 11 ; 8:2; Joel 1:12. It was abun- 
dant in Palestine, Num. 13 : 23 ; Deut. 
8:8. Artificial pomegranates were used 
as ornaments on the robe of the high- 
priest, Ex. 28 : 33, and also as an archi- 
tectural ornament, 1 Kin. 7:18. 

POM'MELS, globular ornaments, af- 
fixed to the capitals of columns, 2 Chr. 
4:12, 13. 

PON'TUS, the sea, the north-eastern 
province of Asia Minor, bounded north 
by the Euxine sea, west by Galatia and 
Paphlagonia, south by Cappadocia and 
part of Armenia, and east by Colchis. It 
was originally governed by kings, and 
was in its most flourishing state under 
Mithridates the Great, who waged a long 
and celebrated war with the Romans, 
but was at length subdued by Pompey ; 
after which Pontus became a province 
of the Roman empire. The geographer 
Strabo was born in Amasia, its capital ; 
and one of its principal towns, Trapezus, 
still flourishes under the name of Trebi- 
zond. Many Jews resided there, and 
from time to time "went up to Jerusa- 
lem unto the feast," Acts 2:9. The de- 
voted Aquila Avas a native of Pontus, 
Acts 18 : 2 ; and the gospel was planted 
there at an early period, 1 Pet. 1:1. 

POOLS. See Cisterns. 

POOR, Psa. 12 : 5 ; 41 : 1-3, especially 
cared for in the Jewish dispensation, Ex. 
23 : 6, Prov. 14 : 31, and even more so 



under the gospel. Matt. 25 : 42-45 ; Jas. 
2:5. The slight otierings required of 
them by the law were as acceptable as 
the hecatombs of the rich, Lev. 5:7-13 ; 
Mark 12 : 41-44. The gleanings of the 
fields, the olive-trees, and the vines, 
were to be left for them. Lev. 19 : 9 ; 
Deut. 24 : 19 ; Ruth 2 : 2. Every seventh 
year, the spontaneous products of the 
ground were free to all, Lev. 25:7 ; and 
in the Jubilee their alienated inheritance 
returned to their possession. Compare 
also Lev. 25 ; Deut. 24. Neglect and 
oppression of the poor were severely 
reproved by the prophets, Isa. 10 : 2 ; 
Jer. 5 : 28 ; Amos 2:6; but charity to 
the poor was an eminent virtue among 
primitive Christians, Matt. 6 : 2-4 ; Luke 
10 : 33-35 ; 19 : 8 ; Acts 9 : 36-39 ; 10:2 ; 
11:29, 30. 

POPLAR, Gen. 30 : 37, Hosea 4 : 13, 
probably the white poplar, so called 
from the whiteness of the under side of 
the leaves. It is a beautiful and shady 
tree, common in Palestine and its vicin- 
ity. According to some, however, the 
storax-tree is intended. 

PORCH. See House and Temple. 

POR'TERS kept the gates of private 
houses and of cities, 2 Sam. 18:26 ; 2 Kin. 
7 : 10 ; Mark 13 : 34 ; John 10 : 3. The 
porters of the temple AA^ere Levites, at 
one period four thousand in number, 
divided into courses, 1 Chr. 16:42 ; 23:5. 
They stood on guard at every gate, and 
AA'ere on duty Avithin the temple in their 
regular courses, 1 Chr. 26 : 1, 13, 19 ; 
2 Chr. 8 : 14 ; 35 : 15. By night also they 
cheered the lonely hours AAith songs of 
praise, Psa. 134. "We read, in 2"Cor. 
23:2-19, of the faithful service they ren- 
dered in protecting Joash and slaying 
Athaliah. 

POSSESSED'. See Devil. 

POSTS, special messengers in the East, 
sent on occasions of importance, when 
they rode SAviftly, and in many cases 
with fresh horses or dromedaries aAvait- 
ing them at convenient distances, Esth. 
8:10, 14. Job says, " My days are swift- 
er than a post, ' ' Job 9 : 25. Foot-run- 
ners Avere also employed, 2 Sam. 18:22- 
27 ; and experienced runners AAdll tire 
down and outrun a horse on long jour- 
neys. See Footmen. 

POT'IPHAR, . a high officer of Pha- 
raoh, who purchased Joseph of the Mid- 
ianites, and made him master of his 
house, but afterAvards imprisoned him 
349 



POT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PR A 



on a false charge. He is supposed by 
some to have been the same "captain 
of the guard" who promoted Joseph in 
prison, Gen. 37:36; 39:40. 

POTIPHE'RA, helongi7ig to the sun, tlie 
priest of On, city of the sun, whose 
daugliter Asenath was the wife of Jo- 
seph, Gen. 41 : 45. The name is found, 
in various forms, on ancient Egyptian 
monuments. 

POTS, Job 41:20, applied in Scripture 
to a great variety of domestic vessels, of 
earthenware, iron, brass, and gold, used 
for cooking and serving food, etc. , Judg. 
6 : 19 ; 2 Kin. 4 : 40 ; Psa. 58 : 9 ; Eccl. 
7:5; Heb. 9:4. In Psa. 68:13, "though 
ye have lain among the pots," the He- 
brew word means originally cattle-folds ; 
and in Psa. 81:6, "his hands were deliv- 
ered from the pots, ' ' it refers to the bas- 
kets used by the Hebrews in the hard 
service exacted of them in Egypt, Ex. 
1:14. 

POT'SHERDS, broken pieces of earth- 
enware. Job 2:8, Isa. 30:14, fit types of 
the worthlessness and fragility of man, 
Psa. 22 : 15 ; Prov. 26 : 23 ; Isa. 45 : 9. 
The ruins of many of the most ancient 
cities in the world show little but such 
fragments of pottery covering the ground ; 
it is usually coarse in grain, but well 
glazed. Such fragments are used by the 
poor in various ways, if not utterly bro- 
ken into bits, Isa. 30:14. At this day it 
is common to find pieces of broken jars 
at eastern wells and pools, to drink from, 
and to see hot embers and coals carried 
in them from one spot to another. 

POTTAGE. See Edom and Food. 

POT'TER, a maker of earthenware. 
Gen. 24 : 14, 15 ; Judg. 7 : 16, 19 ; Psa. 
2:9. Ancient Egyptian paintings repre- 
sent the potter turning and shaping, on 
his small and simple wheel made to re- 
volve rapidly by the foot, the lump of 
clay which he had previously kneaded 
with his feet. A pan of water stands 
by his side, with which he kept the clay 
moist. After the body of the vessel was 
worked into shape and beauty, the han- 
dle was affixed to it, devices traced upon 
it, and after drying a little, it was care- 
fully taken to the oven and baked. The 
potter's control over the clay illustrates 
the sovereignty of God, who made us of 
clay, and forms and disposes of us as he 
deems good : " O house of Israel, cannot 
I do with you as this potter ? saith the 
Lord. Behold, as the clav is in the pot- 



l|i'!llia|:i:, 




ter's hand, so are ye in my hand, saith 
the Lord," Jer. 18:1-6. " Shall the thing 
formed say to him that formed it, Why 
hast thou made me thus? Hath not the 
potter poAver over the clay, of the same 
lump to make one vessel unto honor and 
another unto dishonor?" Rem. 9:20, 21. 

POTTER'S FIELD. See Aceldama. 

POUND, a weight, and a sum of mon- 
ey, put, in the Old Testament, 1 Kings 
lb : 17, Ezra 2 : 69, Neb. 7 : 71, for the 
Hebrew maneh, which see; and in the 
New Testament, for the Attic mina, which 
was equivalent to one hundred drachmae, 
or about fourteen dollars. 

POWER. For the use of this word in 
1 Cor. 11:10, see Veil. 

PRAYER is the offering of the emo- 
tions and desires of the soul to Gcd, in 
the name and through the mediation of 
our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. It 
is the communion of the heart with God 
through the aid of the Holy Spirit, and 
is to the Christian the very life of the 
soul. Without this filial spirit, no one 
can be a Christian, Job 21:15; Psa. 
10:4. 

In all ages God has delighted in the 
prayers of his saints. From the promul- 
gation of the law, the HebrcAvs did not 
intermit public worship daily in the tab- 
ernacle or the temple. It consisted in 
offering the evening and morning sacri- 
fices, every day, accompanied with pray- 
ers by the priests and Levites in that 
holy edifice. Every day also the priests 
offered sacrifices, incense, oflerings, and 
first-fruits for individuals: they per- 



PRA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PRE 



formed ceremonies for the redemption of 
the first-born, or for purification from 
pollutions ; in a word, the people came 
thither from all parts to discharge their 
vows and to perform their devotions, not 
only on great and solemn days, hut also 
on ordinary days: hut nothing of this 
was performed Avithout prayer, 1 Chr. 
23 : 30 ; Neh. 11 : 17 ; Luke 1 : 10. Com- 
pare also 1 Kin. 8:22, and the Psalms of 
David for temple worshij). 

Pious men were accustomed to pray 
thrice in the day, at fixed hours, Psa. 55:7; 
Dan. 6 : 10. See Hours. Social, family, 
and secret prayer were all habitual with 
Bible saints ; as well as brief ejacula- 
tions in the midst of their ordinary busi- 
ness, Neh. 2 : 4. No uniform posture in 
prayer is enjoined in the Bible ; standing 
with the hands outspread, 1 Kin. 8 : 22, 
bowing the head. Gen. 24 : 26, kneel- 
ing, Luke 22 : 41, and prostration on the 
ground, Matt. 26 : 39, were all practised. 
Pra3'er should be offered with submission 
to God's will, fervently, perseveringly, 
and Avith a confiding reliance on God in 
Christ ; it should be accompanied by 
humble confession and hearty thanks- 
giving, and with supplications for all 
living men, as well as for our friends 
and those nearest to us. Habitual pray- 
er to God is a duty enjoined upon us by 
sound reason and by right affections ; 
and he who lives without it thereby re- 
veals the atheism of his heart. God 
requires all men thus to worsliip him, 
Ezek. 36:37 ; Matt. 7 : 1-11 ; Phil. 4:6; 
1 Tim. 2:1-3 ; Jas. 1:5 ; and for neglect- 
ing this duty there can be no sufficient 
excuse. It is often said that prayer can- 
not alter the unchangeable purposes of 
God ; but the great scheme of his provi- 
dence embraces every prayer that shall 
be offered, as well as the answer it shall 
receive. It is objected that prayer can- 
not increase his knowledge of our wants, 
nor his readiness to supply them ; and 
that in any case he will do what is for 
the best. But he deems it best to grant 
many blessiiifcs in answer to prayer, 
which otherwise he would withhold ; 
" He will be very gracious unto thee at 
the voice of thy cry ; when he shall hear ! 
it, he will answer thee." The words of 
David will be those of every tndy pray- j 
ing man : "This poor man cried, and th ^ j 
Lord heard him, and delivered him out 
of all his troubles," Psa. 34:6. j 

False and formal religion makes a 



merit of its prayers, as though "much 
speaking ' ' and ' ' vaia repetitions ' ' could 
atone for heartlessness. Hypocrites also 
are wont to pray chiefly that they may 
have praise of men. These sins Christ 
reproves in Matt. 6 : 5-15, and gives to 
his disciples the form of the Lord's pray- 
er as a beautiful model. In Eph. 6:18 ; 
1 Thess. 5 : 17 ; 1 Tim. 2:8, Paul directs 
that believers should pray in all places 
and at all times, lifting up pure hands 
towards heaven, and blessing God for all 
things, whether in eating, drinking, or 
whatever they do ; and that every thing 
be done to the glory of God, 1 Cor. 
10:31. In a word, our Saviour has rec- 
ommended to us to pray without ceas- 
ing, Luke 18:1; 21:36. 

PREACH'ING, the public and oral in- 
culcation of the truths of religion, espec- 
ially of the gospel of Christ, Isa. 61 : 1 ; 
Acts 8:4; 2 Cor. 5 : 20 ; Eph. 3 : 8. Pub- 
lic instruction in religion was no doubt 
given in the earliest ages. Enoch proph- 
esied, Jude 14, 15 ; and Noah was a 
preacher of righteousness, 2 Pet. 2 : 5. 
Frequent instances of religious addresses 
occur in the history of Moses, the judges, 
and the prophets ; and these were to 
some extent in connection with the Jew- 
ish ritual, Neh. 8. The psalms sung in 
the temple conveyed instruction to the 
people. After the captivity, numerous 
synagogues were erected, in which the 
word of God was read and expounded 
from Sabbath to Sabbath. Under the 
gospel dispensation, the preaching of 
Christ crucified, by those whom he calls 
to be his ambassadors, is an established 
ordinance of prime importance — God's 
chief instrumentality for the conversion 
of the world, Mark 10:15 ; 1 Cor. 1:21 ; 
2 Tim. 2:2; 4:2. 

PREPARA'TION. The day on which 
our Saviour was crucified was called the 
"day of preparation," or "the prepara- 
tion of the Passover," as preceding the 
Passover Sabbath, which commenced at 
sunset. Matt. 27:62; John 19:31. 

PRETO'RIUM, a name given in the 
gospels to the house in which dwelt the 
Roman governor of Jerusalem, Mark 
15 : 16. Here he sat in his judicial ca- 
pacity, and here Jesus was brought be- 
fore him. See Gabbatha. Tliis was 
the palace built by Herod at Jerusalem, 
near the tower of Antonia, with which it 
had communication. It was a magnifi- 
cent building, and inclosed a spacious 
351 



PRE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PRI 



court, Matt. 27:27; Mark 15:16: John 
18:28, 33. Here the Roman procurators 
resided whenever they visited Jerusa- 
lem, their liead-quarters being at Cxsa- 
rea, Acts 23 : 23 ; 25 : 1. The pretorium 
or palace of Herod (English translation, 
"judgment-hail") at Cajsarea is also 
mentioned in Acts 23 : 35. Paul speaks 
also of the pretorium (English transla- 
tion, "palace") at Rome, in wliich he 
gave testimony to Clirist, Phil. 1 : 13. 
Some think that by this he means the 
palace of the emperor Nero ; and oth- 
ers, that he intends the place where the 
Roman Pr;i;tor sat to administer justice, 
that is, his tribunal. Others have main- 
tained, with greater probability, that 
under the name of the pretorium at 
Rome, Paul would express the camp of 
the pretorian soldiers, whither he might 
have been carried by the soldier that 
always accompanied him, and who was 
fastened to him by a chain, as the man- 
ner was among the Romans. 




PRESS, not only the vat in which the 
luice was trodden out from the grapes, 
but in some cases the whole place for the 
reception of wine, grapes, and orchard- 
fruit. It was often a room excavated 
in the ground ; thus the husbandman 
"digged a wine-press" in his vineyard. 
Matt. 21:33. See also Prov. 3:10 ; Joel 
8:13; Hag. 2:16. See Wine. 

PREVENT', in the Bible means, not 
tf) hinder, but to precede, Psa. 59 : 10 ; 

1 Thess. 4 : 15 ; to anticipate. Psalm 
119:147, 148; Matt. 17:25; or to seize, 

2 Sam. 22:6; Job 30:27. 

PRICKS, the points with which ox- 
goads were armed, by kicking against 
which a refractory bullock onlv hurt it- 
3.52 



self the more. HeLce a proverb, found 
in Greek and Latin as well as in He- 
brew, applied to those who resist lawful 
authority, or tlie power of God, Acts 
9:5; 26 : 14. Compare Job 15 : 25, 26. 
See Ox. 

PRIEST, one who officiated in the pub- 
lic worship of God, especially in making 
expiation for sin, being "ordained for 
men in things pertaining to God, to offer 
both gifts and sacrifices for sins." In 
the Old Testament, the priesthood was 
not annexed to a certain family till after 
the promulgation of the law by Moses. 
Before that time, the first-born of each 
family, the fathers, the princes, the 
kings, were priests in their own cities 
and in their own houses. Cain and 
Abel, Noah, Abraham, and Job, Abime- 
lech and Laban, Isaac and Jacob, offered 
personally their own sacrifices. In the 
solemnity of the covenant made by the 
Lord with his people, at the foot of 
mount Sinai, Moses performed the office 
of mediator, and young men were chosen 
from among Israel to perform the office 
of priests, Ex. 24:5. But after the Lord 
had chosen the tribe of Levi to serve him 
in his tabernacle, and the priesthood was 
annexed to the family of Aaron, the right 
of offering sacrifices and oblations to (^od 
was reserved to the priests of this family, 
Nimi. 16 : 40. Tlie punishment of Uzziah 
king of Judah is well known, who having 
presumed to offer incense to the Lord, 
was suddenly smitten with a leprosy, 
2 Chr. 26 : 19. See also the case of Saul, 
1 Sam. 13:7-14. However, it seems that 
on certain occasions the Hebrew proph- 
ets offered sacrifice to the Lord, especial- 
ly before a constant place of worship was 
fixed at Jerusalem. See 1 Sam. 7 : 9, 
where Samuel, who was not a priest, 
offered a lamb for a burnt-sacrifice to 
the Lord. See also 1 Sam. 9:13 ; 16:5 ; 
1 Kin. 18:31, 33. 

The Lord having reserved to himself 
the first-born of Israel because he had 
preserved them from the hand of the 
destroying angel in Egypt, by way of 
exchange and compensation, he accepted 
the tribe of Levi for the service of his 
tabernacle. Num. 3:41. Thus the whole 
tribe of Levi was appointed to the sacred 
ministry, but not all in the same man- 
ner ; for of the three sons of Levi, Ger- 
shom, Kohath, and Merari, the heads of 
the three great families, the Lord chose 
the family of Kohath, and out of this 



PRI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PRI 



family the house of Aaron, to exercise 
the functions of the priesthood. All the 
rest of the family of Kohath, even the 
children of Moses and their descendants, 
remained among the Levites. 

The high-priest was at the head of all 
religious affairs, and was the ordinary 
judge of all difficulties that belonged 
thereto, and even of the general justice 
and judgment of the Jewish nation, as 
being at the head of all the priests by 
whom this was administered, Deut. 
17:8-12; 19:17; 21:5; 33:8, 10 ; Ezek. 
44 : 24. He only had the privilege of 
entering the sanctuary once a year, on 
the day of solemn expiation, to make 
atonement for the sins of the whole peo- 
ple. Lev. 16 : 2, etc. He was to be born 
of one of his ovm tribe, whom his father 
had married a virgin ; and was to be ex- 
empt from corporal defect. Lev. 21 : 13. 
In general, no priest who had any such 
defect could offer sacrifice, or enter the 
holy place to present the show-bread. 
But he was to be maintained by the sac- 
rifices offered at the tabernacle. Lev. 
21:17-22. The high-priest also received 
a tithe from the Levites, Num. 18:28. 

God also appropriated to the high- 
priest the oracle of his truth ; so that 
when he was habited in the proper orna- 
ments of his dignity, and with the urim 
and thummim, he answered questions 
proposed to him, and God disclosed to 
him secret and future things. He was 
forbidden to mourn for the death of any 
of his relations, even for his father or 
mother ; or to enter into any place where 
a dead body lay, that he might not con- 
tract or hazard the contraction of un- 
cleanness, Lev. 21:10-12. 

The priests served immediately at the 
altar. They slew and dressed the public 
sacrifices, or at least it was done by the 
Levites under their direction. Private 
offerers slew their own victims, except 
in the case of turtle-doves or young pig- 
eons. But all offerings upon the altar, 
the sprinkling of blood included, were 
made by the priests alone. They kept 
up a perpetual fire on the altar of burnt 
sacrifices, and in the lamps of the golden 
candlestick in the sanctuary ; they knead- 
ed the loaves of show-bread, baked them, 
offered them on the golden altar in the 
sanctuary, and changed them every Sab- 
bath-day. Compare Ex. 28:29; Ley. 8. 
Every day, night and morning, a priest, 
appointed by casting of lots at the begin- 



ning of the week, brought into the sane 
tuary a smoking censer uf incense, and 
set it on the golden table, otherwise 
called the altar of incense, Luke 1:9. 




The sacred dress of the priests consist- 
ed of the following articles : short linen 
drawers ; a close-fitting tunic of fine lin- 
en or cotton, of woven work, broidered, 
reaching to the feet, and furnished with 
sleeves ; a girdle of fine linen. Plain 
linen ephods are also ascribed to them, 
1 Sam.' 22 : 18 ; and a bonnet or turban, 
also of fine linen, in many folds. The 
priests always olficiated with uncovered 
feet. The high-priest wore nearly the 
same dress with the priests, and four ar- 
ticles in addition : an outer tunic, called 
the robe of the ephod, woven entire, 
blue, with an ornamented border around 
the neck, and a fringe at the bottom 
made up of pomegranates and golden 
bells : an ephod of blue, and purple, 
and scarlet, and fine linen, with golden 
threads interwoven, covering the body 
from the neck to the thighs ; having 
shoulder-pieces joined on the shoulders 
by clasps of gold in which were set onyx- 
stones graven with the names of the 
twelve tribes of Israel ; and also a girdle 
of fine linen, woven with blue, purple, 
scarlet, and gold, passed several times 
round the body : a breastplate, attached 
at its four corners to the ephod, and like- 
wise bearing the names of the twelve 
tribes on twelve precious stones ; and the 
mitre, a high and ornamented turban, 
353 



PHI 



BIBLE DICTIOXAIir. 



PRO 



having on the front a gold plate with the 
inscription, "Holiness to the Lord." 
Neither he nor the priests wore their 
sacred dresses out of the temple, as we 
infer from Ezek. 42: 14 ; 44: 17-19 ; Acts 
23:5. 

The Lord had given no lands of inher- 
itance to the tribe of Levi, in the Land 
of Promise. He intended that they 
should be supported by the tithes, the 
first-fruits, the offerings made in the 
temple, and by their share of the sin- 
offerings and thanksgiving-offerings sac- 
rificed in the temple ; of which certain 
parts were appropriated to them. In the 
peace-offerings, they had the shoulder 
and the breast. Lev. 7 : 33, 34 ; in the 
sin-offering, they burnt on the altar the 
fat that covers the bowels, the liver, and 
the kidneys ; the rest belonged to them- 
selves. Lev. 7:6, 10. The skin or fleece 
of every sacrifice also belonged to them. 
When an Israelite sacrificed any animal 
for his own use, he was to give the priest 
the shoulder, the stomach, and the jaws, 
Deut. 18:3. The priest had also a share 
of the wool when sheep were shorn, 
Deut. 18 : 4. Thus, though the priests 
had no lands or inheritances, their tem- 
poral wants were supplied. God provid- 
ed them houses and accommodations, by 
appointing forty-eight cities for their res- 
idence. Num. 35 : 1-7. In the precincts 
of these cities they possessed a thousand 
cubits beyond the walls. Of these forty- 
eight cities, six were appointed as cities 
of refuge for those who had committed 
casual and involuntary manslaughter. 
The priests had thirteen of these cities ; 
the others belonged to the Levites, Josh. 
21:10. 

A pi'incipal employment of the priests, 
next to attending on the sacrifices and 
the temple service, was the instruction 
of the people and the deciding of contro- 
versies ; distinguishing the several sorts 
of leprosy, divorce causes, the waters of 
jealousy, vows, causes relating to the 
law and uncleannesses, etc. They pub- 
licly blessed the people in the name of 
the Lord. In time of war their duty 
was to carry the ark of the covenant, to 
consult the Lord, to sound the holy 
trumpets, and to encourage the army, 
Num. 10:8, 9; Deut. 20:2. 

The priesthood of Christ is the sub- 
stance and truth, of which that of the 
Jews was but a shadow and figure. 
Christ, the everlasting priest according 
354 



to the order of Melchizedek, abides for 
ever, as Paul observes; Avhereas the 
priests according to the order of Aaron 
were mortal, and therefore could not 
continue long, Hcb. 7. The Lord, to 
express to the Hebrews what great favors 
he would confer on them, says he would 
make them kings and priests, Ex. 19 : 6 ; 
and Peter repeats this promise to Chris- 
tians, or rather, he tells them that they 
are in truth what Moses promised to 
Israel, 1 Pet. 2:5, 9. See also Rev. 1:6. 
In an important sense every Christian 
offers himself a spiritual sacrifice, "ac- 
ceptable to God through Jesus Christ;" 
but in the Christian church, there is no 
priest to make expiation for sin by a sac- 
rifice but Christ alone, Heb. 9:11-26. 

PRIS'CA, or Priscil'la, the wife of 
Aquila. See Aquila. 

PROCH'ORUS, one of the seven origi- 
nal deacons, Acts 6:5, of whom nothing 
more is known. 

PROGNOS'TICATORS, Isaiah 47 : 13, 
Chaldeans, who pretended to foretell 
future events by the varying aspects of 
the moon, or month by month. 

PROM'ISE, used by Paul to denote the 
spiritual gifts of God, chiefly the Mes- 
siah, the Holy Spirit, and the fulness of 
gospel blessings, of which an assurance 
was given to Abraham and other saints 
in behalf of themselves, and of believers 
who should come after them, Romans 
4 : 13, 14 ; Gal. 3 : 14-29. The ' ' children 
of the promise" are either Isaac's pos- 
terity, as distinguished from Ishmael's ; 
Jews converted to Christianity ; or all 
true believers, who by faith lay hold on 
the promise of salvation in Christ. In 
Heb. 11:39, "promise" means the thing 
promised. Acts 1:4. The "exceeding 
great and precious promises" of God, 
include all good things for this life and 
the future ; which are infallibly secured 
to his people in Christ, 2 Cor. 1 : 20 ; 
1 Tim. 4:8 ; 2 Pet. 1:4. On the ground 
of the infinite merits of their Redeemer, 
infinite love, unbounded wisdom, and 
almighty power are pledged for their 
benefit ; and having given them his only 
Son, God will with him freely give them 
every inferior blessing he sees to be de- 
sirable for them, Rom. 8:32. 

PROPH'ECY, the foretelling of future 
events, by inspiration from God. It is 
very different from a sagacious and hap- 
py conjecture as to futurity, and from a 
vague and equivocal oracle, without any 



PRO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PRO 



certain meaning. A true prophecy can 
come only from God ; and is the highest 
proof of the divine origin of the message 
of Avhich it is a part. A true propliccy 
may be Ivnown hy these marlvs : being 
announced at a suitable time before the 
event it foretells ; having a particular 
and exact agreement Avith that event ; 
being such as no human sagacity or fore- 
sight could produce ; and being deliver- 
ed by one claiming to be under the in- 
spiration of the Almighty. Many of the 
prophecies of Scripture foretold events 
ages before they occurred — events of 
Avhich there was then no apparent prob- 
ability, and the occurrence of which de- 
pended on innumerable contingencies, 
involving the history of things and the 
volitions of persons not then in exist- 
ence ; and yet these predictions were ful- 
fdled at the time and place and in the 
manner prophesied. Such were the pre- 
dictions respecting the coming and cru- 
cifixion of the Messiah, the dispersion 
and preservation of the Jews, etc. The 
Scripture prophecies are a scheme of vast 
extent, the very earliest predictions 
reaching down to the end of the world's 
history— a scheme gradually and harmo- 
niously developed from age to age, and 
by many different persons, some of them 
not fully apprehending, and ' ' searching 
diligently what the Spirit of Christ 
which was in them did signify," 1 Pet. 
1:11, the whole manifestly the work of 
Jehovah, and marvellous in our eyes. 
A degree of ol>scurity rests on the pro- 
phetic writings, which patient and pray- 
erful study alone can dispel ; while those 
which are yet unfulfilled must await the 
coming of the events which will make 
all at length clear. Many predictions 
relating primarily to events and deliver- 
ances near at hand, were also designed 
of God as sure prophecies of yet more 
illustrious events in the future. For ex- 
ample, the general subject of the predic- 
tions in ]\Iatt. 24 is the coming of Christ, to 
judge his foes and deliver his friends. 
In penning a sketch of this sulyect, Mat- 
thew imitates a painter depicting from 
an eminence the landscape before him : 
the tower of the village church in the 
near foreground, and the mountain peak 
in the dim and remote horizon, rise side 
by side on his canvas. So in painting 
the coming of Christ, Matthew sketches 
first some features of his coining in the 
destruction of Jerusalem to occur within 



forty years, and in the next verse some 
distinctive features of his second coming 
at the end of the world ; yet both belong 
to the same general view. Eespecting 
the New Testament phrase, "This was 
done that it might be fulfilled," etc., 
see Fulfilled. For other meanings of 
"prophecy," see Prophets. 

PROPH'ETS, a class of men of God, 
especially in the Old Testament dispen- 
sation, inspired to foretell future and se- 
cret events ; and who also revealed the 
will of God as to current events and du- 
ties, and w^ere his ambassadors to men. 
But the word is sometimes used in a 
wider sense : thus Aaron was Moses' 
prophet, Ex. 7:1, appointed to deliver to 
the people the messages that Moses re- 
ceived from God ; the sacred musicians 
are said to prophec}' , 1 Chr. 25 : 1 ; and 
Paul gives the name, according to the 
custom of the Greeks, to the poet Ara- 
tus, "aprophet of their own," Tit. 1:12. 
Scripture does not withhold the name of 
prophet from impostors, although they 
falsely boasted of inspiration. As true 
prophets, when filled by the energy of 
God's Spirit, w^ere sometimes fervidly 
and -vehemently agitated, similar mo- 
tions were called prophesying when ex- 
hibited by persons who were filled with 
an evil spirit. Saul, being moved by an 
evil spirit, "prophesied in his house," 
1 Sam. 18 : 10. In the New Testament, 
the "prophets" were a class of men 
supernaturally endoAved, and standing 
next to the apostles. They seem to 
have spoken from immediate inspiration, 
whether in reference to future events or 
to the mind of the Spirit generally, as 
in expounding the oracles of God. See 
1 Cor. 11 : 4, 5 ; 14 : 1, 30. etc. Thus it 
is said in Acts 13:1, that Judas and Silas 
were prophets ; that there were in the 
church at Antioch certain prophets and 
teachers, that is, ofiicial instructors. God 
has set in the church, first apostles, then 
proph#s, 1 Cor. 12 : 28. See also Eph. 
2:20; Eev. 18:20; Acts 21:9. 

The Old Testament prophets were spe- 
cial agents of Jehovah, raised up and 
sent as occasion required, to incite to 
duty, to convict of sin, to call to repent- 
ance and reformation, to instruct kings, 
and denounce acrainst nations the judg- 
ments of God, 2 Kin. 17 : 13 ; Jer. 25:4. 
They aided the priests and Levites in 
teaching religion to the people, especial- 
ly in the kingdom of Israel, from which 
3.5.5 



PRO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PRO 



the true priests of the Lord withdrew, 
2 Kin. 4 : 23 ; and cooperated with the 
kings in public measures to promote 
piety and virtue. They were humble, 
faithful, sell-denying, fearless men, 
2 Kin. 1:8; Zech. 18 : 4 ; Matt. 3:4; 
aloof from the pleasures and luxuries of 
life, 2 Kin. 5 : 15 ; often persecuted, and 
slain, Matt. 23 : 34-37 ; Heb. 11 : 32-38 ; 
James 2 : 10 ; but exertmg a powerful 
influence as witnesses for God. Some of 
them were called from the plough and 
the herd, 1 Kin. 19 : 20 ; Amos 7 : 14 ; 
Zech. 13:5. There were also "schools 
of the prophets," first mentioned in the 
time of Samuel, established at Gibeah, 
Naioth, Bethel, Gilgal, and Jericho, 
where young men were instructed in re- 
ligion and prepared to guide in religious 
worship, 1 Sam. 10 : 5 ; 19 : 20 ; 2 Kin. 
2:3, 5 ; 4 : 38. Many of the ' ' sons of the 
prophets ' ' here taught became not only 
religious teachers, but inspired prophets. 
Amos speaks of his own case as an ex- 
ception, Amos 7 : 14, 15. There are sev- 
eral prophetesses mentioned in Scripture ; 
as Miriam, Deborah, and Huldah ; and 
in the New Testament, Anna, Elisabeth, 
and Mary, and the four daughters of 
Philip seem to have partaken for a time 
of prophetic inspiration. 

The prophets received their messages 
from God, sometimes in visions, trances, 
and dreams. Compare Num. 24 : 2-16 ; 
Joel 2 : 28 ; Acts 10 : 11, 12 ; Rev. 1:10- 
20. These revelations were at times 
attended with overpowering manifesta- 
tions of the Godhead ; and at other times 
were simply breathed into the mind by 
the Spirit of God. Their messages were 
delivered to the kings, princes, and 
priests whom they most concerned, or to 
the people at large, in writing, or by 
word of mouth and in public places ; 
often with miracles, or Avith symbolic 
actions designed to explain and enforce 
them, Isa. 20 ; Jer. 7:2 ; 19 ; Ezek. 3:10. 

The Old Testament contains ^he in- 
spired writings of sixteen of the Hebrew 
prophets ; four of whom, Isaiah, Jeremi- 
ah, Ezekiel, and Daniel, are called the 
greater prophets, and the other twelve 
the minor prophets. Respecting the true 
chronological order of the prophets, there 
is in some cases great diversity of opin- 
ion. Below is given the arrangement 
preferred by some ; while others, so far 
as the minor prophets are concerned, ad- 
here to that given in the Hebrew Bible 
356 



and our common version. See each name 
in its place, for further particulars. 

1. Jonah, during the reign ol Jeroboam II., 
king oi Israel, which commenced 825 b. c. ; or 
perliaps as early as Joash, the predecessor ol 
Jeroboam. 

2. Joel, under Uzziah king of Judah, nearly 
800 B. c, belore Amos and Hosea came upon 
the stage. 

3. Amos, under Uzziah king of Judah, and 
during the latter years of Jeroboam 11., king 
of Israel. About 787 e. c. 

4. Hosea, under Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and 
Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and under Jerobo- 
am II. and his successors, kings ol Israel. 
From about 785 to 725 b. c. 

5. Isaiah, near the death of Uzziah king of 
Judah, and the beginning of the reign of Jo- 
tham, B. c. 758, to the reign of Manasseh, b. c. 
C97. 

6. MiCAH, under Jotham, Ahaz, and Heze- 
kiah, kings of Judah. Jotham began to reign 
B. c. 758, and Hezekiah died b. c. 697. Ihus 
Micah was contemporary with Isaiah. 

7. Nahum, in the latter part of the reign of 
Hezekiah, and after the expedition of Sen- 
nacherib. Between 710 and 700 b. c. 

8. Zephaxiah, soon after the beginning of 
the reign of Josiah, and before the destruc- 
tion of Nineveh. About b. c. CSO. 

9. Jeremiah, in the thirteenth year of Josiah 
king of Judah, b. c. 628. Jeremiah continued 
to prophesy under Shallum, Jehoiakim, Jec- 
oniah, and' Zedekiah, to the taking of Jeru- 
salem by the Chaldeans, b. c. 588. It is sup- 
posed he died two years afterwards, in Egypt. 

10. HABAKKUKjin Judah, near the beginning 
of the reign of Jehoiakim! about 610 b. c, and 
before the coming of xsebuchadnezzar. 

11. Obadiah, near the fall and captivity ol 
Jerusalem, b. c. 588, and before the desolation 
of Idumaea. 

12. Ezekiel, carried captive to Babylon with 
Jeconiah king of Judah, 598 b. c. He began 
to prophesy about b. c. 5C0 ; and continued, 
under Nebuchadnezzar, till fourteen years 
after the final capture of Jerusalem b. c. 588. 

13. Daxiel, taken into Chaldea while young, 
B. c. 606, the fourth year of Jehoiakim king 
of Judah. He prophesied in Babylon to the 
end of the captivity, and probably finished 
about 534 b. c. 

14. Haggai, returned from the captivity b. c. 
536, and prophesied in the second year of Da- 
rius son of Hystaspes, b. c. 520. 

15. Zechakiah, prophesied in Judea at the 
same time as Haggai, b. c. 520, and seems to 
have continued after him. 

16. Malachi, supposed to have prophesied 
about 416 B. c. , in the latter part of the admin- 
istration of Nehemiah at Jerusalem. 

Christ, of whom all the prophets bore 
witness, Luke 24 : 27. 44 ; Acts 10 : 43 ; 
1 Pet. 1:10, 11, is eminently the PRorn- 
KT of his church in all ages, Deut. 18:15- 
19 ; Acts 3 : 22-24 ; revealing to them, 
by his inspired servants, by himself, and 
by his Spirit, all we know of God and 
immortality. 

PROPITIATION, the offering which 
appeases the wrath of one against whom 



PRO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PSA 



an offence has been committed. Christ 
is "the propitiation for our sins," Piom. 
3:25, inasmuch as his sacrifice alone re- 
moves the obstacles which prevented the 
mercy of God from saving sinners, and 
appeases the just wrath of the law, 
1 John 2:2; 4 : 10. The same Greek 
word is used in the Septuagint to denote 
an "atononent," Num. 5:8; a " sin- 
oflfering," Ezek. 44:27 ; and the covering 
of the ark of the covenant, Lev. 16 : 14 ; 
Heb. 9:5. See Mercy-seat. 

PPtOS'ELYTE, in the Jewish sense, a 
foreigner who adopted the Jewish relig- 
ion, a convert from heathenism to Juda- 
ism. The laws of the Hebrews make 
frequent mention of ' ' the stranger that 
is within thy gates," Lev. 17:8-16; 
24 : 16 ; Num. 15 : 14-16, and welcomed 
him to all the privileges of the people of 
God. Our Saviour rebukes the blind 
zeal of the Pharisees to make proselytes 
to ceremonial Judaism, without caring 
for the circumcision of the heart, Matt. 
23 : 15 ; Ptom. 2 : 28, 29. According to 
the later rabbins, there were two species 
of proselytes among the Jews. The first 
were called "proselytes of the gate," 
and were foreigners, either bond or free, 
who lived among the Jews and conform- 
ed to their customs in regard to what 
the rabbins call ' ' the seven precepts of 
Noah ;" that is, they abstained from in- 
jurious language in respect to God, from 
idolatry, homicide, incest, robbery, re- 
sistance to magistrates, and from eating 
blood, or the flesh of animals killed 
without shedding their blood. The other 
class were called "proselytes of justice ;" 
that is, complete, perfect proselytes, and 
were those who had abandoned their for- 
mer religion, and bound themselves to 
the observance of the Mosaic law in its 
full extent. These, according to the rab- 
bins, by means of circumcision, baptism, 
and an off"ering, obtained all the rites of 
Jewish citizenship, Ex. 12:48, 49. This 
distinction, however, is not observable 
in the Bible. Proselytes were numerous 
in our Saviour's day, and were found in 
many places remote from Jerusalem, 
Acts 2 : 10 ; 8 : 27. Many converts to 
Christianitv were gathered from among 
them, John 12 : 20; Acts 6:5; 13 : 43 ; 
17:4. 

PROV'ERBS, THE BOOK OF, a collection 
of pointed and sententious moral max- 
ims, the fruit of Solomon's profound sa- 
gacity and unexampled experience, but 



above all, of the inspiration of God. Sol- 
omon is said to have uttered three thou- 
sand proverbs, 1 Kin. 4 : 32, b. c. 1000. 
The first nine chapters of Proverbs are 
written in an admirable poetic style, and 
are more continuous than the succeed- 
ing chapters, 10-22, which consist of 
separate maxims. Chapters 25-29 are 
proverbs of Solomon collected under the 
direction of king Hezekiah. Chapter 30 
is ascribed to Agur, and affords exam- 
ples of the enigmatic proverbs so popu- 
lar in the East. Chapter 31, by "king 
Lemuel," is mainly a beautiful picture of 
female excellence. By whose care this 
book was compiled in its present form, 
is unknown ; there is no book of the Old 
Testament, however, whose canonical 
authority is better attested. The New 
Testament contains frequent quotations 
and allusions to it, Ptom. 12:20 ; IThess. 
5 : 15 ; Heb. 12 : 5, 6 ; Jas. 4:6; 1 Pet. 
4:8; 2 Pet. 2:22. Its "winged words" 
are a rich storehouse of heavenly wis- 
dom, and few questions can arise in ac- 
tual life on which they do not shed light. 

PROVIDENCE, Acts 24 : 2, a superin- 
tending and forecasting care. The prov- 
idence of G od upholds and governs every 
created thing. Its operation is coex- 
tensive with the universe, and as un- 
ceasing as the flow of time. All his 
attributes are engaged in it. He pro- 
videth for the raven his food, and satis- 
fieth the desire of every living thing. 
The Bible shows us all nature looking 
up to him and depending upon him. Job 
38:41; Psa. 104; 145:15, 16; 147:8, 9; 
and uniformly declares that every occur- 
rence, as well as every being, is perfectly 
controlled by him. There is no such 
thing as chance in the universe ; ' ' the 
lot is cast into the lap, but the whole 
disposing thereof is of the Lord," Prov. 
16:23. Not a sparrow, nor a hair of the 
head, falls to the ground without his 
knowledge, Isa. 14:26, 27 ; Matt. 10:29, 
30 ; Acts 17 : 24-29. Nothing that was 
not too minute for God to create, is too 
minute for him to preserve and control. 
The history of each man, the rise and 
fail of nations, and the progress of the 
church of Christ, reveal at every step the 
hand of Him who "worketh all things 
after the counsel of his own will." 

PSALMS, THE BOOK OF. The Hebrew 

name for this book is tehilliji, praises, 

though many of the psalms are rather 

elegiac. Most of the psalms have the su- 

357 



PSA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PSA 



perscription mizmor, a poem, song. This 
word is rendered in the Septuagint by 
psalmos, that is, a song sung to music, a 
lyric poem. The Greek pmlterion means 
a stringed instrument ; hence by a met- 
aphor the book of Psalms is called Psal- 
ter. For the poetical characteristics of 
the Psalms, see Poetry. 

Classification. — Some writers have 
classified the psalms according to their 
poetic character, into odes, elegies, etc. 
A preferable method is to divide them 
according to their contents. In this way 
they have been divided into six classes. 

I. Hymns in praise of Jehovah ; teUl- 
Ihn in the proper sense. These are di- 
rected to Jehovah as the God of all na- 
ture and the Creator of the universe, 
Psa. 8, 10-4 ; as the protector and patron 
of Israel, Psa. 20, 29, 33, or of individ- 
uals, with thanksgiving for deliverance 
from evils, Psa. 18, 30, 46, 47 ;_ or they 
refer to the more special attributes of 
Jehovah, Psa. 90, 139. These psalms 
express thoughts of the highest sublim- 
ity in respect to God, providence, re- 
demption, etc. 

II. Temple hymns ; sung at the con- 
secration of the temple, the entrance of 
the ark, etc., or jntended for the temple 
service, Psa. 24, 132. So also "pilgrim 
songs," sung by those who came up to 
Avorship in the temple, etc. ; as for ex- 
ample, the "songs of degrees,"' Psa. 120, 
etc. See Degrees. 

III. Religious and moral songs of a 
general character ; containing the poet- 
ical expression of emotions and feelings, 
and therefore subjective: as for example, 
confidence in God, Psa. 23, 62, 125 ; de- 
votedness to God, Psa. 16 ; longing for 
the worship of the temple, Psa. 42, 43 ; 
prayers for the forgiveness of sin, etc. 
To this class belong the seven peniten- 
tial psalms, as they are termed, Psa. 6, 
25, 32, 35; 38, 51, 130. Also didactic 
songs ; the poetical expression of some 
truth, maxim, etc., Psa. 1, 34, 128 ; Psa. 
15, 32, 50, etc. This is a numerous 
class. 

IV. Elegiac psalms, that is, lamenta- 
tions, psalms of complaint, generally 
united with prayer for help. 

V. ]Mes.sianic psalms, as 2, 22, 45, 69, 
72, 110, etc. 

VI. Historical psalms, in which the 
ancient history of the Israelites is re- 
peated in a hortatory manner, Psa. 78; 
105, 106, 114. 

358 



But it is impossible to form any per- 
fect arrangement, because some psalms 
belong in part to two or more different 
classes. Besides the proper Messianic 
psalms, predictions of the Messiah are 
widely scattered through this book, and 
the attention of the devout reader is 
continually attracted by passages fore- 
telling His character and His works. 
Not a few of these are alluded to in the 
New Testament ; and it is unquestion- 
able that the language and structure of 
many others not quoted were intended 
to bear witness to the Son of God. Da- 
vid himself was an eminent type of the 
Saviour, and many events of his life 
shadowed forth his Son and Lord. The 
mention of these in the inspired writings 
is not undesigned ; the recorded trials 
and victories of David find in their refer- 
ence to the Messiah their highest claim 
to a place in the sacred writings. Lord 
Bacon has remarked that many prophetic 
passages in the Old Testament are ' ' of 
the nature of their Author, to whom a 
thousand j-ears are as one day ; and 
therefore they are not fulfilled punctu- 
ally at once, but have springing and ger- 
minant accomplishment through many 
ages, though the height or fulness of 
them may refer to some one age." 

Inscriptions. — With the exception of 
twenty-five psalms, hence called orphan 
psalms, all the rest have inscriptions of 
various kinds. They refer to the author, 
the occasion, different kinds of song, the 
melody or rhythm, the instrumental ac- 
companiment, the choir who shall per- 
form, etc. These are mostly very ob- 
scure, because the music and musical 
instruments of the Hebrews are almost 
imknown to us. They are of very high 
antiquity, if not as old as the psalms 
themselves ; and in the Hebrew are not 
detached from the psalms, as in modern 
translations. They appear Avith numer- 
ous variations in the ancient Greek and 
Syriac versions. Many words in these in- 
scriptions remain untranslated, and can 
only be conjecturally interpreted. See 

HiGGAION, MaSCIIIL, ctc. 

Authors and age of the ps.ilms. — 
To David are assigned seventy - three 
psalms in the Hebrew, and in the Sep- 
tuagint eleven more. Psalm 90 is as- 
cribed to Moses. As to the authorship 
of the other psalms, much diversity of 
opinion has prevailed among biblical 
critics. 



PSA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



PUB 



Tlie whole collection of the Psalms ap- 
pears to have lirst existed in five books, 
after the example, perhaps, of the Penta- 
teuch. Each book closes with a doxology . 

Book I. comprises psalms 1-41. 
'•II. " '> 4-2-72. 

" III. " " 7S-89. 

" IV. " " 90-106. 

" V. " " 107-150. 

One psalm occurs twice, Psa. 14 ; com- 
pare Psa. 53. Some occur as parts of 
other psalms ; as for example, Psa. 70 
forms also a part of Psa. 40. So also 
some psalms are repeated from other 
books of Scripture ; thus Psa. 18 is the 
same with 2 Sam. 22. The final arrange- 
ment of the whole is generally referred 
to Ezra, 450 b. c. 

These invaluable sacred songs exhibit 
the sublimest conceptions of God, as the 
creator, preserver, and governor of the 
universe ; to say nothing of the pro- 
phetical character of many of them, and 
their relation to the Messiah and the 
great plan of man's redemption. They 
present us with the most perfect models 
of child-like resignation and devoted- 
ness, of unwavering faith and confidence 
in God. They are an inspired epitome 
of the Bible, for purposes of devotion ; 
and are peculiarly dear to the people of 
God, as expressing every phase of re- 
ligious experience. Luther, in his pre- 
fiice to the Psalter, has the following 
beautiful language : " Where canst thou 
find nobler words of joy, than in the 
psalms of praise and thanksgiving? 
There thou may est look into the hearts 
of all good men, as into beautiful and 
pleasant gardens, yea, as into heaven 
itself. How do grateful and fine and 
charming blossoms spring up there, from 
every kind of pleasing and rejoicing 
thoughts towards God and his goodness ! 
Again, Avhere canst thou find more deep 
or mournful words of sorrow, than in the 
psalms of lamentation and woe ? There 
thou mayest look again into the hearts 
of all good men, as upon death, yea, as 
if into hell. How dark and gloomy is it 
there, from anxious and troubled views 
of the wrath of God ! I hold, however, 
that no better or finer book of models, 
or legends of saints and martyrs, has 
existed, or can exist on earth, than the 
Psalter. For we find here, not alone 
what one or two saints have done, but 
what the Head of all saints has done, 
and what all holv men still do ; in what 



attitude they stand towards God and 
towards their friends and enemies ; and 
how they conduct themselves in all dan- 
gers and sufferings. And besides this, 
all sorts of divine doctrines and precepts 
arc contained in it. Hence it is that the 
Psalter is the book of all good men ; and 
every one, whatever his circumstances 
may be, finds in it psalms and words 
suited to his circumstances, and which 
are to him just as if they had been put 
there on his very account, and in such a 
way that he himself could not have made 
or found or wished for better." 

In Luke 24 : 44, the word "psalms" 
denotes one of the three divisions of the 
Hebrew Bible, the Hagiographa or devo- 
tional writings. See Bible. With re- 
gard to alphabetical psalms and psalms 
of degrees, see Degkees, and Lettebs. 
PSAL'TEPvY. See Harp, and Mrsic. 
PTGLEMA'IS. SeeAccuo. 
PUB'LICAN, an officer of the revenue, 
employed in collecting taxes. Among 
the Romans there were two sorts of tax- 
gathereis : some were general receivers, 
who in each province had deputies ; they 
collected the revenues of the empire, 
and accounted to the emperor. These 
were men of great consideration in the 
government ; and Cicero says that among 
these wxre the flower of the Eoman 
knights, the ornaments of the city, and 
the strength of the commonwealth. But 
the deputies, the under-collectors, the 
publicans of the lower order, were look- 
ed upon as so many thieves and pick- 
pockets. Theocritus being asked which 
was the most cruel of all beasts, answer- 
ed, "Among the beasts of the wilder- 
ness, the bear and the lion ; among tlie 
beasts of the city, the publican and the 
parasite." Among the Jews, the name 
and profession of a publican were espe- 
cially odious. They could not, without 
the utmost reluctance, see publicans ex- 
acting tributes and impositions laid on 
them by foreigners, the Romans. The 
Galileans, or Herodians. especially, sub- 
mitted to this with the greatest impa- 
tience, and thought it even unlawful, 
Deut. 17 : 15. Those of their own nation 
who undertook this office they looked 
upon as heathen. Matt. 18 : 17. It is 
even said that they would not allow 
them to enter the temple or the syna- 
gogues, to engage in the public pniy- 
ers or offices of judicature, or to give 
testimonv in a court of justice. 
359 



PUB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



FUll 



There were many publicans in Jiidea 
in the time of our Saviour ; Zaccheus, 
probably, was one of the principal receiv- 
ers, since he is called "chief among the 
publicans," Luke 19:2; but Matthew 
was only an inferior publican, Luke 
5 : 27. The Jews reproached Jesus with 
being a "friend of publicans and sin- 
ners, and eating with them," Luke 7 :34 ; 
but he, knowing the self-righteousness, 
unbeUef, and hypocrisy of his accusers, 
replied, "The publicans and harlots go 
into the kingdom of God before you," 
Matt. 21 : 31. Compare also the beauti- 
ful demeanor of the penitent publican in 
the temple, and the self-justifying spirit 
of the Pharisee, Luke 18:10-14. 

PUB'LIUS, the prefect of Melita when 
Paul was shipwrecked on that island 

A. D. 60, Acts 28:7-9. Publius received 
the apostle and his company into his 
house, and entertained them with great 
humanity. The governor's father, dan- 
gerously sick, and many others ill of 
various dise-ases, were miraculously heal- 
ed ; and their hospitable care of Paul 
and his friends continued through the 
three wintry months of their stay, and 
furnished them abundant supplies on 
their departure. 

PUL, I., an Assyrian king, about 765 

B. c, when Assyria is first mentioned in 
Scriptui-e after the time of Nimrod. He 
invaded Israel during the reign of Mena- 
hem, but was induced to retire by a 
present of a thousand talents of silver, 
equivalent to at least a million and a half 
of dollars, 2 Kin. 15 : 19, 20 ; 1 Chr. 
5:26. 

II. Isa. 66 : 19, a region remote from 
Judea, associated with Lud, and sup- 
posed by Bochart to be traceable in the 
island Philae in the Nile, near the con- 
fines of Egypt and Ethiopia. 

PULSE, a general name for peas, 
beans, and all large or leguminous seeds. 

PUN'ISHMENTS. The penalties in- 
flicted in ancient times for various crimes 
and offences, varied in different nations, 
and at different times. Capital punish- 
ment for murder is generally agreed to 
have been permanently instituted at the 
origin of the human race ; and Cain was 
only saved from it by a special interposi- 
tion of God, Gen. 4 : 14, 15. It was re- 
enacted, with reasons, after the deluge. 
Gen. 9:5, 6, and in the wilderness, Num. 
85 : 9-34 ; and was early and widely recog- 
nized among mankind. 
3G0 



The mode of capital punishment usual 
among the Hebrews was stoning, I)eut. 
18:9, 10; 17:5 ; Josh. 17:25 ; John 8:7; 
but various other modes became knoum 
to them by intercourse with other na- 
tions : as decapitation, 2 Kin. 10 : 6-8 ; 
Matt. 14:8-12; precipitation from rocks, 

2 Chr. 25 : 12 ; Luke 4 : 29 ; hanging, 
Josh. 8:29 ; Esth. 7 : 10; burning, Dan. 

3 ; cutting asunder, Dan. 2:5; 3 : 29 ; 
Heb. 11 : 27 ; beating, on a wheel-like 
frame, Heb. 11 : 35 ; exposure to Avild 
beasts, Dan. 6; 1 Cor. 15:32; drowning, 
Matt. 18:6 ; bruising in a mortar, Prov. 
27:22; and crucifixion, John 19:18. 

Minor punishments were scourging, 
Lev. 19:20; 2 Cor. 11:24; retaliation in 
kind for an injury done, Exod. 21 : 23- 
25; Deut. 19:19; imprisonment, 2 Chr. 
16 : 10 ; Matt. 4 : 12 ; the stocks. Acts 
16:24; banishment, Eev. 1:9; and per- 
sonal torture, 2 Chr. 18 : 26 ; Isa. 50 : 6 ; 
Matt. 18:30; Heb. 11:37. 

PU'RIM, lots, a Jewish festival insti- 
tuted by Esther and Mordecai, during 
the reign of Ahasuerus king of Persia, in 
memory of the providential deliverance 
of the Jews from the malignant designs 
of Haman. The propriety of the name 
appears from the fact that the lot was 
cast in the presence of Haman for every 
day from the first month to the twelfth, 
before an auspicious day was found for 
destroying the Jews; and thus the su- 
perstition of Haman was made the means 
of giving them time to turn his devices 
against himself, Prov. 16:33 ; Esth. 3:7 ; 
9 : 20-32. This festival was preceded by 
a day of fasting, and was observed by 
reading the book of Esther publicly in 
the synagogues, and by private festivi- 
ties, mutual presents, alms, plays, and 
self-indulgence. Some think it is allud- 
ed to in John 5:1. It is still observed 
by the Jews, in the month of March. 

PUR'PLE. The famous and costly 
Tyrian purple, the royal color of the 
ancients, is said to have been discovered 
by the Tyrian Hercules, whose dog hav- 
ing by chance eaten a shell -fish called 
Purpura, and returning to his master 
Avith his lips tinged with a purple color, 
occasioned the discovery of this precious 
dye. Purple, however, is much more 
ancient than this, since we find it men- 
tioned by Moses in several places. Two 
kinds of purple are mentioned in the Old 
Testament : 1. Argamox, rendered in our 
version "purple," denoting a reddish 



PUT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



QUA 



purple obtained from a species of muscle 
or shell-lish found on the coasts of the 




It was a Roman colony. Here Paul 
abode seven days, on his famous voyage 
and journey from Caisarea to Kome, Acts 
28:18. 

PY'GARGr, white-rump. This is proper- 
ly the name of a species of eagle ; but is 
applied, in Deut. 14 : 5, to a quadruped, 
apparently a species of gazelle or ante- 
lope. So the Syriac version and Tar- 
gums. Both the Arabic versions refer it 
to a species of mountain goat. 



HELIX lAXTHINA AND MCREX TRUNCCLL'S. 

Mediterranean. 2. Techeleth, rendered 
in the English Bible "blue." This was 
a bluish or coerulean purple, likewise ob- 
tained from another species of shell-fish. 
The "scarlet" or "crimson," for the 
two words denote essentially the same 
color, was produced from the coccus in- 
sect, coccus ilicis. All these were sacred 
colors among the Jews ; and the latter 
was used for the high-priest's ephod, 
and for veils, ribbons, and cloths, Ex. 
26 : 1, 4, 31, 36 ; 28 : 31 ; Num. 4 : 6-12 ; 
15:38. 

The ' ' purple ' ' of the ancients seems 
to have included man)^ different tints 
derived originally from the shell-fish, 
and modified by various arts in which 
the Tyrians excelled. As each fish yield- 
ed but a few drops of coloring matter, 
the choicest purple bore a very high 
price. Purple robes were worn by the 
kings and first magistrates of ancient 
Rome, and Nero forbade their use by 
his subjects under pain of death. Our 
Saviour was clothed with a ro^'al robe of 
purple, in mockery of his title, "The 
King of the Jews," John 19:2, 5. Com- 
pare also Judg. 8:26 ; Esth. 8:15 ; Prov. 
31:22 ; Dan. 5:7; Luke 16 : 19. Moses 
used much wool dyed of a crimson and 
purple color in the work of the taber- 
nacle, and in the ornaments of the high- 
priest, Ex. 25 : 4 ; 26 : 1, 31, 36 ; 39 : 1 ; 
2 Chr. 3 : 14. The Babylonians also 
clothed their idols in robes of a purple 
and azure color, Jer. 10:9 ; Ezck. 23:15; 
27:7,16. 

PUTE'OLl, the wells, now Pozzuoli, a 
maritime town in the Campania of Na- 
ples, on the northern side of the bay, 
eight miles north-west from that citv. 
]6 




THE QUAIL : COTURNIX COMMUNIS. 

QUAILS. The oriental quail is a bird 
of passage, about the size of a turtle- 
dove, and nearly resembling the Ameri- 
can partridge. Hasselquist states that 
it is plentiful near the shores of the Dead 
sea and the Jordan, and in the deserts of 
xVrabia ; and Diodorus affirms that it is 
caught in immense numbers about Rhi- 
nocolura, at the south-west corner of Pal- 
estine. Burckhardt also found great 
quantities of them in the regions south 
of the Dead sea. The flocks of quails, 
therefore, which came up to the camp of 
Israel, are entirely credible; and the 
miracle seems especially to have consist- 
ed in these immense flocks being directed 
to a particular spot, in the extreme emer- 
gency of the people, by means of "a 
wind from the Lord," Ex. 16:13; Num. 
11:31; Psa. 78:27. 

QUAR'TUS, a Christian residing at 
Corinth, but according to his name of 
Roman origin, whose salutation Paul 
sends to the brethren at Rome, Rom. 

! 16:23. 

j QUATERNION of Soldiers, a detach- 
ment or division consisting of four men, 
Acts 12 : 4. The Romans detached a 

I quarternion of four men for a night 
3C1 



QUE 



JUJ3LE DICTIONAlir 



RAB 



guard, and divided tlie night into four 
watches, so that each soldier should in 
his turn be on guard three hours. (See 
Hours.) When therefore Herod, who 
adopted the Koman customs, is said to 
have delivered Peter to four quaterni- 
ons of soldiers, it is to be understood 
that he was guarded by four men at a 
time, namely, two in the prison with 
him, and two before the doors, (compare 
ver. (i,) and that they were relieved 
every three hours by four others ; mak- 
ing in all sixteen men. 

QUEEN OF HEAVEN, a name given 
by the Hebrew idolaters to the moon, 
Jer. 7:18; 44:17, 18. (See Ashtoreth. 

QUICK, in the old English sense, 
means alive, or living. Num. 16 : 30 ; 
2 Tim. 4:1 ; and quicken, to make alive. 
God bestows spiritual life on men dead 
in trespasses and sins, Eph. 2:5, through 
Christ the second Adam, who is a quick- 
ening Spirit, 1 Cor. 15:45. 

QUICK'SANDS, Acts 27 : 17, probably 
the dangerous sandbanks and whirlpools 
in two gulfs on the African coast south 
of Malta ; they were called the Greater 
and the Lesser Syrtis, and were much 
dreaded by ancient mariners. The course 
of the wind by which Paul and his com- 
panions were driven, threatened to cast 
them into the Lesser Syrtis. 



E. 



RAAMAH, 1 Chr. 1:9, a region settled 
by Cushites, descendants of a grandson 
of Ham of the same name, Gen. 10 : 7. 
It is supposed to have adjoined the Per- 
sian gulf on its western shore towards 
the north, Ezek. 27:12. 

RAAM'SES, or Rame'ses, a city built 
by the Hebrews during their servitude 
in Egypt, Ex. 1 : 11. It was situated in 
the land of Goshen ; and appears to have 
been the capital of that country, Gen. 
47 : 10. From it they commenced their 
united exodus from Egypt, Ex. 12 : 37 ; 
Num. 33 : 3, 5. It is thought to have 
been on the line of the ancient canal 
from the Nile to the Red sea, and some 
thirty-five miles north-west of Suez. 

RAB, RAB'BI. The word rab in He- 
brew signifies chief; thus Nebuzaradan 
is the chief or captain of the guard, 
2 Kin. 25:8, in Hebrew rab-tabbachim ; 
so Ashpenaz is the rab, chief or master 
362 



of the eunuchs, and Daniel of the magi, 
Dan. 1:3; 5:11. See Rab-mag. At a later 
period, it was introduced as a solemn title 
of honor in the Jewish schools, meaning 
master, teacher, doctor. There were va- 
rious distinctions and degrees ; the term 
rab was accounted the least honorable ; 
that of rabbi, signifying my master, being 
of higher dignity. Another form of the 
word was rabban or rabbon, from which 
comes also rabboni, John 20 : 16 ; this 
was regarded as the highest title of hon- 
or, and was never formally bestowed on 
more than seven persons, who all be- 
longed to the celebrated school of Hillel, 
and were preeminently distinguished by 
their rank and learning. See Gamaliel. 
The more common and usual appellation 
afterwards was rabbi ; and this has de- 
scended among the Jews to the present 
day. Matt. 23 : 7, 8. It was a title often 
given to the Saviour both by his disci- 
ples and the people, Mark 9:5; 10 : 51 ; 
11:21; John 1:38, 49; 4:31. 

RAB'BATH, or Rab'bath-Am'mon, af- 
terwards called Philadelphia, the capital 
of the Ammonites, was situated near the 
southern source of the Jabbok, some 
twenty-two miles beyond Jordan. It 
was famous even in the time of Moses, 
Deut. 3:11 ; Josh. 13:25. When David 
declared war against the Ammonites, his 
general, Joab, laid siege to Rabbath- 
Ammon, where Uriah lost his life by a 
secret order of his prince ; and when the 
city was reduced to the last extremity, 
Joab sent for David to hasten and go 
thither, to enjoy the honor of taking it, 
2 Sam. 11 ; 12. From this time it became 
subject to the kings of Judah ; but the 
kings of Israel subsequently became mas- 
ters of it, with the tribes beyond Jordan. 
Towards the conclusion of the kingdom 
of Israel, Tiglath-pileser having taken 
away a great part of the Israelites, the 
Ammonites were guilty of many cruelties 
against those who remained ; fcr which 
the prophets Jeremiah and Ezokiel pro- 
noimced very severe prophecies against 
Rabbath, their capital, and against the 
rest of the country ; which probably had 
their completion five years after the de- 
struction of Jerusalem, Jer. 49 : 1-3 ; 
Ezek. 21:20. Antiochus the Great after- 
wards took the city. It Avas long linown 
to the Greeks and Romans as Philadel- 
phia ; but this name is now unknown in 
that vicinity, while the more ancient 
name still survives. It is now called 



RAB 



131BLE DICTIONARY. 



RAC 



Amman, and is about fifteen miles south- 
east of Szalt, the ancient Ramoth-Gilead. 
Burckhardt found there extensive ruins, 
wliich lie has described. He and numer- 
ous other travellers found it desolate, as 
had been foretold; it was literally "a 
stable for camels, ' ' " a couching-place for 
flocks," Ezek. 25:5. 

EAB'BATH-MOAB. See Ar. 

HAB'BI and RABBO'NI. See Rab. 

liAB-MAGr, a general officer of Nebu- 
chadnezzar's army, at the taking of Je- 
rusalem, Jer. 39:8. He was, as his name 
signifies, a chief of the Magi ; a dignitary 
who had accompanied the king of Baby- 
lon in his campaign. See Magi. 

RAB'-SARIS, an officer sent with Rab- 
shakeh and Tartan, to summon Heze- 
kiah, 2 Kin. 18 : 17 ; Jer. 39 : 3. It signi- 
fies "the chief of the eunuchs." Such 
officers, high in honor and in trust, are 
found on the mural tablets of Nineveh 
so wonderfully preserved to this day ; 
and in the Ottoman Porte of our own 
times the Kislar Aga, or chief of the 
black eunuchs, is one of the highest dig- 
nitaries. See Shalmanezer. 

RAB'-SHAKEH, chief butler or cup- 
bearer, an officer sent from Lachish by 
Sennacherib king of Assyria, to summon 
Hezekiah to surrender ; which message 
he delivered in a most audacious and 
insolent manner. The history is told in 
2 Kin. 19 : 17, etc. ; 2 Chr. 32 : 9, etc. ; 
Isa. 36. See Nineveh and Sennacherib. 

RA'CA, a Avord derived from a Hebrew 



word signifying vain, trifling, brainless ; 
otherwise, beggarly, worthless. It is 
thus translated by the Vulgate, in Judg. 
11:3; in the English, ' ' vain men. ' ' The 
word includes a strong idea of contempt. 
Christ says, Matt. 5 : 22, whoever shall 
say to his brother, "Raca," shall be con- 
demned by the council, or sanhedrim. 
The term translated "fool" in the 
same passage, means vile and abandoned 
wretch. 

RACE, Psa. 19 : 5 ; Eccl. 9:11. Vari- 
ous games were instituted among the 
Greeks and Romans, in honor of their 
gods, and with the design of training 
young men to personal vigor and activ- 
ity, and to intrepidity and skill in war. 
These games were celebrated at stated 
places and times, with great pomp ; re- 
nowned statesmen, legislators, and kings 
engaged in them ; and it was deemed the 
highest of all honors to be crowned with 
a simple chaplet of laurel, olive, pine, or 
parsley, in the presence of the vast as- 
semblage of witnesses who delighted to 
honor the victor. The preparatory train- 
ing was very severe, and every weaken- 
ing indulgence was forbidden. Among 
the most famous games Avere those cele- 
brated on the Isthmus of Corinth, hence 
called the Isthmian games ; and to these 
Paul alludes in his letters to Corinth, 
1 Cor. 9 : 24-27. The foot-race Avas a 
game of the first rank ; other games were 
the chariot-race, wrestling, boxing, leap- 
ing, and throwing the quoit or the jave- 




lin. The foot-race well illustrates the I under subjection, the laying aside every 
Christian warfare, the sacrifices to be weight, the myriads of spectators lining 
made, the diligent bringing the body 1 the course, and among them those pre- 

363 



RAC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



RAM 



viously crowned victors, the exhaxisting 
eilorts re|mred, (from which the word 
aironize is derive».l.) and the a;lorious 
prize, Phil. 3 : 13, U ; 2 Tim. 4:7, 8 ; 
Heb. 12:1. 

KVCHEL, eice or sheep, Euth 4:11, 
the younger sister of Leah, daughter of 
Lab;ui, and the chosen wife of Jacob, 
though her sister was favored with more 
children. Eachel was the mother of 
Joseph and Beniamin, and died soon 
alter the birth of the latter. See her 
history in Gen. 20-35. Her sepulchi-e, 
half ail hours walk north of Bethlehem, 
is shown xmto this day. the spot being 
marked by a Moh;immedan wely or 
tomb, a stone enclosure and a dome. 
The prophecy. Jer. 31 : 15. representing 
her as mourning over her posterity, the 
tribes of Ephi-aim, Man:isseh, and Benja- 
min, is quoted in Matt. 2 : 18. in refer- 
ence to the massacre at Bethlehem, in 
which undoubtedly m;\ny of her de- 
scendants suffered. It is supposed that 
one of the many places adied Eamah 
was adjacent to Bethlehem. 

KACtL'EL, Num. 10:29, or Eeuel, Ex. 
2:15, IS. 21, the Hebrew word being the 
same in both places. These passages 
represent him as the father of Hobab 
and Zipporah. and he is generally sup- 
posed to be the same as Jethro, Moses" 
father-in-law. Some, however, think he 
was Jethro" s father, and that he is called 
the father of the others as being the head 
of the familv. Compare Gen. 31 : 43 : 
2 Kin. 14:3;" 16:2. 

EA'ILVB. The English word Eahab 
represents two different Hebrew words : 
I. E.uiAB, a Canaanite woman of Jeri- 
cho, who giive shelter to the two spies 
pent in thither by Joshua ; and in re- 
turn was spared, with all her kindred, 
when the citv was taken and destroved. 
Josh. 2 : l-2i ; 6 : 17-25. Her faith, in 
doing this, is commended in Heb. 11 :31 ; 
James 2:25. The Jews and many Chris- 
tians endeavor to show that Eahab was 
only an honest iunkeeper ; but more prob- 
ably the designation of "harlot "' given 
to her in our Bible is correct. If she had 
at some time leil a dissolute life, she had 
evidently repented ; and she afterwards 
became a worshipper of Jehovah, and 
the wife of Salmon, a prince of the tribe 
of Judah, Euth 4 : 21 : Matt. 1 : 4. The 
penitent publican and sinner are always 
welcome to Christ ; and m;uiy such a 
one, throucrh the renovating power of 
3C4 



grace, will shine gloriously iu heaven, 
while the unbelieving moralist w iU per- 
ish in his sins. 

II. E.vuAB, pride, insolence, a svmbol- 
ical name for Egvpt. Psa. 87:4: 80:10; 
Isa. 30 : 7 ; 51 : ol In the last of these 
passages, Egypt is further symbolized as 
a ferocious sea-monster ; but it is doubt- 
ful whether the word Eahab itself is ever 
used to denote a sea-monster. 

EAIN. In Scripture the "early" and 
the "latter"' rain of Palestine is spoken 
of. Deut. 11:14; Hos. 6:3. The former 
fidls in the latter part of October, the 
seed-time of Palestine ; and the weather 
then c<->ntinues variable, with more or 
less rain the whole winter, imtil after 
the latter or spring rain in April. After- 
wards, the weather becomes serene, and 
the crops ripen. The wheat harvest 
takes place in May ; by the middle of 
August, the fruits are gathered in ; and 
from that time to the coming of the firbt 
or October niins, previiil the scorching 
heats and droughts of summer. Noth- 
ing can more expressively represent spir- 
itual blessings than copious showers of 
rain after this trving season is past, 
Deut. 32:2; Job 29:23; Isa. 44:3; Hos. 
10:12. 

It appeai-s from meteorological records 
kept at Jerusalem, that the average an- 
nual fidl of rain is fifty-six and a half 
inches; the average fall in the United 
States is forty-five inches. It would 
seem therefore, that if the rains of Pales- 
tine could be preserved in pools and res- 
ervoirs, and employed in irrigating the 
ground during the summer, the old fer- 
tility might be restored ; it would be 
clothed again with verdure, and become 
like "the srarden of the Lord."' 

EAIN'BOW. Genesis 9 : 13-15. Tliis 
beautiful phenomenon is owing to the 
refraction of the beams of the sun in 
passing the drops of failing rain ; the 
rays are separated into tlie prismatic 
colors, and then reflected from the cloud 
opposite to the sun and the spectator. 
We need not suppose that the rainbow 
was unknown before the flood ; but God 
then appointed it to be the cheering seal 
of his covenant with the earth, which is 
as steadfast as the natural laws from 
which the rainbow springs. 

EAMAH, plural Ea'moth. an eminence; 
and hence m:\ny places iu Palestine are 
named Eamah, Eamath, Eamoth, Ea- 
mathcum, etc. Sometimes the same 



RAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



RAV 



place is called by one or other of these ■ 
names indiscriminately, all signifying 
the same, 2 Kin. 8 : 28^ 29. bometimes 
llama, or Ilamoth, is joined to another ' 
name, to determine the place of such , 
city or eminence ; and it is sometimes j 
put simply for a high place, and signiiies 
neither city nor village. | 

I. The principal Iljimah was a city of I 
Benjamin, near Gibeah, towards the j 
mountains of Ephraim, six miles from 
Jerusalem north, and on the road from i 
Samaria to Jerusalem, Josh. 18:25 ; Judg. ; 
19 : lo ; Nch. 11 : o-i. It was near the i 
border line between Judah and Israel, 1 
and Baasha king of Israel caused it to be j 
fortified, to obstruct the passage from j 
the land of Judah into his own territory. 

1 Kin. 10:17, 21, 22. It is also referred ' 
toinlsa. 10:29; Jer. 31:15; 40:1 ; Hos. 
5 : 8. Dr. Eobinson finds it in the mod- 
ern village Er-Ilam, on a conical hill a 
little east of the road above mentioned. 
The ruins are broken columns, a few 
bevelled stones, and large hewn stones, 
and an ancient reservoir on the south- 
west side. The village is almost deserted. 

II. A city in mount Ephraim, called 
also Ramathaim-Zophim, or Ramah of 
the Zuphites, the place of Samuels birth, 
residence, and burial, 1 Sam. 1:1, 19; 
7:17; 8:4; 25 : 1 ; 28 : 3. Dr. Robin- 
son suggests Soba, five miles west of 
Jerusalem, as its possible site. The re- 
semblance of its name Ramathaim to 
Arimathea of the New Testament, to- 
gether with intimations of early histo- 
rians, have led to the general belief that 
these two places were identical. Arima- 
thea, there is little doubt, lay on one of 
the hills ea.st of Lydda, some twenty 
miles north-west of Jerusalem ; and this 
site would meet most of the scriptural 
intimations as to the Ramah of Samuel. 
The chief difficulty is found in the ac- 
count of Saul's first visit to Samuel, 
1 Sam. 9:4-12; 10:2. Tlie young prince 
"passed through the land of the Ben- 
jamites," going south or south-west, 
"and came to the land of Zuph" and 
the city where Samuel then Avas. After 
his interview with the prophet, and on 
his return home to Gibeah of Benjamin, 
he passed "by Rachel's sepulchre in the 
border of Benjamin at Zelzah. ' ' But the 
only "Rachel's septilchre" we know of 
wtis near Bethlehem, many miles south 
of the direct road from Arimathea to 
Gibeah. Accordingly, if we suppose this 



interview took place at Arimathea. we 
seem obliged to suppose another Rachel's 
sepulchre between it and Gibeah ; or, if 
" Rachel" s sepulchre " was at Bethlehem, 
to infer that the city where Saul actual- 
ly found Samuel, and at which the proph- 
et had only that day arrived. 1 Sam. 
9:10, was not his usual residence, but 
some phice south or south-west of Beth- 
lehem, only visited by him at intervals 
in his annual circuits as judge. 

III. A citv of Asher, Josh. 19:29. 

IV. A city of Naphtali, Josh. 19 : .36. 
The site of both these places, visited by 
Dr. Robinson, is still called Rameh. 

Y. A city of Gilead, 2 Kin. 8 : 28, 29. 
See Ramotii. 

YI. A town belonging to Simeon, 
called Ramah of the south, Josh. 19 : 8 ; 
1 Sam. SO: 27. 

RAMATHAIM. See Ramah. 

RAME'SES. See Raamses. 

RAMOTH, a famous city in the moun- 
tains of Gilead ; often called Ramoth- 
Gilead, and sometimes Fiamath-Mizpeh, 
or the Watch-tower, Josh. 13 : 26. It 
belonged to Gad, was assigned to the 
Levites, and became one of the cities of 
refuge beyond Jordan, Deut. 4:43 ; Josh. 
20:8 ; 21:38. It was famous during the 
reigns of the later kings of Israel, and 
was the occasion of several wars between 
these princes and the kings of Damas- 
cus, who had conquered it, and from 
whom the kings of Israel endeavored to 
regain it. Here Ahab died, Joram was 
wounded, and Jehu was anointed king 
of Israel, 1 Kin. 22 ; 2 Kin. 8 : 28, 29 ; 
9:1-14; 2 Chr. 22:5, 6. 




RAVEN, Gen. 8:7, Lev. 11:15, a bird 
similar to the crow, but larger, and not 
gregarious. It feeds on dead bodies ; 
and in its general characteristics resem- 
bles the crow of America. The eyes of 
its victim are the first part to be devour- 
ed, Prov. 80 : 17 ; and it drives away its 
young as soon as they can begin to shift 
" 3G5 



REA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



REE 



for themselves, Job 38 : 41 ; Psa. 147 : 9. 
Elijah was miraculously fed by ravens, 
1 Kin. 17:6. 

REAR'WARD, the strong battalion 
that closed and guarded the rear of an 
armv. Josh. 6:13; Isa. 52:12; 58:8. 

REBEK'AH, a daughter of Bethuel, 
and sister of Laban in Mesopotamia, 
who became the wife of Isaac, and twen- 
ty years afterwards the mother of Jacob 
and Esau. The manner in which she 
was sought and obtained as the wife of 
Isaac, exhibits a striking picture of ori- 
ental manners and customs. Through 
her partiality for Jacob, she was tempted 
into the use of unjustifiable means to 
secure for him the inheritance, not hav- 
ing faith to leave to God the fulfilment 
of his own purposes. Gen. 25 : 22, 23. 
Her deceit led to disastrous results : Ja- 
cob fled from home ; and when he re- 
turned from Mesopotamia twenty years 
afterwards, his mother lav buried in the 
cave of Machpelah, Gen. 24-28; 49:31. 

RECH'ABITES. Scripture acquaints 
us, Jer. 35 : 2-11, that Jonadab son of 
Rechab, in the time of Jehu king of Is- 
rael, laid an injunction on his posterity 
not to drink wine, not to build houses, 
not to plant vineyards, to have no lands, 
and to dwell in tents all their lives. This 
they continued to observe for above three 
hundred years ; but in tlie last year of 
Jehoiakim Idng of Judah, Nebuchad- 
nezzar coming to besiege Jerusalem, the 
Rechabites were forced to take refuge in 
the city, though still lodging in tents. 
During this siege. Jeremiah received or- 
ders from the Lord to invite them into the 
temple, and to ofier them wine to drink. 
They refused to partake of it ; and their 
fidelity to their father's injunction was 
a severe reproof to the Jews for break- 
ing their covenant with God. Tlie Rech- 
abites, originally from the land of Mid- 
ian, are supposed to have retired to the 
desert at the captivity of the Jews ; and 
the divine promise concerning the per- 
petuity of the family, Jer. 35 : 19, was 
undoubtedly fulfilled, though it may 
now be impossible to distimruish them, 
as some profess to do, among the tribes 
of Central Arabia. 

REDEEM'ER, a name given to Jesus 
Christ, the Saviour of the world, because 
he redeems mankind from the bondage 
and guilt of their sins, by dying in their 
place, and thus paying their ransom, 
.Matt. 20 : 28 ; Gal. '3 : 13 ; Eph. 1:7; 
3UG 



ITim. 2:0; Tit. 2:14; 1 Pet. 1:18, 19; 
Rev. 5:9. In the law of Moses, Lev. 
25:25, 48, this title is given to one who 
has the right of redemption in an inher- 
itance, especially to a near kinsman, who 
may redeem it from a stranger or any 
Jew who had bought it. Such was Boaz, 
who, being one of the nearest relations 
of Elimelech, married Ruth the heiress 
of Elimelech, and thereby reentered into 
the possession of her estate. Jeremiah 
redeemed the field of his nephew Hana- 
meel, which was on the point of being 
sold to another, Jer. 32:7, 8. So Christ 
became a partaker of flesh and blood, 
that as our near kinsman he might re- 
deem for us the heavenly inheritance, 
Job 19:25, 26. 

Tlie nearest kinsman was also called 
the redeemer of blood — in our English 
translation, the avenger, or revenger 
of blood ; and had a right to revenge 
the blood of his murdered kinsman, 
Num. 35 : 12, 19, 21 ; Dent. 19 : 6, 12. 
To protect the innocent from these aven- 
gers, or redeemers, God appointed cities 
of refuge throughout Israel. See Ref- 
uge. 

RECORD'ER, or remembrancer, a sort 
of registrar of aft'airs at the court of 
Judah, 2 Sam. 8:16; 1 Kin. 4:3; 2Kin. 
18:18. 

RED SEA. See Sea. 

RECONCILIATION, in Scripture, is 
the restoration of harmony between two 
persons at variance, by the removal of 
existing obstacles, 1 Sam. 29 : 4. Christ 
bids the man who has wronged his 
brother, to make peace with him, and 
secure his favor by confession and repa- 
ration, before presenting his gift at God's 
altar. Matt. 5 : 23, 24. In the far more 
ihiportant matter of peace with God, to 
make human salvation possible, a just 
God must be reconciled to the sinner, 
and the rebellious sinner be reconciled 
to God. This reconciliation is effected 
by the blood of the Lamb through the 
power of the Spirit, Rom. 5 : 10 ; 2 Cor. 
5:19: Eph. 2:16. 

REED, sometimes a stalk or rod of 
any plant, as of the hyssop. Matt. 27 : 48 ; 
John 19:29. Usually, however, the word 
reed denotes a reed or cane growing in 
marshy grounds. Job 40:21; Isa. 19:6; 
slender and fragile, and hence taken as 
an emblem of weakness, 1 Kin. 14 : 15 ; 
2 Kin. 18 : 21 ; Isa. 36 : 6 ; Ezek. 29 : 6, 
and of instability, Matt. 11:7. "A bruis- 



REF 



BIBLE DICTION AH r. 



KEF 



ed reed," Isa. 42 : 3, Matt. 12 : 20, is an 
emblem of a soul crushed and ready to 
sink in despair mider a sense of its guilty 
and lost condition. Such, a soul the Sav- 
iour will graciously sustain and strength- 
en. The reed of npice, or good reed, (Eng- 
lish version, ''sweet calamus," Exod. 
'60 : 23, "sweet cane," Jer. 6 : 20,) also 



called simply reed. (English version, ' ' cal- 
amus" or "sweet cane,") Isa. 43:24, 
Song. 4 : 14, Ezek. 27 : 19, Ls the sweet 
flag of India, calamus odoraiu.?. Reeds 
were anciently used as pens and as meas- 
uring-rods. Ezek. 40:5 ; 42:16. The He- 
brew ''reed" is supposed to have been 
about ten feet long. 







;-<^'r^!? 



REF'TJGE, Cities of. To provide se- 
curity for those who should undesign- 
edly kill a man. the Lord commanded 
Moses to appoint six cities of refuge, or 
asylums, that any one who should thus 
shed blood might retire thither, and 
have time to prepare his defence be- 
fore the judges, and that the kinsmen 
of the deceased misrht not pursue and 
kill him. Ex. 21 : 13; Num. 35 : 11-34. 
Of such cities there were three on each 
side Jordan. On the west were Kedesh 
of Naphtali. Shechem. and Hebron ; on 
the east, Golan. Kamoth-Gilead. and Be- 
zer. Josh. 20 : 7. 8. These cities served 
not only for Hebrews, but for all stran- 
gers who resided in the country. Dent. 
19 : 1-10. The Lord also commanded 
that when the Hebrews should multiply 
and enlarge their land, they should add 
three other cities of refuge. But this 
command was never fulfilled. 

The custom of blood-revenge appears 
to have been an institution or principle 
very early introduced among the no- 
madic oriental tribes. So firmly was 
this practice establibhed among the Is- 



! raelites before their entrance into the 
promised land, and probably also even 
! before their sojourning in Egypt, that 
j Moses was directed by Jehovah not to 
I attempt to eradicate it entirely, but only 
i to counteract and modify it by the insti- 
j tTition of cities of refuge. The custom 
! of avenging the blood of a member of a 
; family or tribe upon some member of 
; the tribe or family of the slayer, still 
I exists in full force among the modem 
I Bedaweens, the representatives in a cer- 
tain sense of the ancient Israelites in the 
desert. They prefer this mode of seK- 
I vengeance. Niebuhr informs us that 
! "the Ai-abs rather avenge themselves, 
as the law allows, upon the family of 
the murderer ; and seek an opportunity 
of slaying its head, or most considerable 
person, whom they regard as being prop- 
erly the person guilty of the crime, as it 
must have been committed through his 
negligence in watching over the conduct 
of those under his inspection. From this 
time the two families are in continual 
fears, till some one or other of the mur- 
derers familv be slain. No recx>ncilia- 
367 



REU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



REH 



tion can take place between them, and 
the quarrel is still occasionally renewed. 
1'here have heen instances of such fam- 
ily feuds lasting forty years. If in the 
contest a man of the murdered person's 
family happens to fall, there can be no 
peace until two others of the murderer's 
family have been slain." How far su- 
perior to this was the Mosaic institution 
(;f cities of refuge, where the involuntary 
homicide might remain in peace till the 
death of the high-priest, and then go 
Ibrth in safety, while a really guilty per- 
son did not escape punishment. 

Among most of the nations of antiqui- 
ty, temples, and particularly the altars 
Avithin them, were regarded as profter- 
ing an asylum for fugitives from vio- 
lence. Among the Hebrews we lind in- 
dications of the custom on the part of 
the culprit of fleeing to the Lord's altar. 
But this was not allowed to screen the 
guilty from deserved punishment, Ex. 
21:14; IKin. 2:28-34. 

There is an appointed city of refuge 
for sinners exposed to the second death, 
and an altar of refuge sprinkled Avith 
atoning blood. Happy the soul that 
Hces and is safe in Christ, ere it is over- 
taken by the avenging law of God. 

EEGENEEA'TION, the new birth; 
that Avork of the Holy Spirit by Avhich 
the soul, previously dead in sins, is cre- 
ated anew in Christ unto righteousness. 
It is expressed in Scripture by being bom 
again and born from above, John 3:3-7; 
becoming a ncAV creature, 2 Cor. 5 : 17 ; 
being quickened to a ncAV life of holi- 
ness, Eph. 2:1 ; having Christ formed in 
the heart, Gal. 4 : 19 ; and being made 
partaker of the divine nature, 2 Pet. 1:4. 
The sole author of this change is the 
Holy Spirit, John 1 : 12, 13 ; 3 : 4 ; Eph. 
2 : 8-10 ; and he effects it ordinarily by 
the instrumentality of gospel truth, 
1 Cor. 4 : 15 ; Jas. 1 : 18 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 23. 
In this change the moral image of God 
is brought back into the soul, and the 
principle of supreme love to him and 
unselfish loA'e to our neighbor is im- 
planted. Regeneration, producing faith, 
is accompanied by justification, and by 
actual holiness of life, or sanctification 
begun, and completed Avhen the "babe 
in Christ" reaches in heaA^en "the ful- 
ness of the stature of the perfect man" 
in Him. In ]\Iatt. 19 : 28, regeneration 
means Christ's making all things ncAv. 
In Titus 3:5, " the washing of regener- 
?.6S 



I ation ' ' denotes the purifying work of 

I the Spirit in the new birth. 

j EEHABI'AH, a grandson of Moses, 

j and the only son of Eliezer ; his numer- 
ous posterity are mentioned as betoken- 
ing the divine favor, 1 Chr. 23:17. 

KE'HOB, L, a Levitical city in Asher, 
Josh. 19 : 28 ; 21 : 31, on the northern 
border of the Holy Land, called also 
Beth-rehob, and lying in a valley south 
of Anti-Lebanon, not far north of Dan, 
Num. 13:21 ; Judg. 18:28. It Avas long 
governed by its OAvn kings, Judg. 1 : 31, 
but in the time of David AAas rendered 
tributary, 2 Sam. 10 : 6, 8, 19. Some 
think there were tAvo cities of this name 
in Asher. 

II. The father of Hadadezer king of 
Zobah in Syria, 2 Sam. 8:3. 

liEHOBOAM, the son and successor 
of Solomon, bA'Naamah, an Ammonitess, 
I Kin. 12; 14:21-31; 2 Chr. 10-12. He 
Avas forty-one ye-irs old when he began 
to reign, and Avas therefore born at the 
beginning of his father's reign. He as- 
cended the throne about 975 b. c, and 
reigned seventeen years at Jerusalem. 
Under his reign the ten tribes revolted, 
and formed the kingdom of Israel under 
Jeroboam. The immediate cause of this 
schism Avas Rehoboam's headstrong folly 
in rejecting experienced counsellors, and 
claiming tyrannical poAver. He at once 
sought to recover the revolted tribes by 
force ; and though directed by God not 
to make Avar, he did not long delay hos- 
tilities, and these continued during his 
Avhole reign. The people also fell into 
idolatry, and were punished in the fifth 
year of Rehoboam by an Egyptian army, 
Avhich subjected them to a heavy tribute. 
See SnisiiAK. Scripture leads us to trace 
the sins and misfortunes of Rehoboam 
in part to the infiuence of his heathen 
mother, 2 Chr. 12:13. The latter portion 
of his reign seems to have passed more 
quietly. 

REHO'BOTH, I., a city of ancient As- 
syria, site unknoAvn, Gen. 10:11. 

II. A place in the Avilderness south of 
Gerar and Beersheba, so named by Isaac 
on the occasion of his digging a Avell 
there, Gen. 26:22. 

III. A city on the Euphrates, thought 
to be the modern Er-rahabeh, south of 
Carchemish, Gen. 36:37 ; 1 Chr. 1:48. 

RE'HUM, an oflicer of the king of Per- 
sia, in Samaria, during the rebuilding of 
the temple ; by an insidious letter to the 



REI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY, 



RES 



king he procured an edict for the discon- 
tinuance of tliis work for a time, proba- 
bly two years or more preceding 520 b. c. , 
when it was resumed. 

PtEINS, or KiDNFA's. The Hebrews 
often make tlie reins the seat of the 
affections, and ascribe to them Ivnow- 
ledge, joy, pain, pleasure ; hence in 
Scripture it is said that God searches the 
heart and tries the reins. 

REM'PHAN, an idol, the same as Chi- 
nn. Compare Amos 5 : 26, and Acts 
7:43. Sec CiiiuN. 

REPENT' ANCE, a change of mind, 
accompanied with regret and sorrow for 
something done, and an earnest wish 
that it was undone. Such was the re- 
pentance of Judas, Matt. 27 : 3 ; and so 
it is said that Esau found ' ' no place of 
repentance ' ' in his father Isaac, although 
he sought it with tears, Heb. 12:17; that 
is, Isaac would not change what he had 
done, and revoke the blessing given 



to Jacob, Gen. 



God is sometimes 



said to ' ' repent ' ' of something he had 
done. Gen. 6:6; Jonah 3:9, 10; not that 
he could wish it undone, but that in his 
providence such a change of course took 
place as among men would be ascribed 
to a change of mind. But the true 
gospel repentance, or "repentance unto 
life," is sorrow for sin, grief for having 
committed it, and a turning away from 
it with abhorrence, accompanied with 
sincere endeavors, in reliance on God's 
grace and the influences of the Holy 
Spirit, to live in humble and holy obe- 
dience to the commands and will of God. 
This is that repentance which always 
accompanies true faith, and to which is 
promised the free forgiveness of sin 
through the merits of Jesus Christ, Matt. 
4:17; Acts 3:19; 11:18; 20:12. 

REPETI'TIONS in prayers, which our 
Saviour censui-es, Matt. 6:7, were short 
forms or particular expressions in pray- 
er, which the Jews were accustomed to 
repeat a certain number of times. So 
Roman-catholics still repeat the Lord's 
prayer, Ave Marias, etc., a great num- 
ber of times ; and think that the oftener 
a prayer is repeated, the more meritori- 
ous and efficacious it is. The repeated 
cry of a soul in earnest is indeed welcome 
to God, Gen. 18 ; Matt. 26 : 44 ; Luke 
18 : 1 ; but he regards the heart and not 
the lips ; and the greater the number of 
prayers one repeats as a task by which 
to acquire merit, the greater his sin. 
IG* 



REPH'AIM ; the Hebrew word is used 
in two distinct significations. 

I. Rephaim is used to comprehend all 
the gigantic races of the Canaanites, of 
whom there were several families. There 
were Rephaim beyond Jordan, at Ashta- 
roth Karnaim, in the time of Abraham, 
Gen. 14 : 5 ; also some in the time of Moses. 
Og king of Bashan was of the Rephaim. 
In the time of Joshua, some of their de- 
scendants dwelt in the land of Canaan, 
Josh. 12:4 ; 17:15, and we hear of them 
in David's time, in the city of Gath, 
1 Chr. 20 : 4-6. The giant Goliath and 
others were the remains of the Repha- 
im, or of the kindred family of Anakim. 
Their magnitude and strength are often 
spoken of in Scripture. They appear to 
have excelled in violence and crime, and 
hence are monuments of divine justice. 

II. Rephaim, the shades or spirits of 
the departed, dwelling in Sheol or Ha- 
des, generally rendered in our version, 
' ' the dead, " (" dead things, ' ' Job 26 : 5 ;) 
Psa. 88:10; Prov. 2:18; 21:16, etc. 

The valley of the Rephaim, or giants, 
was famous in Joshua's time. Josh. 15:8 ; 
17:15 ; 18:16, and in the time of David, 
who here defeated the Philistines, 2 Sam. 
5: 18, 22 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 15 ; 14:9. It was a 
broad and fertile valley. Isa. 17:5, begin- 
ning near the valley of Hinnom, and 
extending several miles south-west from 
Jerusalem, when it contracted to a nar- 
row passage leading off towards the Med- 
iterranean. It was in Judah, but near 
the border of Benjamm. 

REPH'IDIM, an encampment of the 
Israelites between the wilderness of Sin 
and mount Sinai, where the people mur- 
mured, and God gave them water from 
the rock. Here also the Amalekites 
attacked them, and were defeated, Ex. 
17. It is thought to have been in the 
valley now called esh-Sheikh, a day's 
march north-west of Sinai, and near the 
western border of the Horeb group of 
mountains. See Sinai. 

REP'ROBATE, rejected as not endur- 
ing the test of worthiness, Jer. 6 : 30. 
Some men are spoken of as reprobate 
even in this life, being hardened in sin 
and unbelief, Rom. 1 :'28 ; 2 Tim. 3:8; 
Tit. 1:16. 

RE'SEN, an ancient Assyrian city, be- 
tween Nineveh and Calah, Gen. 10 : 12. 
Its exact position cannot now be deter- 
mined. 

RESPECT' OF PER'SONS. The judges 



RES 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



RES 



of the Hebrews were directed to give 
sentence strictly according to truth and 
justice, without regard to the compara- 
tive wealth, influence, or other advan- 
tage of one party over the other, Lev. 
19 : 15 ; Deut. 16 : 17, 19 ; Prov. '24: : 23. 
Thus God judges, not according to out- 
ward appearance or station, but accord- 
ing to the heart, Acts 10:34:; Rom. 2:0- 
11. Thus ought men to estimate and 
treat their fellow-men; and to court the 
favor of the rich and influenticil is sharp- 
ly censured in Scripture, Prov. 28 : 21 ; 
Jas. 2:1-9; Jude 16. 

REST, in Acts 9 : 31, refers to the res- 
pite from persecution enjoyed by the 
Christians in Palestine, after the conver- 
sion of Saul of Tarsus, during the last 
two years of Caligula's short reign, a. d. 
39 and -40, when the Jews were so har- 
assed by the attempts of the emperor 
to force them to worship him as a god, 
that they forbore to afflict the followers 
of Christ. 

RESTITU'TION, Job 20 : 10, 18. The 
repairing of wrongs done, and the restor- 
ing of what one has wrongfully taken 
from another, are strictly enjoined in 
Scripture, and are a necessary evidence 
of true repentance, Ex. 22 : 1-15 ; Neh. 
5:1-13 ; Luke 19:8. Restoration should 
be perfect and just ; replacing, so far as 
possible, all that has been taken, with 
interest. Lev. 6:1-6; 24 : 21. In Acts 
3:21, the time of the "restitution of all 
things," is the time when Christ shall 
appear in his glory, and establish his 
kingdom as foretold in the Scriptures. 

RESURRECTION of Christ. This is 
of fundamental importance in Christi- 
anity, both historically and doctrinal! y. 
As a fact indisputably proved, it was the 
crowning demonstration of the truth of 
all Christ's claims, 1 Cor. 15:14-18. He 
had repeatedly foretold it ; and his ene- 
mies were careful to ascertain that he 
w as actually dead, and to guard his tomb 
for additional security. Yet he rose from 
the dead on the third day, and appeared 
on eleven different occasions to numer- 
ous witnesses, convincing even those who 
were the most doubtful, and after forty 
days ascended to heaven from the mount 
of Olives. To this all-important fact the 
apostles gave great prominence in their 
preaching, Acts 1:22 ; 2 : 24-32 ; 4 : 33 ; 
10 : 40, 41. In its relation to Christian 
doctrine it stands as a rock of strength, 
assuring us of Ood's acceptance of the 
370 



expiatory Sacrifice, of Christ's trium- 
phant accomplishment of the work of 
redemption, and of his raising to immor- 
tal life the souls and bodies of his peo- 
ple. He was buried under the load of our 
oflences ; but he rose again, almighty to 
justify and save us. His dying proved 
the greatness of his love ; his rising 
again shows that his love had secured 
its object. 

Rksuruection of the dead. It is the 
peculiar glory of the New Testament that 
it makes a full revelation of this great 
doctrine, which was questioned or derided 
by the wisest of the heathen. Acts 17 :o2. 
In the Old Testament also we find, 
though less frequently, the doctrine as- 
serted ; as Ibr example, Isa. 26: 19 ; Dan. 
12 : 2. When our Saviour appeared in Ju- 
dea, the doctrine of the resurrection of the 
dead was received as a principal article 
of religion by the whole Jewish nation 
except the Sadducees. Their denial of 
it rested on the assumption that at death 
the whole man, soul and body, perishes. 
' ' The Sadducees say that there is no 
resurrection, neither angel, nor spirit," 
Acts 23 : 8. Hence the refutation of this 
unscriptural assumption was a complete 
overthrow of the ground on which their 
denial of a future resurrection rested ; 
for if the soul can survive the body, it is 
plain that God can give it another body. 
In this way our Lord met and elfectually 
refuted them. Matt. 22 : 31, 32 ; Mark 
12:26, 27. 

The resurrection of Christ is every- 
where represented in the New Testa- 
ment as a pledge and an earnest of the 
resurrection of all the just, who are 
united to him by faith, 1 Cor. 15 : 49 ; 
1 Thess. 3 : 14, in virtue of their union 
with him as their Head. He is "the 
resurrection and the life," John 11 : 25 ; 
they "sleep in Jesus," and shall be 
brought to glory "with him," 1 Thess. 
4 : 13-17 ; 5 : 10 ; their "life is hid with 
Christ in God," Col. 3:3; and because 
he lives, they shall live also, John 14: 19. 
The Scriptures also teach that there will 
be a resurrection of the unjust. But 
they shall be raised, not to be glorified 
with Christ, but to be judged by him, 
and sentenced to eternal punishment, 
Dan. 12:2 ; John 5:28, 29 compared with 
Matt. 35:31-46; Acts 24:15. 

To cavillers against this doctrine in 
his own day, Christ replied, "Ye do 
err, not knowing the Scriptures, nor the 



REU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



RHO 



power of God." The work is miracu- 
lous ; and He who is omniscient and om- 
nipotent will permit nothing to frustrate 
his designs. He has not revealed to us 
the precise nature of the spiritual body, 
nor in what its identity with the earthly 
body consists ; but it will be incorrupt- 
ible, fashioned like Christ's glorious 
body, Phil. 3:21, and a meet companion 
of the soul made perfect in his likeness. 

REU'BEN, behold, a son ! the eldest son 
of Jacob and Leah, so called in reference 
to the sentiment of his mother, "The 
Lord hath looked on my affliction," 
Gen. 29:32. Reuben, having defiled his 
father's concubine Bilhah, lost his birth- 
right and all the privileges of primo- 
geniture, the preeminence in the family 
being given to Judah, and the double 
portion to the two sons of Joseph, Gen. 
35 : 22 ; 48 : 5 ; 49 : 3, 4, 8, 10 ; 1 Chron. 
5:1, 2. He shared in his brothers' jeal- 
ousy of Joseph, and yet interposed to 
save his life at Dothan with the design 
of restoring him privately to his father. 
Gen. 37:18-30. See also his well-meant 
proposal in Gen. 42 : 37. His tribe was 
never numerous or powerful in Israel. 
Dathan, Abiram, and On were members 
of it. It was the ninth of the tribes in 
the order of population when they en- 
tered Canaan, Num. 1:21 ; 26:7. Their 
inheritance was the fine pasture-land 
east of the Jordan, between the Anion 
on the south and Gilead on the north ; 
it is now called Belka, Num. 32 ; Josh. 
22. We afterwards find them reproved 
by Deborah for remissness, Judg. 5 : 15, 
IG. Their position on the frontier ex- 
posed them to many assaults from the 
east, 2 Kin. 10:33 ; and they were among 
the first captives to Assyria, 1 Chr. 5:26, 
B. c. 740. 

REVELATION, an extraordinary and 
supernatural disclosure made by God, 
whether by dream, vision, ecstasy, or oth- 
erwise, of truths beyond man's unaided 
power to discover. Paul, alluding to his 
visions and revelations, 2 Cor. 12 : 1, 7, 
speaks of them in the third person, out 
of modesty ; and declares that he could 
not tell whether he was in the body or 
out of the body. Elsewhere he says that 
he had received his gospel by a particu- 
lar revelation. Gal. 1:12. 

For the book of Revelation, see Apoc- 
alypse. 

REVEN'GER, or Avenger of Blood, 
is a name given in Scripture to the man 



who had the right, according to the Jew- 
ish polity, of taking revenge on him who 
had killed one of his relations. If a man 
had been guilty of manslaughter invol- 
untarily and without design, he fied to 
a city of refuge. See Refuge. 

RE'ZEPH, a city conquered by the 
Assyrians, 2 Kin. 19:12 ; Isa. 37:12. It 
is thought to have been afterwards call- 
ed Rasapha, and to have stood some 
twenty-five miles west of the Euphrates 
towards Palmyra. 

RE'ZIN, a king of Damascene Syria, 
who united with Pekah king of Israel to 
invade Judah, b. c. 742, 2 Kin. 15 : 37 ; 
16:5-10; Isa. 7:1. Turning away from 
before Jerusalem, Rezin extended his 
conquests to the south as far as Elath ; 
but was erelong conquered and slain by 
Tiglath-pileser king of Assyria, whose 
aid had been procured by king Ahaz. 
His people also were carried captive be- 
yond the Tigris, Isa. 8:6; 9:11. 

RE'ZON, the founder of a dynasty in 
Syria-Damascus in the time of David, 
and a great annoyance to Solomon, 1 Kin. 
11:23-25. He had been an ofi&cer under 
Hadadczer king of Zobah. 

RHE'GIUM, now Reggio, capital of 
the province of Calabria Ultra, in the 
kingdom of Naples, on the coast near 
the south-west extremity of Italy, eight 
miles south-east of Messina in Sicily. 
The ship in which Paul was on his way 
to Rome touched here. Acts 28 : 13, 14. 
Rhegium was a city of considerable note 
in ancient times. The modern city was 
nearly destroyed by an earthquake in 
1783, and now contains about eighteen 
thousand inhabitants. 

RHO'DA, rose, a young damsel in the 
household of Mary mother of John Mark, 
when Peter was miraculously released 
from prison. Acts 12:13. 

RHODES, an island and a famous city in 
the Levant, the ancient name of which 
was Ophiusa. Its modern name alludes 
to the great quantity and beauty of the 
roses that grew there. The island is 
about forty miles long and fifteen wide ; 
its mountains are well wooded, and its 
valleys highly fertile. The city cf 
Rhodes, at the north-east extremity cf 
the island, was one of the most cele- 
brated of the Greek cities. It was fa- 
mous for its brazen Colossus, which was 
one hundred and five feet high, made by 
Chares of Lyndns : it stood at the mouth 
of the harbor of the city, on sixtv mar- 
:J7*1 



RIB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



RIN 



ble columns, and continued perfect only 
fifty-six years, being tlirovvn down by an 
earthquake, under the reign of Ptolemy 
Euergetes king of Egypt, who began to 
reign b. c. 244. Wiien Paul went to 
Jerusalem, a. d. 58, he visited Rhodes, 
Acts 21:1. Modern Rhodes is a Turkish 
walled town of 15,000 inhabitants, and 
considerable commerce. The air of 
Rhodes is proverbially pure, and its cli- 
mate serene. 

RIB'LAH, a city of Syria, in the coun- 
try of Hamath, at the north-east extrem- 
ity of Canaan, Num. 34 : 11. Its site is 
probably found in the modern village 
Ribleh, on the river Orontes, at the 
northern end of the great vallev of Leb- 
anon, El-Bukaa. Through this valley, 
by way of Hamath and Riblah, was the 
readiest access to Palestine from the 
north. At Riblah king Jehoahaz was 
taken and deposed by Pharaoh - necho ; 
here also Nebuchadnezzar established his 
head-quarters when warring against Ju- 
dah, 2 Kin. 23 : 33 ; 25 : 6, 20, 21 ; Jer. 
39:5; 52:10. 

RIGHT'EOUSNESS, rectitude, justice, 
holiness ; an essential perfection of Grod's 
character. Job 36 : 3, Isa. 51:5-8, John 

17 : 25, and of his administration, Gen. 
18:25 ; Rom. 3:21, 22 ; 10:3. It is the 
wonder of grace that, as the righteous 
guardian of the law, he can acquit the 
imrighteous. "The righteousness of 
Clirist" includes his spotless holiness, 
his perfect obedience to the law while 
on earth, and his suffering its penalty in 
our stead. It is called ' ' the righteous- 
ness of God," because accepted by him, 
Rom. 3:25. "The righteousness of the 
law" is that perfect obedience the law 
demands ; and ' ' the righteousness of 
faith ' ' is that imputed to the sinner 
who believes in Christ. With reference 
to personal character, righteousness is 
used both for upi'ightness between man 
and man, and for true religion, Gen. 

18 : 23 ; Lev. 19 : 15 ; Isa. 60 : 17 ; Rom. 
14:17; Eph. 5:9. 

RIGHT-HAND, the most efficient 
member of the body, Matt. 5 : 30, and 
the ready executer of the behests of the i 
will. Hence its use as a symbol of many 
of the strongest emotions of the inner 
man. The right-hand is significant of 
power, especially the almighty power of I 
God, Ex. 15 : 6 ; Psa. 21 : 8 : 77 : 10 ; of 
honor, Psa. 45 : 9 ; Matt. 25 : 34 ; Acts 
7:55 ; of special benedicfon. Gen. 48:14 ; 



of fraternal love, Gal. 2:9; of hostility, 
Psa. 109:6; Zech. 3:1; and of allegiance, 
1 Chr. 29 : 24. It was raised in the act 




of prayer, and also in taking an oath, 
Gen. 14 : 22 ; hence the right-hand of a 
perjured man was "a right-hand of false- 
hood," Psa. 144 : 8. In regard to the 
points of the compass, the right-hand in 
Hebrew denotes the south, I Sam. 23: 19 ; 
24, as the left-hand means the north, 
Gen. 14:15. See East. 

RIM'MON, pomegranate, I., a town of 
Palestine, near the frontier of Edom, 
Josh. 15:21, 32, Zech. 14:10, in the 
region assigned to the tribe of Simeon, 
Josh. 19:7 ; 1 Chr. 4:32 ; Neh. 11:29. 

II. A town on a high chalky hill, a 
few miles east of Bethel, Judg. 20 : 45- 
47 ; 21 : 13. A village called Rummon 
still exists there. 

III. A city of Zebuhm, assigned to the 
Levites, Josh. 19 : 13 ; perhaps the same 
as Rimmono, 1 Chr. 6:77, which may be 
traced in the modern village Rimmaneh, 
north-west of mount Tabor. 

IV. An unknown encampment of the 
Israelites in the desert. Num. 33:19. 

V. An idol of the Syrians, 2 Kin. 5:18. 
See Nam A AN. 




RINGS, ornaments for the ears, nose, 
legs, arms, or fingers. The antiquity of 



RIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



RIZ 




rings appears from Scripture and from 
profane authors. Judah left his ring 
witli Tamar, Gen. 38 : 18. When Pha- 
raoh committed the government of 
Egypt to Joseph, he gave him liis ring 
from his finger, Gen. 41 : 42. After the 
victory of the Israelites over the Midian- 
ites, they offered to the Lord the rings, 
the bracelets, and the golden necklaces 
taken from the enemy, Num. 31 : 50. 





The Israelitish women wore rings, not 
only on their fingers, but also in their 



nostrils and their ears, and on their 
ankles. See Bracelets. James distin- 
guishes a man of wealth and dignity by 
the ring of gold on his finger, Jas. 2 : 2. 
At the return of the prodigal son, his 
father ordered a handsome apparel for 



his dress, and that a ring should be put 
on his finger, Luke 15:22. 

The ring was used chiefly as a signet 
to seal with, and Scripture generally 
assigns it to princes and great persons ; 
as the king of Egypt, Joseph, Ahaz. Jez- 

i ebel, king Ahasuerus, his favorite Ha- 

I man, Mordecai. king Darius, etc., 1 Kin. 

I 21:8; Esth. 3:10; Jer. 22:24; Dan. 6:17. 

\ The patents and orders of these princes 
were sealed with their rings or signets, 
an impression from which was their con- 
firmation. See Seal. 

EING-STREAKED, marked with cir- 
cular streaks of various colors, Gen. 
39 : 35. 

RI'PHATH, a northern nation de- 
scended from a grandson of Japheth, 
Gen. 10:3, called Diphath in 1 Chr. 1:6. 
The name is traced in that of the Ri- 
phcean mountains, in Russia. 

RIVER. This word answers in our 
Bible to various Hebrew terms, of which 
the principal are the following : 

1. Yeor, an Egyptian word signifying 
river. It is always applied to the Nile 
and its various canals, except in Job 
28:10; Dan. 12:5, 6, 7. 

2. Nahar, applied, like our Avord river, 
to constantly flowing streams, siich as 
the Euphrates. In our version this word 
is sometimes rendered "flood," Josh. 
24:2, 3, etc. 

3. Nahal, a torrent -bed, or valley 
through which water flows in the rainy 
season only, Num. 34:5, etc. ; frequent- 
ly rendered "brook," Num. 13:23; Job 
6 : 15, etc. Such streams are to the ori- 
entals striking emblems of inconstancy 
and faithlessness. Flowing only in the 
rainy season, and drying up Avhen the 
summer heat sets in — and some of them 
in desert places foiling prematurely — 
they sadly disappoint the thirsty and per- 
haps perishing traveller who has looked 
forward to them with longing and with 
hope. Job 6:15-20 ; Jer. io:18. 

In some passages in our Bible the word 
* ' rivers ' ' seems to denote rivulets or ca- 
nals, to conduct hither and thither small 
streams of water from a tank or foun- 
tain, Ezek. 31 : 4. Such conduits were 
easily turned by moulding the soil with 
the foot ; and some think this is the idea 
in Deut. 11 : 10 ; "where thou sowedst 
thy seed, and wateredst it with thy foot, 
as a garden of herbs." See also Prov. 
21:1. 

RIZ'PAH, a concubine of Saul, taken 
373 



ROB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ROM 



after his death by the ambitious Abner. 
Her two sons were afterwards hung, with 
five other sons of Saul, to avenge the 
wrongs he had inflicted on the Gibeon- 
ites. "with the most devoted maternal 
affection, Eizpah watched over their re- 
mains day and night, apparently from 
May to October ; and David, being in- 
formed of her painful watchings, gath- 
ered the bones of all the family of Haul , 
and gave them an honorable burial, 
2 Sam. 3:7-11; 21:1-14. 

EOBES. See Garments. 

ROD, an oflshoot from the trunk of a 
tree, Gen. oO:;j7 ; Isa. 11:1 ; Ezek. 37:15- 
22. It also denotes a staff, used by one 
walking, Isa. 3:1 ; Ezek. 29:6 ; by a di- 
viner, Hosea 4:12; by a surveyor, Psa. 
74:2 ; by a shepherd. Lev. 27:32 ; Zech. 
11 : 10-14; as an instrument of correc- 
tion, Prov. 23 : 13 ; 29 : 15 ; as a sceptre, 
Esth. 8:4; Isa. 14 : 5 ; and as a symbol 
of power, Psa. 2 : 9, support and direc- 
tion, Psa. 23:4. 




ROE and ROEBUCK, not the animal 
still found in Scotland and Germany, but 
the oriental antelope or gazelle, the Anti- 
lopa Cervicapra, or Dorcas, of Linnreus. 
It is often referred to in the Bible, Deut. 
12 : 15, 22 ; 14 : 5 ; 1 Kin. 4 : 23 ; Prov. 
6:5; Song 2:7, 9, 17; 8:14; Isa. 13:14. 
It is about two and a half feet in height, 
of a reddish-brown color, with the belly 
and feet white, has long naked ears, and 
a short, erect tail. The horns are black, 
about twelve inches long, and bent like 
a lyre. It inhabits Barbary, Egypt, Ara- 
bia, and Syria, and is about half the size 
of a fallow-deer. It goes in large flocks, 
is easily tamed, though naturally very 
timid ; and its flesh is reckoned excel- 
lent food. 

374 



There are no less than twenty-nine 
species of antelopes in all. This animal 
constitutes a genus between the deer and 
the goat. They are mostly confined to 
Asia and Africa, inhabiting the hottest 
regions of the old world, or the temper- 
ate zones near the tropics. None of 
them, except the chamois and the saiga, 
are found in Europe. In America only 
one species has yet been foimd, namely, 
the Missouri antelope, which inhabits 
the country w^est of the Mississippi. An- 
telopes chiefly inhabit hilly countries, 
though some reside in the plains ; and 
some species form herds of two or three 
thousand, while others keep in small 
troops of five or six. These animals are 
elegantly formed, active, restless, timid, 
shy, and astonishingly swift, running 
with vast bounds, and springing or leap- 
ing with surprising agility ; they fre- 
quently stop for a moment in the midst 
of their course to gaze at their pursuers, 
and then resume their flight. The grey- 
hound, the fleetest of dogs, is usually 
outrun by them; and the sportsman is 
obliged to have recourse to the aid of 
the falcon, which is trained to the w^ork, 
for seizing on the animal and impeding 
its motion, that the dogs may thus have 
an opportunity of overtaking it. In In- 
dia and Persia a sort of leopard is made 
use of in the chase ; and this animal takes 
its prey, not by swiftness of foot, but by 
its astonishing springs, which are similar 
to those of the antelope ; and yet, if the 
leopard should faU in its first attempt, 
the game escapes. 

The fleetness of this animal has been 
proverbial in the countries which it in- 
habits, from the earliest time, 2 Sam. 
2:18 ; 1 Chr. 12:8 ; as also the beauty of 
I its eyes; so that to say, "You have the 
eyes of a gazelle," is to pay a high com- 
pliment. 

ROLL. See Book. 

ROME, ROMANS. The city of Rome 
is in some respects the most celebrated 
on earth ; as it was long the mistress of 
the heathen world, and has since been 
for many centuries the chief ecclesiasti- 
cal capital of the nominal Christian 
world. It was situated on the river 
Tiber about fifteen miles from the Med- 
iterranean, in the plain now called the 
Campagna di Roma. At the period of 
its greatest glory its walls were nearly 
twenty miles in circumference, and en- 
closed the famous seven hUls of which 



ROM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ROM 



their poets speak, Eev. 17 : 9. It sur- 
passed all other cities in the magniticence 
of its structures, filled with paintings and 
sculptures ; and contained, it is thought, 
two millions of inhabitants. Famous 
for its progress in the arts and in luxury, 
it was still more renowned for its con- 
quests ; and there was scarcely a nation 
then known whose spoils and captive 
princes had not contributed to swell the 
pomp and pride of the imperial city. 
The idols of all conquered nations were 
admitted among the thousands there 
worsbi])ped ; and the people were full of 
superstition, and in morals exceedingly 
corrupt. The painful representation of 
the sins of heathenism given by Paul in 
his letter to the Romans, 1 : 21-32, has 
been fully confirmed by their own writ- 
ers. 

Rome was founded by Romulus 752 
B. c, and governed for a time by kings. 
After the expulsion of Tarquin, b. c. 509, 
it was governed by two consuls, elected 
annually ; and this form of government 
continued several centuries, and indeed 
after the real power had passed into the 
hands of a sovereign. Julius Ciesar first 
acquired the sovereign power, though he 
refused the name of emperor. His neph- 
ew Octavius, afterwards Augustus, took 
the name of emperor about 30 b. c. In 
his reign our Saviour was born. The suc- 
ceeding Roman emperors, who ruled over 
the larger part of the then known world, 
were mostly distinguished for their cru- 
elties, debaucheries, and licentiousness ; 
until Constantine embraced Christianity 
and made it the religion of his empire. 
By transferring the seat of his empire to 
Constantinople, a. d. 328, he gave a fatal 
blow to the power and influence of Rome ; 
which thenceforth continued to be only 
the ecclesiastical metropolis of the west- 
ern church. But as such she acquired 
afterwards, under the popes, an immense 
power, which still continues in Catholic 
countries ; but which has received its 
death-wound through Protestantism, and 
the consequent enlightening of the pop- 
ular mind. At the present day, Rome 
is rendorcLi especially interesting by the 
magnificent ruins of its former greatness, 
temples, pillars, public baths, aqueducts, 
triumphal arches, and amphitheatres. 
It retains also its preeminence as a treas- 
ure-house of the fine arts. It has three 
hundred and sixty churches, among 
which is St. Peters, the largest in the 



world, and many others truly gorgeous. 
It contains also large libraries, including 
that of the Vatican ; numerous galleries 
and museums full of the choicest paint- 
ings and sculptures, besides palaces, vil- 
las, schools, and hospitals. Yet it groans 
under priestly tyranny, and perpetuates 
the superstition, immorality, and misery 
of pagan Rome. 

In the books of the Old Testament no 
direct allusion is apparently made to 
Rome, or to the Roman power, except in 
the prophetic visions of Daniel, 2:33, 40 ; 
7:7, 19. Up to the time when the can- 
on of the Old Testament was closed, be- 
fore B. c. 400, the Romans had not so 
far extended their conquests as to bring 
them in contact Avith the Jews. But in 
the books of the Maccabees and in the 
New Testament they are often mention- 
ed. See 1 Mac. 8. The first alliance 
between the Jews and Romans was made 
by Judas Maccabeus, b. c. 162. This 
was renewed by his brother Jonathan, 
B. c. 144. After this time, the Romans 
had much to do with Judea, not only 
under the Herods, but also when reduced 
to the form of a Roman province ; until at 
last they utterly exterminated the Jew\s 
from the country. They took the city of 
Jerusalem not less than three times : first 
under Pompey, b. c. 63 ; again under So- 
sius, b. c. 33 ; and lastly under Titus, 
A. D. 70, when both the city and temple 
were destroyed. See Judea. 

There were thousands of Jews resident 
at Rome, where a part of the city was 
anciently, as now, appropriated to them, 
and where they were usually allow^ed 
the free exercise of their national relig- 
ion. Among these, and among the Ro- 
mans themselves, the gospel was early 
introduced, perhaps by those who were 
at Jerusalem at the Pentecost, Acts 2 : 10. 
Under Claudius, about a. d. 50, both Jews 
and Christians were expelled from Rome ; 
and among them apparently Aquila and 
Priscilla, Acts 18:2; Rom. 16 : 3. At the 
time of Paul's epistle, a. d. 58, the faith 
of the Christian church at Rome was 
everywhere celebrated, Rom. 1:8 ; 16:91. 
In A. D. 64, another fierce persecution 
against Christians in that city was insti- 
tuted by Nero. These persecutions were 
followed by others more or less severe, 
with intervals of repose, making ten in 
all before the time of Constantine. At 
this period the corruption of doctrine 
and of practice, which had previously 
375 



ROM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ROM 




RUINS OF THE COLISEUM, AT ROME. 



appeared in the cliurcli, began to spread 
more rapidly ; and by degrees the papal 
apostasy, with its fatal perversions of the 
truth as it is in Christ, became enthron- 
ed at Rome according to the predictions 
of Paul, Peter, and John. 

The arena of the Coliseum, whose ma- 
jestic ruins are now the most impressive 
monument of the ancient mistress of the 
world, was the theatre of many a conflict 
of Christian martyrs with wild beasts ; 
and its sands drank the blood of thou- 
sands of unresisting victims, men, wom- 
en, and children, who met a violent 
death — some tremblingly, some trium- 
phantly, but all resolutely — rather than 
deny the Lord Jesus Christ. The Col- 
iseum Avas erected for gladiatorial shows, 
by the labors of fifteen thousand men for 
ten years. It was an elliptical struc- 
ture, 620 feet long and 513 broad ; with 
an arena 290 feet by 180, surrounded by 
tiei-s on tiers of seats, the upper and 
outer circle being IGO feet from the 
ground. The vast amphitheatre is said 
to have contained seats for eighty thou- 
sand spectators ; and its ruins will long 
stand, a melancholy proof of the cruelty 
of heathenism. 

The epistle to the Eomans was writ- 
ten by Paul during the three months he 
376 



remained at Corinth, a. d. 58, before 
going to Jerusalem, Rom. 15:25. Com- 
pare Acts 20 : 2, 3, 16 ; Rom. 16 : 23 ; 
1 Cor. 1 : 14 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 20. It is the 
most important, systematic, and argu- 
mentative of the epistles of Paul. Its 
immediate occasion seems to have been 
the misunderstanding which existed be- 
tween Jewish and Gentile converts, not 
only at Rome, but everywhere. The 
Jew felt himself in privilege superior to 
the Gentile ; who, on the other hand, 
did not allow this superiority, and was 
vexed by the assertion of it. In refer- 
ence to this, in the first five chapters, 
the apostle proves that the entire himran 
race is depi-aved and under condemna- 
tion — that neither Gentile nor Jew has 
any privilege of birth or personal merit, 
but that each receives all benefits through 
the mere sovereign grace of God, Christ 
alone being our justification. He then 
proceeds to exhibit Christ ris onv sandifi- 
cation ; and answers the objections made 
to the doctrine of gratuitous justification, 
that it tends to encourage sin, and that 
God has no right to treat mankind in 
this way. In chaps. 10, 11, he applies 
all this to the Jews. In the remainder 
of the epistle, which is hortatory, the 
apostle lays down many practical rules 



ROO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAB 



of conduct, which are of the highest mo- 
ment to all Christians. 

ROOF. See House. 

ROOM is sometimes synonymous Avith 
seat or place, as in Luke 14:8-10 ; 20:46. 

ROSE, the queen of flowers, highly 
esteemed in its native East for its fra- 
grance, and the beauty of its form and 
colors. Several varieties of wild rose 
are still foimd in Palestine. The "rose 
of Sharon," sacredly associated with the 
heavenly Bridegroom, Song 2:1, Isa. 
35 : 1, appears from the derivation of its 
Hebrew name to have been a bulbous 
plant ; and is generally believed, in ac- 
cordance Avith the ancient versions, to 
denote a plant of the Narcissus family, 
perhaps the meadow-satiron, which grows 
in rich profusion on the plain of Sharon. 

RUBY. The oriental ruby is next in 
value, as a gem, to the diamond. In- 
deed, a ruby of this kind, above a cer- 
tain size, is more valuable than a dia- 
mond of the same weight. The oriental 
rub}^ is a red variety of the sapphire ; its 
color is usually between a vivid cochi- 
neal and crimson. The word "rubies" 
occurs several times in the English Bible, 
as Job 28 : 18 ; Prov. 3 : 15 ; "^8 : 11 ; but 
the corresponding word in HebreAv is 
thought to denote red coral, or perhaps 
pearls ; Avhile the true ruby is more nat- 
urally designated by the "agate" or 
"carbuncle" of Isa. 54:12; Ezek. 27:16. 

RUDE, 2 Cor. 11 : 6, artless and un- 
polished. 

RUE, a well-known garden herb, hav- 
ing a strong odor and a bitter taste. Our 
Saviour reproaches the Pharisees with 
their superstitious affectation of paying 
the tithe of rue, which w^as not in real- 
ity subject to the law of tithe, while 
they neglected the more essential parts 
of the law, Luke 11:42. 

RU'FUS, son of Simon the Cyrenian 
who was constrained to carry the cross 
on which the Saviour was to be crucified, 
Mark 15 : 21. If he is the same person 
whom Paul salutes in Rom. 16:13, as is 
probable, we may see in this instance the 
divine blessing abiding on the household 
of one who befriended Christ and bore 
his cross. 

RUSH, translated bulrush in Isa. 58 : 5, 
flag in Job 40:21, and hook in Job 41 :2 ; 
a plant growing in marshy ground or by 
water-courses, and used for chair-bot- 
toms, baskets, mats, ropes, etc. The 
pith of a similar plant in Europe is used 



as the Avick of a candle or rush-light. 
In Isa. 9:14 ; 19:15, a rush is put for the 
lowest of the people. 

RUTH, a Moabitess, who, having re- 
turned Avith her mother-in-laAv Naomi to 
Judea, probably about the time of Gide- 
on, soon after Avards married Boaz, a 
kinsman of Naomi. From this marriage 
descended David, and through him our 
Saviour Jesus Christ, Matt. L5. 

The book of Ruth contains this his- 
tory, told in a most simple and affecting 
manner. The object of the Avriter, no 
doubt, Avas to trace the genealogy of king 
David. At the outset, he says that these 
CA-ents took place Avhen the judges ruled 
in Israel— an intimation that in the time 
of the Avriter they had ceased to rule. At 
the close of the book the name of David 
is introduced ; Avhich shows that it Avas 
not Avritten before his day, b. c. lOCO. 
This book is inserted in our Bibles after 
the book of Judges, as a sort of sequel to 
it. Many of the ancient fathers made 
but one book of Judges and Ruth. The 
story of Ruth exhibits the frank and 
simple manners of the times, and the 
courtesy and charity of the Hebrew laws ; 
gives an intimation of the future exten- 
sion of the gospel to the Gentiles; and 
illustrates God's providential care of 
families, and the blessings Avhich lioAV 
from filial piety and faith in God. 

S. 

SABACTHA'NI, hast thou forsaken me, a 
Syro-Chaldaic Avord, a part of our Sav- 
iour's exclamation on the cross. Matt. 
27 : 46 ; the Avhole is taken from Psa. 
i 22:1, Avhere it is used prophetically. 
I SABAOTH, or rather Tsabaoth, hosts 
\ or armies. Jeiioa'aii Sabaoth is the Lord 
I of Hosts ; and Ave are to rmderstand the 
Avord hosts in the most comprehensive 
sense, as including the host of heaven, 
■ the angels and ministers of the Lord ; 
the stars and planets, which, as an army 
ranged in battle array, perform the will 
of God ; the armies of earth, whose con- 
flicts his providence overrules to the ac- 
I complishraent of his OAvn AA^ise designs ; 
j the hordes of inferior creatures, as the 
locusts that plagued Egypt, the quails 
j that fed Israel, and ''■the canker- Avorm 
: and the palmer-Avorm, his great army," 
; Joel 2:15 ; and lastly, the people of the 
Lord, both of the old and new cove- 
377 



SAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



SAB 



nants, a truly great army, of which God 
is the general and commander, 2 Sam. 
6:2; Psa. 24:10; Rom. 9:29; Jas. 5:4. 

SAB'BATH, rest. God, having created 
the world in six days, ' ' rested ' ' on the 
seventh, Gen. 2 : 2, 3 ; that is, he ceased 
from producing new beings in this crea- 
tion ; and because he had rested on it, 
he "blessed" or sanctified it, and ap- 
pointed it in a peculiar manner for his 
worship. 

We here have an account of the origi- 
nal INSTITUTION of the day of rest. Like 
the institution of marriage, it was given 
to man for the whole race. Those who 
Avorshipped God seem to have kept the 
Sabbath from the first, and there are 
tokens of this in the brief sketch the Bi- 
ble contains of the ages before the giving 
of the law at mount Sinai. Noah sent 
forth the raven from the ai'k, and the 
dove thrice, at intervals of seven days, 
Gen. 8. The account of the sending of 
manna in the desert proves that the Sab- 
bath was already known and observed, 
Ex. 16 : 22-30. The week was an estab- 
lished division of time in Mesopotamia 
and Arabia, Gen. 29 : 27 ; and traces of 
it have been found in many nations of 
antiquity, so remote from each other and 
of such diverse origin as to forbid the 
idea of their having received it from 
Sinai and the Hebrews. 

The REENACTMENT of the Sabbath on 
mount Sinai, among the Commandments 
of the Moral Law, was also designed not 
for the Jews alone, but for all who should 
receive the word of God, and ultimately 
for all mankind. Christ and his apostles 
never speak of the decalogue but as of 
permanent and universal obligation. 
' ' The Sabbath was made for man. ' ' The 
fourth commandment is as binding as 
the third and the fifth. Certain addi- 
tions to it, with specifications and penal- 
ties, were a part of the Mosaic civil law, 
and are not now in force, Ex. 31 : 14 ; 
Num. 15 : 32-36. On the Sabbath-day, 
the priests and Levites, ministers of the 
temple, entered on their week ; and 
those who had attended the foregoing 
week, went out. They placed on the 
golden table new loaves of show-bread, 
and took away the old ones, Lev. 24 : 8. 
Also on this day were ofi"ered particular 
sacrifices of two lambs for a burnt-offer- 
ing, with wine and meal. The Sabbath 
was celebrated like the other festivals, 
from evening to evening, Num. 28:9, 10. 
378 



The chief obligation of the Sabbath ex- 
pressed in the law, is to sanctify it, Ex. 
20:8; Deut. 5:12 : "Remember the Sab- 
bath-day to sanctify it. " It is sanctified 
by necessary Avorks of charity, by pray- 
ers, praises, and thanksgivings, by the 
public and private worship of God, by 
the study of his Avord, by tranquillity of 
mind, and by meditation on moral and 
religious truth in its bearing on the duties 
of life and the hope of immortality. The 
other requirement of the law is rest : 
"Thou shalt not do any Avork." The 
ordinary business of life is to be Avholly 
laid aside, both for the sake of bodily 
and mental health, and chiefly to secure 
the quiet and uninterrupted employment 
of the sacred hours for religious purposes. 
The spirit of the laAV clearly forbids all 
uses of the day which are worldly, such 
as amusements, journeys, etc., Avhereby 
one fails to keep the day holy himself, 
or hinders others in doing so. 

The Christian Sabbath is the original 
day of rest established in the garden of 
Eden and reenacted on Sinai,. Avithout 
those requirements Avhich were peculiar 
to Judaism, but Avith all its original 
moral force and Avilh the new sanctions 
of Christianity. It commemorates not 
only the creation of the Avorld, but a 
still greater event — the completion of 
the AVork of atonement by the resurrec- 
tion of Christ ; and as he rose from the 
dead on the day after the JcAvish Sab- 
bath, that day of his resurrection has 
been observed by Christians ever since. 
The change appears to have been made 
at once, and as is generally believed 
under the direction of the ' ' Lord of the 
Sabbath." On the same day, the first 
day of the week, he appeared among his 
assembled disciples ; and on the next 
recurrence of the day he was again Avith 
them, and revealed himself to Thomas. 
From 1 Cor. 11:20 ; 14:23, 40, it appears 
that the disciples in all places Avere ac- 
customed to meet statedly to worship 
and to celebrate the Lord's supper ; and 
from 1 Cor. 16:1, 2, we learn that these 
meetings Avere on the first day of the 
week. Thus in Acts 20 : 6-11, we find 
the Christians at Troas assembled on the 
first day, to partake of the supper and to 
receiA'^e religious instruction. John ob- 
served the day Avith peculiar solemnity. 
Rev. 1 : 10 ; and it had then receiA^ed the 
name of "The Lord's day," which it 
has ever since retained. For a time, 



SAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAB 



such of the disciples as were Jews observ- 
ed the Jewish iSabbath also ; but they 
did not require this nor the observance 
of any festival of the Mosaic dispensation, 
of Gentile converts, nor even of Jews, 
Col. 2 : IG. The early Christian fathers 
refer to the first day of the week as the 
time set apart for worship, and to the 
transfer of the day on account of the 
resurrection of the Saviour. Pliny the 
younger, proconsul of Pontus near the 
close of the first century, in a letter to 
the emperor Trajan, remarks that the 
Christians were ' ' accustomed on a stated 
day to meet together before daylight, 
and to repeat a hymn to Christ as God, 
and to bind themselves by a solemn 
bond not to commit any wickedness," 
etc. So well known was their custom, 
that the ordinary test question put by 
persecutors to those suspected of Chris- 
tianity was, "Hast thou kept the Lord's 
day?" To which the reply was, "I am 
a Christian; I cannot omit it." Justin 
Martyr observes that "on the Lord's 
day all Christians in the city or country 
meet together, because that is the day of 
our Lord's resurrection, and then we 
read the writings of the apostles and 
prophets; this being done, the person 
presiding makes an oration to the assem- 
bly, to exhort them to imitate and to 
practise the things they have heard ; 
then we all join in prayer, and after that 
we celebrate the sacrament. Then they 
w^ho are able and willing give what they 
think proper, and what is collected is 
laid up in the hands of the chief officer, 
who distributes it to orphans and wid- 
ows, and other necessitous Christians, as 
their wants require." See 1 Cor. 16 : 2. 
A very honorable conduct and worship. 
Would that it were more prevalent 
among us, with the spirit and piety of 
primitive Christianity ! 

The commandment to observe the 
Sabbath is worthy of its place in the 
decalogue ; and its observance is of fun- 
damental importance to society, which 
without it would fast relapse into igno- 
rance, vice, and ungodliness. Its very 
existence on earth, by the ordinance of 
God, proves that there remains an eter- 
nal Sabbath in heaven, of which the 
"blest repose" of the day of God is an 
earnest to those who rightly observe it, 
Heb. 4:9. 

"The second Sabbath after the first," 
Luke 6:1, should rather read, "The first 



Sabbath after the second day of the pass- 
over." Of the seven days of the pass- 
over, the first was a Sabbath, and on the 
second was a festival in which the fruits 
of the harvest were offered to God, Lev. 
23 : 5, 9, etc. From this second day the 
Jews reckoned seven weeks or Sabbaths 
to the feast of Pentecost, Lev. 23 : 15, etc. 
Hence the first week or the first Sabbath 
which occurred after this second day, 
was called the first week or Sabbath 
after the second day. 

The ' ' preparation of the Sabbath ' ' was 
the Friday before ; for as it was forbid- 
den to make a fire, to bake bread, or to 
dress victuals, on the Sabbath-day, they 
provided on the Friday every thing need- 
ful for their sustenance on the Sabbatli, 
Mark 15:42; Matt. 27:62; John 19:14, 
31, 42. 

For "a Sabbath-day's journey," see 
Journey. 

SABBAT'ICAL YEAR was to be cele- 
brated among the Jews once every seven 
years ; the land was to rest, and be left 
without culture, Exod. 23 : 10, 11 ; Lev. 
25 : 1-7. God appointed the observance 
of the Sabbatical year, to preserve the 
remembrance of the creation of the 
world ; to enforce the acknowledgment 
of his sovereign authority over all 
things, particularly over the land of Ca- 
naan, which he had given to the He- 
brews ; and to inculcate humanity on 
his people, by commanding that they 
I should resign to servants, to the poor, 
■ to strangers and to brutes, the produce 
i of their helds, of their vineyards, and 
of their gardens. Josephus and Tacitus 
both mention the Sabbatical year as ex- 
isting in their day. See Jubilee. 

SABEANS. This word represents two 
distinct people, who, in accordance with 
the original Hebrew, might have been 
more properly called Sebieans and She- 
bieans. 

I. The first denotes the inhabitant^; of 
the country called Seba. This appears 
to have been the great island, or rather 
peninsula of Meroe, in northern Ethio- 
pia, or Nubia, formed between the Nile 
' and the Astaboras, now Atbara. Upon 
this peninsula lay a city of the like name, 
the ruins of which are still visible a few 
j miles north of the modern Shendy. Me- 
roe was a city of priests, whose origin is 
lost in the highest antiquity. The mon- 
arch was chosen by the priests from 
among themselves; and the government 
379 



SAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAC 



•was entirely theocratic, being managed 
by the priests according to tlie oracle 
of Jupiter Amnion. This was the Seba 
of the Hebrews, according to Josephus, 
who mentions at the same time that it 
was conquered by Cambyses, and receiv- 
ed from him the name Meroe, after his 
sister. Witli this representation accord 
the notices of Seba and its inhabitants 
in Scripture. In Gen. 10:7, their ances- 
tor is said to be a son of Cush, the pro- 
genitor of the Ethiopians. In Isa. 48:3, 
and Psa. 72 : 10, Seba is mentioned as a 
distant and wealthy country ; in tlie for- 
mer passage, it is connected with Egypt 
and Ethiopia ; and Meroe was one of the 
most important commercial cities of in- 
terior Africa. These Sabeans are describ- 
ed by Herodotus as men of uncommon 
size. Compare Isa. 45:14. A branch of 
this family, it is thought, located them- 
selves near the head of the Persian gulf; 
and the Sabeans mentioned in Job 1 : 15 
were probably Cushites. See Cosh and 
Raamah. 

II. The inhabitants of the country 
called Sheba. The Slieba of Scripture 
appears to be the Saba of Strabo, situ- 
ated towards the southern part of Ara- 
bia, at a short distance from the coast 
of the Pied sea, the capital of Avhich was 
Mariabfi, or Mareb. This region, called j 
also Yemen, was probably settled by 
Sheba the son of Joktan, of the race of 
Shem, Gen. 10:28; 1 Chr. 1:22. 

The queen of Sheba, who visited Solo- 
mon, 1 Kin. 10; 2 Chr. 9 ; Matt. 12:42, 
and made him presents of gold, ivory, 
and costly spices, was probably the mis- 
tress of this region ; indeed, the Sabeans 
were celebrated, on account of their im- 
portant commerce in these very prod- 
ucts, among the Greeks also, Job 6 : 19 ; 
Isa. 60 : 6 ; Jer. 6 : 20 : Ezek. 27 : 22 ; 
38 : 13 ; Psa. 72 : 10, 15 ; Joel 3:8. The 
tradition of this visit of the queen of 
Sheba to Solomon has maintained itself 
among the Arabs, who call her Balkis, 
and aihrm that she became the wife of 
Solomon. 

Besides the Joktanite Sabteans. two 
others of the same name are mentioned j 
in the Bible. 1. A son of Jolvshan, and 
grandson of Abraham and Keturah, Gen. I 
10 : 28. 2. A grandson of Cush. It is j 
possible that these descendants of the ■ 
Ethiopian Shelxa may have had their | 
residence in Africa ; but the question of | 
these two Shebas is obscure and difficult 
380 



to determine. Tlie Sebaeans and She- 
b?.eans are both mentioned in the same 
prophecy, Psa. 72 : 10, as coming to lay 
their olterings at the feet of Christ. 

SABIAH and SAB'TECHA, sons of 
Cush, Gen. 10 : 7. It cannot be decided 
whether they settled in Africa, Arabia, 
or south-eastern Asia. 




SACK, SACK'CLOTH. Sack is a pure 
Hebrew word, and has spread into many 
modern languages. Sackcloth is a very 
coarse stuff, often of hair, Pvcv. 6 : 12. In 
great calamities, in penitence, in trouble, 
the Jews, etc. , wore sackcloth about their 
bodies, Gen. 37:34 ; 2 Sam. 3:31 ; 1 Kin. 
20 : 32 ; Matt. 11 : 21 . 1 he prophets were 
often clothed in sackcloth, and generally 
in coarse clothing. Matt. 3:4. The Lord 
bids Isaiah put off the sackcloth from 
about his body, and go naked, Isa. 20:2. 
Zechariah says, 13:4, that false prophets 
should no longer prophesy in sackcloth, 
(English translation, a rough garment,) 
to deceive the simple. 

In times of joy, or on hearing good 
news, those who were clad in sackcloth 
cast it from them, and resumed their 
usual clothing, Psa. £0:11. 

SACK'BUT. See Misrc. 

SACBIFICE, an ottering made to God 
on his altar, by the hand of a lawful 
minister. A sacrilice differed from an 
oblation : it was properly the offering 
up of a life ; whereas an oblation was 
but a simple ofl'ering or gift. There is 
every reason to believe that saciifices 
were from the iirst of divine appoint- 
ment : otherwise thev would have been 



6 AC BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAC 




a superstitious will-worship, wliicti God 
could not have accepted as he did. See 
Abel. Adam and his sons, Noah and 
his descendants, Abraham and his pos- 
terity. Job and Melchizedek, before the 
Mosaic law, oft'ered to God real sacrifices. 
That law did but settle the quality, the 
number, and other circumstances of sac- 
ritices. Every one was priest and min- 
ister of his own sacrifice ; at least, he 
was at liberty to choose what priest he 
pleased in offering his victim. Gener- 
ally, this honor belonged to the head of 
a fe,mily ; hence it was the prerogative 
of the tirst-born. But after Moses this 
was, among the Jews, confined to the 
family of Aaron. 

There was but one place appointed in 
the law for the offering of sacrifices by 
the Jews. It was around the one altar 
of the only true God in the tabernacle, 
and afterwards in the temple, that all 
his people were to unite in his worship. 
Lev. 17:4, 9; Deut. 12:5-18. On some 
special occasions, however, kings, proph- 
ets, and judges sacrificed elsewhere, Judg. 
2:5 ; 0:26 ; 1:3:19 ; 1 Sam. 7:17 ; 1 Kin. 
3 : 2, 3 ; 18 : 33. The Jews were taught 
to cherish the greatest horror of human 
sacrifices, as heathenish and revolting, 
Lev. 20 : 2 ; Deut. 12 : 31 ; Psa. 100 : 37 ; 
Isa. 6G:3; Ezek. 20:31. 

ITie Hebrews had three kinds of sac- 
rifices : 

1. The burnt-offering or holocaust, in 



which the whole victim was consumed, 
without any reserve to the person who 
gave the victim, or to the priest who 
killed and sacrificed it, except that the 
priest had the skin ; for before the vic- 
tims were offered to the Lord, their skins 
were flayed off", and their feet and en- 
trails were washed, Lev. 1 : 1-17 ; 7:8. 
Every burnt-offering contained an ac- 
knowledgment of general guilt, and a 
typical expiation of it. The burning of 
the whole victim on the altar signified, 
on the part of the offerer, the entireness 
of his devotion of himself and all his 
substance to God ; and, on the part of 
the victim, the completeness of the ex- 
piation. 

2. The sin-offering, of which the tres- 
pass-offering may be regarded as a varie- 
ty. This differed from the burnt-otter- 
ing in that it always had respect to par- 
ticular offences against law either moral 
or ceremonial, which were committed 
through ignorance, or at least not in a 
presumptuous spirit. Ko part of it re- 
turned to him Avho had given it, but the 
sacrificing ]3riest had a share of it. Lev. 
4-6; 7:1-10. 

3. Peace-offerings : these were offered in 
the fulfilment of vows, to return thanks 
to God for benefits, (thank-offerings,) or 
to satisfy private devotion, (freewill-offer- 
ings.) The Israelites accordingly offered 
these when they chose, no law obliging 
them to it, and thev were free to choose 

381 



SAC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAC 




among such animals as were allowed in 
sacrifice, Lev. 3 ; 7:11-34. Tlie low only 
required that the victim should be with- 
out blemish. He who presented it came 
to the door of the tabernacle, put his 
hand on the head of the victim, and 
killed it. The priest poured out the 
blood about the altar of burnt-sacrifices : 
he burnt on the lire of the altar the fat 
of the lower belly, that which covers the 
kidneys, the liver, and the bowels. And 
if it were a lamb, or a ram, he added to 
it the rump of the animal, which in that 
country is very fat. Before these things i 
were committed to the fire of the altar, j 
the priest put them into the hands of ; 
the offerer, then made him lift them up i 
on high, and Avave them toward the four 
quarters of the world, the priest support- i 
ing and directing his hands. The breast 
and the right shoulder of the sacrifice 
belonged to the priest that performed 
the service ; and it appears that both of | 
them were put into the hands of him 
who offered them, though Moses men- 
tions only the breast of the animal, j 
After this, all the rest of the sacrifice j 
belonged to him who presented it, and 
he might eat it with his family and i 
friends at his pleasure. Lev. 8 : 31. The 
peace-offering signified expiation of sin, 
and thus reconciliation with God, and 
382 



holy communion with him and with his 
people - 

The sacrifices or offerings of meal or 
liquors, which Avere offered for sin, were 
in favor of the poorer sort, who could 
not afford to sacrifice an ox or goat or 
sheep. Lev. 5 : 10-13. They contented 
themselves Avith offering meal or flour, 
sprinkled Avith oil, Avith spice (or frank- 
incense) OA^er it. And the priest, taking 
a handful of this flour, Avith all the frank- 
incense, sprinkled them on the fire of the 
altar ; and all the rest of the flour Avas 
his OAvn : he AA^as to eat it without leaven 
in the tabernacle, and none but priests 
Avere to partake of it. As to other offer- 
ings, fruits, Avine, meal, wafers or cakes, 
or any thing else, the priest ahvays cast 
a part on the altar ; the rest belonged to 
him and the other priests. These offer- 
ings Avere ahvays accompanied with salt 
and Avine, but Avere Avithout leaven, 
Lev. 2. 

Offerings in which they set at liberty 
a bird or a goat, Avere not strictly sac- 
rifices, because there Avas no shedding of 
blood, and the Adctim remained aliA'^e. 

Sacrifices of birds Avere offered on three 
occasions : 1. For sin, Avhen the person 
offering was not rich enough to provide 
an animal for a victim. Lev. 5:7, 8. 
2. For purification of a woman after 



SAC 



lUBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAD 



cbildbirth, Lev. 12:6, 7. AVhen she 
could offer a lamb and a young pigeon, 
she gave both ; the lamb for a burnt- 
offering, the pigeon for a sin-offering. 
But if she were not able to offer a lamb, 
she gave a pair of turtles, or a pair of 
young pigeons ; one for a burnt-offering, 
the other for a sin-offering. 3. They 
offered two sparrows for those who w^ere 
purified from the leprosy ; one was a 
burnt-offering, the other was a scape- 
sparrow, as above, Lev. 14:4, etc., 49-51. 

For the sacrifice of the paschal lamb, 
see Passover. 

The perpetual sacrifice of the taberna- 
cle and temple, Ex. 29 : 38-40, Num. 
28 : 3, was a daily offering of two lambs 
on the altar of burnt-offerings ; one in 
the morning, the other in the evening. 
They Avere burnt as holocausts, but by a 
small fire, that they might continue 
burning the longer. The lamb of the 
morning was offered about sunrise, after 
the incense was burnt on the golden 
altar, and before any other sacrifice. 
That in the evening was offered between 
the two evenings, that is, at the decline 
of day, and before night. With each of 
these victims was offered half a pint of 
wine, half a pint of the purest oil, and 
an assaron, or about five pints, of the 
finest flour. 

Such were the sacrifices of the He- 
brews — sacrifices of divine appointment, 
and yet altogether incapable in them- 
selves of purifying the soul or atoning for 
its sins. Paul has described these and 
other ceremonies of the law "as weak 
and beggarly elements," Gal. 4:9. They 
represented grace and purity, but they 
did not communicate it. They convinced 
the sinner of his necessity of purification 
and sanctification to God; but they did 
not impart holiness or justification to 
him. Sacrifices were only prophecies 
and figures of the true sacrifice, the Lamb 
of God, which eminently includes all 
their virtues and qualities ; being at the 
same time a holocaust, a sacrifice for sin, 
and a sacrifice of thanksgiving ; contain- 
ing the whole substance and efficacy, of 
which the ancient sacrifices were only 
representations. The paschal lamb, the 
daily burnt-offerings, the offerings of 
flour and wine, and all other oblations, 
of whatever nature, promised and repre- 
sented the death of Jesus Christ, Heb. 
9 : 9-15 ; 10:1. Accordingly, by his death 
he abolished them all, 1 Cor. 5:7 ; Heb. 



10:8-10. By his oftering of himself once 
for all, Heb. 10:3, he has superseded all 
other sacrifices, and saves for ever all 
who believe, Eph. 5:2; Heb. 9 : 11-26 ; 
while without this expiatory sacrifice, 
divine justice could never have relaxed 
its hold on a single human soul. 

The idea of a substitution of the vic- 
tim in the place of the sinnei is a famil- 
iar one in the Old Testament, Lev. 16 : 21 ; 
Deut. 21 : 1-8 ; Isa. 53 : 4 ; Dan. 9 : 26 ; 
and is found attending all the sacrifices 
of animals, Lev. 4:20, 26 ; 5:10; 14:18; 
16:21. This is the reason assigned why 
the blood especially, as being the very 
life and soul of the victim, was sprinkled 
on the altar and poured out before the 
Lord to signify its utter destruction in 
the sinner's stead. Lev. 17:11. Yet the 
Jews were carefully directed not to rely 
on these sacrifices as works of merit. 
They were taught that without repent- 
ance, faith, and reformation, all sacrifi- 
ces were an abomination to God, Prov. 
21:27; Jer. 6:20; Amos 5:22; Mic. 6:6- 
8 ; that He desires mercy and not sacri- 
fice, Hos. 6:6; Matt. 9:13, and supreme 
love to him, Mark 12:33. "To obey 
is better than sacrifice, and to hearken 
than the fat of rams," 1 Sam. 15 : 22; 
Prov. 21 : 3 ; Matt. 5 : 23. See also the 
fiftieth Psalm. Then, as truly as under 
the Christian dispensation, it could be 
said, "The sacrifices of God are a bro- 
ken spirit ; a broken and a contrite heart, 
God, thou wilt not despise," Psa. 
51 : 17. The Jews, without these dispo- 
sitions, could not present any oftering 
agreeable to God ; and he often explains 
himself on this matter in the prophets, 
Psa. 40:6; Isa. 1:11-14; Hos. 6:6; Joel 
2:12-18; Amos 5:21, 22, etc. 

The term sacrifices is sometimes used 
metaphorically with respect to the servi- 
ces of Christians ; implying a giving up 
of something that was their own, and a 
dedication of it to the Lord, Rom. 12:1 ; 
Phil. 4:18; Heb. 13:15, 16; 1 Pet. 2:5. 

SAC'EILEGE, any profanation or abuse 
of things peculiarly sacred to God ; such 
as robbing the house of God, or making 
it a den of thieves. Matt. 21 : 12, 13 ; 
Rom. 2:2. 

SAD'DUCEES. This name Avas ap- 
plied in the time of Jesus to a portion 
or sect of the Jews, who were usually at 
variance with the other leading sect, 
namely, the Pharisees, b\it united with 
them in opposing Jesus and accomplish- 
383 



SAF 



BIBLE DICTIOXARY. 



SAL 



ing his death, Matt. 16 : 1-12 ; Luke 



20 



The name would seem to be 



derived from a Hebrew word signifying 
the just; but the Talmudists affirm that 
it comes from a certain Sadoc, or Sad- 
due us, wlio was the founder of tlie sect, 
and lived about three centuries before 
the Christian era. The Sadducees disre- 
garded all t\\Q traditions and unwritten 
laws which the Pharisees prized so high- 
ly, and professed to consider the Scrip- 
tures as the only source and rule of the 
Jewish religion. They rejected the de- 
monology of the Pharisees ; denied the 
existence of angels and spirits ; consid- 
ered the soul as dying with the body, 
and of course admitted no future state 
of rewards and punishments, Matt. 22:23. 
While, moreover, the Pharisees believed 
that all events and actions were directed 
by an overruling providence or fate, the 
Sadducees considered them all as depend- 
ing on the will and agency of man. The 
tenets of these free-thinking philoso- 
phers were not, in general, so acceptable 
to the people as those of the Pharisees ; 
yet many of the highest rank adopted 
them, and practised great severity of 
manners and of life. Many members of 
the Sanhedrim were Sadducees, Acts 
28 : G-9 ; and so was the high-priest in 
the time of the apostles. The resurrec- 
tion of Christ seems to have added bit- 
terness to their hatred of Christianity, 
Acts 4:1; 5:17. 

SAF'FRON, the common Crocus Sati- 
vus, a small bluish flower, whose yellow, 
thread-like stigmata yield an agreeable 
aromatic odor ; and also the Indian saf- 
fron. Song 4:14. In the East these were 
used in making a highly valued perfume, 
and also as a condiment and a stimulat- 
ing medicine. 

SAINT, a holy person, a friend of God, 
either on earth or in heaven, Deut. 33:2. 
It is sometimes used of the pious Israel- 
ites, as Psa. 16 : 3 ; 34 : 9. Nothing is 
more frequent in Paul than the name of 
saints given to all Christians, Rom. 1:7 ; 
8:27; l2: 13; 15:25, 31; 16:2. In this 
acceptation it continued during the early 
ages of Christianity ; nor was it applied 
to individuals declared to be saints by 
any other act of the church than admis- 
sion to its membership, till various cor- 
ruptions had depraved the primitive 
principles. The church of Rome assumes 
the power of making saints ; that is, of 
announcing certain departed spirits as 
884 



objects of worship, from whom the faith- 
ful may solicit favors — a notion worthy 
of the dark ages in which it originated. 

SAL' AMIS, the chief city of the isle of 
Cyprus, visited by Paul and Barnabas, 
A. D. 48. This was the native isle of Bar- 
nabas, and many Jews resided there to 
whom the gospel had already been car- 
ried, Acts 4:36 ; 11:19,20; 21:16. Paul's 
visit was signalized by the miracle 
wrought on Elymas, and by the conver- 
sion of the governor, Sergius Paulus, 
Acts 13:5-12. Salamis was a large city, 
situated on the east side of the island, 
and was afterwards called Constantia. 

SALA'THIEL, 1 Chr. 3:17, or Sueal'- 
TiEL, father of Zerubbabel, Ezra 3:2; 
Nell. 12:1 ; Hag. 1:1 ; one of the ances- 
tors of Christ, named in both the gospel 
genealogies, Matt. 1 : 14 : Luke 3 : 27. See 
Genealogy. 

SAL'CHAH, a city of Bashan, con- 
quered bv the Jews and assigned to Ma- 
nasseh, Deut. 3:10; Josh. 12:5; 13:11. 
It was near the border of Gad, 1 Chr. 
5 : 11, and where the boundary line be- 
tween the two tribes ran out farthest 
into the desert. A town called Salchat 
still exists there, on the south-east bor- 
der of the modern Hauran. 

SALEM, ^;eace, I., an ancient name of 
Jerusalem, Gen. 14 : 18, Heb. 7:1, 3, 
afterwards applied to it poetically, Psa. 
76:2. 

11. A city of the Shechemites, east of 
Sychar, Gen. 33:18. 

SA'LIM, a town near ^non and the 
Jordan, south of Bethshean, John 3:23. 

SALMON, or Sal'maii, 1 Chr. 2:11, a 
chief man of the tribe of Judah, husband 
of Rahab, and father of Boaz, Ruth 4:20 ; 
Matt. 1:4, 5 ; Luke 3:32. See Zalmon. 

SALMO'NE, a promontory at the north- 
east extremity of the island of Crete, now 
cape Sidero, Acts 27:7. 

SALO'ME, wife of Zebedee, mother of 
James the elder and John the evange- 
list, one of those holy women of Galilee 
who attended our Saviour in his jour- 
neys and ministered to him. Matt. 27: 56. 
She requested of Jesus that her two sons 
James and John might sit one on his 
right hand and the other on his left 
hand in his kingdom. Matt. 20 : 20-23. 
Her conceptions as to the true nature of 
Christ's kingdom were no doubt changed 
by his crucifixion, which she witnessed 
"afar oft," and by his resurrection, of 
which she was early apprized by the an- 



iSAL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAL 



gels at the tomb, Mark 15:40; 10:1. 
Some infer, from comparing Matt. 27:56 
and John 19:25, that she was a sister of 
Mary the mother of Jesus. 

Salome was also the name of the 
daughter of Herodias. 

SALT was procured by the Jews from 
the Dead sea, either from the immense 
hill or ridge of pure rock salt at its 
south-west extremity, or from that de- 
posited on the shore by the natural 
evaporation. The Arabs obtain it in 
large cakes, two or three inches thick, 
and sell it in considerable quantities 
throughout Syria. Its well-known pre- 
servative qualities, and its importance 
as a seasoning for food, Job 6:6, are im- 
plied in most of the passages where it is 
mentioned in Scripture : as in the mirac- 
ulous healing of a fountain, 2 Kin. 2:21 ; 
in the sprinkling of salt over the sacri- 
fices consumed on God's altar, Lev. 
2:13; Ezek. 43:21; Mark 9:49; and its 
use in the sacred incense, Ex. 30 : 35. 
So also good men are ' ' the salt of the 
earth," Matt. 5 : 13 ; and grace, or true 
wisdom, is the salt of language, Mark 
9 : 50 ; Col. 4 : 6. See also^Ezek. 16 : 4. 
To sow a land with salt, signifies its 
-utter barrenness and desolation ; a con- 
dition often illustrated m the Bible by 
allusions to the region of Sodom and 
Gomorrah, with its soil impregnated 
with salt, or covered with acrid and 
slimy pools, Deut. 29 : 33 ; Job 89 : 9 ; 
Ezek. 47:11; Zeph. 2:9. 

Salt is also the symbol of perpetuity 
and incorruption. Thus they said of a 
covenant, "It is a covenant of salt for 
ever before the Lord," Num. 18:19; 
2 Chr. 13 : 5. It is also the symbol of 
hospitality ; and of the fidelity due 
from servants, friends, guests, and offi- j 
cers, to those who maintain them or 1 
who receive them at their tables. The • 
governors of the provinces beyond the | 
Euphrates, writing to king Artaxerxes, j 
tell him, " Because we have maintenance ' 
from the king's palace," etc., which in 
the Chaldee is, ' ' Because Ave are salted j 
with the salt of the palace," Ezra 4:14. 

Valley of salt. This place is memo- 
rable for the victories of David, 2 Sam. 
8 : 13 ; 1 Chr. 18 : 12 ; Psa. 60, and of 
Amaziah, 2 Kin. 14 : 7, over the Edom- 
ites. There can be little doubt that the 
name designates the broad deep valley 
El-Ghor, prolonged some eight miles 
south of the Dead sea to the chalky cliffs 
17 



called Akrabbim. Like all this region, 
it bears the marks of volcanic action, 
and has an air of extreme desolation. 
It is occasionally overflowed by the bit- 
ter waters of that sea, which rise to the 
height of fifteen feet. The drift-wood on 
the margin of the valley, which indicates 
this rise of the water, is so impregnated 
with salt that it will not burn ; and on 
the north-west side of the valley lies a 
mountain of salt. Parts of this plain are 
white with salt ; others are swampy, or 
marked by sluggish streams or standing 
pools of brackish water. The southern 
part is covered in part with tamarisks 
and coarse shrubbery. Some travellers 
have found here quicksand pits in which 
camels and horses have been swallowed 
up and lost. Gen. 14 : 10 ; Zeph. 2 : 9. 
See Jordan and Sea III. 




SALUTATION. The usual formula of 
salutation among the Hebrews was Sha- 
lom lekha, that is, Peace be with thee. 
The same expression is the common one 
among the Arabs to the present day : 
they say, Salam lekha, to which the 
person saluted replies, "With thee be 
peace," Gen. 29 : 6 ; Judg. 18 : 15, mar- 
gin. Hence we hear of the Arab and 
Turkish Salams, that is, salutations. 
Other phrases of salutation are found in 
Scripture, most of them invoking a bless- 
ing : as, "Tlie Lord be with thee;" 
' ' All hail, ' ' or, Joy to thee ; ' ' Blessed be 
thou of the Lord." These and similar 
phrases the orientals still use on all oc- 
casions with the most profuse and punc- 
tilious politeness. The letter of an Arab 
will be nearly filled with salutations ; 
and should he come in to tell you your 
385 



SAL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY, 



SAM 



hottse was on fire, he would first give 
and receive tlie compliments of the day, 
and then say perhaps, "If God will, all 
is well; but your house is on fire." 
Their more formal salutations they ac- 
companj'- with various ceremonies or ges- 
tures ; sometimes they embrace and kiss 
each other ; sometimes an inferior kisses 
the hand or the beard of a superior, or 
bows low, with the hand upon the 
breast, and afterwards raises it to his 
lips or forehead. See Jacob's salutation 
of Esau, Gen. 43 ; and compare Gen. 
19:1 : 23:7 ; 42:6 ; 1 Sam. 25:53 ; 2Sam. 
1:2;' John 20 : 26. The due and digni- 
fied performance of some of these cere- 
monious courtesies, especially when fre- 
quently recurring, requires much time ; 
and hence, when the prophet sent his 
servant in great haste to lay his staff 
upon the dead child, he forbade him to 
salute any one, or answer any salutation 
by the way, 2 Kin. 4:29. For a similar 
reason, our Saviour forbade the seventy 
disciples to salute any one by the way, 
Luke 10 : 4, that is, in this formal and 
tedious manner, wasting precious time. 
Much of the oriental courtesy was super- 
ficial and heartless ; but the benediction 
of Christ was from the heart, and car- 
ried with it what was "better than life." 
" My peace I give unto you ; not as the 
world giveth, give I unto you," John 
14:27. 

SALYA'TION means, strictly, deliver- 
ance ; and so it is used of temporal deliv- 
erance, victory, in Gen. 14 : 13 ; 1 Sam. 
14:45. But as the spiritual deliverance 
from sin and death, tlirough the Re- 
deemer, Matt. 1 : 21, is a far greater sal- 
vation, so this word has come to be used 
mostly only in this moral and spiritual 
sense ; and implies not only this deliv- 
erance, but also the consequences of it, 
namely, eternal life and happiness in the 
kingdom of our Lord, 2 Cor. 7:10; Eph. 
1 : i3. It is most justly described as a 
"great salvation," Heb. 2:3. 

The Hebrews rarely use concrete terms, 
as they are called, but often abstract 
terms. Thus, instead of saying, God 
saves them and protects them, they say, 
God is their salvation. So, a voice of 
salvation, tidings of salvation, the rock 
of salvation, the shield of salvation, a 
horn of salvation, a word of salvation, 
etc., are equivalent to a voice declaring 
deliverance ; the joy that attends escape 
from a great danger ; a rock where any 
386 



one takes refuge, and is in safety ; a 
buckler that secures from the attack of 
an enemy ; a horn or ray of glory, of 
happiness and salvation, etc. Thus, to 
work great salvation in Israel, signifies 
to deliver Israel from some imminent 
danger, to obtain a great victory over 
enemies. 

The "garments of salvation," Isa. 
61 : 10, refer to the splendid robes worn 
on festival days. The expression is used 
figuratively to denote the reception of a 
signal favor from God, such as deliver- 
ance from great danger. 

SAMA'PJA, I., one of the three divis- 
ions of the Holy Land in the time of our 
Saviour, having Galilee on the north 
and Judea on the south, the Jordan on 
the east and the Mediterranean on tbe 
west, and occupying parts of the terri- 
tory assigned at first to Ephraim, Ma- 
nasseh, and Issachar, Luke 17:11 ; John 
4:4. It is described as having its hills 
less bare than those of Judea, and its 
valleys and plains more cultivated and 
fruitful. See Canaan. Many gospel 
churches were earlv planted here, Acts 
8:1, 25; 9:31; 15:3. 

II. A city situated near the middle of 
Palestine, some six miles north-west of 
Shechem. It was built by Omri king of 
Israel, about 920 b. c, and named after 
Shemer the previous owner of the moun- 
tain or hill on which the city stood, 
1 Kin. 16 : 23, 24. It became the favor- 
ite residence of the kings of Israel, in- 
stead of Shechem and Thirzah the former 
capitals. It was highly adorned with 
public buildings. Ahab built there a 
palace of ivorv, 1 Kings 22 : 39, and 
also a temple of Baal, 1 Kin. 16 : 32, 33, 
which Jehu destroyed, 2 Kin. 10:18-28. 
The prophets often denounced it for its 
idolatry, Isa. 9:9; Ezek. 16:46-65. It 
was twice besieged by the Svrians, 1 Kin. 
20 ; 2 Kin. 6 : 24 ; 7 : 1-20.' At length 
Shalmanezer king of Assyria captured 
and destroyed the city, and removed the 
people of the land, b. c. 720. 2 Kings 
17:3-6; Hos. 10:5-7; Mic. 1:1-6. See 
Omri. The city was in part rebuilt by 
Cuthites imported from beyond the Ti- 
gris, but was again nearly destroyed by 
John Hyrcanus. Tlie Roman proconsul 
Gabinius once more restored it, and call- 
ed it Gabinia ; and it was afterwards 
given by Augustus to Herod the Great, 
who enlarged and adorned it, and gave 
it the name of Sebaste, the Greek trans- 



SAM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAM 



lation of the Latin word Augusta, in 
honor of the empei'or. He placed in it 
a colony of six thousand persons, sur- 
rounded it with a strong wall, and built 
a magnificent temple in honor of Augus- 
tus. Early in tlie apostolic age it was 
favored by the successful labors of Philip 
and others, Acts 8 : 5-25 ; and the church 
then formed continued in existence sev- 
eral centuries, till the city of Herod was 
destroyed. Sebaste was afterwards re- 
vived, and is mentioned in the histories 
of the Crusades. It is now an inconsid- 
erable village, called Sebustieh, with a 
few cottages built of stones from the 
ancient ruins. 

The following is the account of the 
ra:)dern city, as given by Richardson : 
"Its situation is extremely beautiful, 
and strong by nature ; more so, I think, 
than Jerusalem. It stands on a fine, 
large insulated hill, compassed all round 
by a broad, deep valley ; and when for- 
tified, as it is stated to have been by 
Herod, one would imagine that in the 
ancient system of warfare nothing but 
famine would hive reduced such a place. 
The valley is surrounded by four hills, 
one on each side, which are cultivated 
in terraces to the top, sown with grain 
and planted with fig and olive trees, as 
is also the valley. The hill of Samaria 
rises in terraces to a height equal to any 
of t'le adjoining mountains. 

"The present village is small and 
poor, and after passing the valley, the 
ascent to it is very steep ; but viewed 
from the station of our tents, it is ex- 
tremely interesting, both from its natu- 
ral situation and from the picturesque 
remains of a ruined convent of good 
Gothic architecture. 

"Hiving passed the village, towards 
the middle of the first terrace there is a 
number of coluums still standing. I 
counted twelve in one row, besides sev- 
eral that stood apart, the brotherless 
remains of other rows. The situation is 
extremely delightful, and my guide in- 
formed me that they belonged to the 
serai or palace. On the next terrace there 
are no remains of solid building, but 
heaps of stone and lime, and rubbish 
mixed with the soil in great profusion. 
Ascending to the third or highest ter- 
race, the traces of former buildings were 
not so numerous, but we enjoyed a de- 
lightful view of the surrounding coun- 
try. The eye passed over the deep val- 



ley that compasses the hill of Sebaste, 
and rested on the mountains beyond, 
that retreated as they rose with a gentle 
slope, and met the view in every direc- 
tion, like a book laid out for perusal on 
a writing-desk." 

SAMAR'ITANS, the inhabitants of Sa- 
maria. But in the New Testament this 
name is the appellation of a race of peo- 
ple who sprung originally from an inter- 
mixture of the ten tribes with gentile 
nations. When the inhabitants of Sa- 
maria and of the adjacent country were 
carried away by Shalmanezer king of As- 
syria, he sent in their place colonies from 
Babylonia, Cuthah, Ava, Hamath, and 
Sepharvaim, with which the Israelites 
who remained in the land became inter- 
mmgled, and were ultimately amalga- 
mated into one people, 2 Kin. 17:24-41. 
An origin like this would of course ren- 
der the nation odious to the Jews. The 
new and mixed race indeed sent to As- 
syria for an Israelitish priest to teach 
them the law of Jehovah, and adopted 
in part the forms of the true religion ; 
but most of them were but half convert- 
ed from their native heathenism. Matt. 
10 : 5 ; Luke 17 : 16-18. It was therefore 
in vain that, when the Jews returned 
from captivity and began to rebuild Je- 
rusalem and the temple, the Samaritans 
requested to be acknowledged as Jewish 
citizens, and to be permitted to assist in 
their work, Ezra 4. In consequence of 
this refusal, and the subsequent state of 
enmity, the Samaritans not only took 
occasion to calumniate the Jews before 
the Persian kings, Ezra 4:4, Keh. 4, but 
also, recurring to the directions of Mo- 
ses, Deut. 27:11-18, that on entering the 
promised land half of the people should 
stand on mount Grerizim to respond Amen 
to the blessings of the covenant pro- 
nounced by the Levites, they erected a 
temple on that mountain, and instituted 
sacrifices according to the prescriptions 
of the Mosaic law, although the original 
altar, according to the Hebrew Scrip- 
tures, stood on mount Ebal, Deut. 27:4 ; 
Josh. 8:30-35. Moreover, they rejected 
all the sacred books of the Jews except 
the Pentateuch. See Sanballat. From 
all these and other circumstances, the 
national hatred between the Samaritans 
and Jews, instead of being at all dimin- 
ished by time, was, on the contrary, fos- 
tered and augmented, 2 Mac. 0:2; Luke 
9:52, 53. Hence the name of Samaritan 
387 



SAM 



BIBLE BICTIONAUr. 



SAM 



became among the Jews a term of re- 
proach and contempt, John 8 : 48, and 
all intercourse with them was carefully 
avoided, John 4:9. The temple on 
mount Gerizim was destroyed by Hyr- 
canus about the year 129 b. c. ; but the 
Samaritans in the time of Christ contin- 
ued to esteem that mountain sacred, and 
as the proper place of national worship, 
John 4 : 20, 21, as is also the case with 
the small remnant of that people who 
exist at the present day. The Samari- 
tans, like the Jews, expected a Messiah, 
John 4 : 25, and many of them became 
the followers of Jesus, and embraced the 
doctrines of his religion. See Acts 8:1, 
etc.; 9:31; 15:3. 

It is well known that a small remnant 
of the Samaritans still exists at Nabulus, 
the ancient Shechem. Great interest has 
been taken in them by the learned of 
Europe ; and a correspondence has sev- 
eral times been instituted with them, 
which, however, has never led to results 
of any great importance. They have a 
copy of the Pentateuch, professedly made 
by Abishua the son of Phinehas, 1400 
3'ears before Christ. Several copies of 
this have been taken, the hrst in 1616, 
and compared with the received Hebrew 
text, with which it nearly coincides. 
There are various classes of different 
readings, but few or none in which the 
Samaritan does not appear to be a cor- 
ruption of the original. Of late years 
the remnant of Samaritans at Nabulus 
have often been visited by travellers. 
They number about one hundred and 
fifty souls, and are devout observers of 
the law. They keep the Jewish Sabbath 
with great strictness, and meet thrice 
during the day in their synagogue for 
public prayers. Four times in each year, 
at the Passover, the Pentecost, the feast 
of Tabernacles, and the day of Expiation, 
they all resort to the site of their ancient 
temple on mount Gerizim to worship. 
See Gerizim. 

SA'MOS, an island of the Archipela- 
go, on the coast of Asia Minor, opposite 
Lydia, from which it is separated by a 
narrow strait. The island was devoted 
to the worship of Juno, who had there a 
magnificent temple, fragments of which 
still exist. It was also celebrated for its 
valuable potteries, and as the birthplace 
of Pythagoras. The Romans wrote to the 
governor in favor of the Jews in the time 
of Simon Maccabaeus, 1 Mac. 15 : 23. Paul 
888 



landed here when going to Jerusalem, 
A. D. 58, Acts 20 : 15. It now contains 
about fifty thousand inhabitants ; and 
though ill-cultivated, is fruitful in or- 
anges, grapes, and olives, and exports 
corn and wine. 

SAMOTHRA'CIA, an island in the 
North-^gean sea, on the coast of Thrace, 
nearly midway between Troas and Phi- 
lippi. On his first visit to Europe, Paul 
anchored for the night on the north of 
the island. Acts 16:11. It was anciently 
called Samos ; and in order to distin- 
guish it from the other Samos, the epi- 
thet Thracian was added. Samothracia 
contained a lofty mountain and a city of 
the same name, and was celebrated for 
its devotion to the heathen mysteries, 
particularly to those of Ceres and Pros- 
erpine. Hence the island received the 
epithet of "sacred," and was regarded 
as an inviolable asylum for all fugitives 
and criminals. It is now called by the 
Turks Semendrek. 

SAM'SON, the son of Manoah, of the 
tribe of Dan, a deliverer and judge of 
the southern tribes of the Hebrews for 
twenty years, Judg. 18-16. His birth 
was miraculously foretold ; he was a Naz- 
arite from infancy, and the strongest of 
men ; and was equally celebrated for his 
fearless and wonderful exploits, for his 
moral infirmities, and for his tragical 
end. His exploits were not wrought 
without special divine aid ; ' ' the Spirit 
of God came mightily upon him," Judg. 
13:25; 14:6,19; 15:14; 16:20,28. The 
providence of God was signally displayed 
in overruling for good the hasty passions 
of Samson, the cowardice of his friends, 
and the malice of his enemies. The sins 
of Samson brought him into great dis- 
grace and misery ; but grace and faith 
triumphed in the end, Heb. 11 : 32. His 
story forcibly illustrates how treacherous 
and merciless are sin and sinners, and 
the watchful care of Christ over his peo- 
ple in every age. Compare Judg. 13:22 
and Matt. 23:37. 

SAM'UEL, God hath heard, 1 Sam. 1:20, 
a child of prayer, the celebrated Hebrew 
prophet and judge. Acts 3 : 24 ; 13 : 20. 
He was a Levite by birth, 1 Chr. 6 : 22- 
28, and the son of Elkanah and Hannah, 
at Ramah in mount Ephraim, north-west 
of Jerusalem. At a very tender age he 
was carried to Shiloh, and brought up 
beside the tabernacle under the care of 
Eli the high-priest. Having been conse- 



SAN 



BIBLE DlCTlONARr. 



SAN 



crated to God from liis Lirtli, and devot- 
ed to Nazariteship, he began to receive 
divine communications even in his cliild- 
hood, 1 Sam. 3 ; and after the death of 
Eli, he became established as the judge 
of Israel. He was the last and best of 
the Hebrew judges. We contemplate 
his character and administration with 
peculiar pleasure and reverence. The 
twelve tribes, when he assumed their 
charge, were in a low condition both 
morally and politically. He freed them 
i from all foreign yokes, administered jus- 
] tice with vigor and impartiality, pro- 
moted education and true religion, unit- 
ed the tribes, and raised them higher in 
the scale of civilization. Their demand 
of a king, in view of the advanced age 
of Samuel and the vile character of his 
sons, showed a great want of faith in 
God and of submission to his will. Yet 
He granted them a king ' ' in his wrath, ' ' 
Hos. 13 : 11. Samuel anointed Saul as 
their first king ; and afterwards David, 
who in due time was to take the place 
of Saul already rejected by God. As long 
as he lived, Samuel exerted a paramount 
and most beneficial influence in Israel, 
even over Saul himself. He instituted 
the "schools of the prophets," which 
were long continued and very useful. 
He died at the age of ninety-eight, b. c. 
1053, honored and lamented by alk 
Even after his death the unhappy Saul, 
forsaken by the God Avhom he had aban- 
doned, sought the prophet's counsel 
through the agency of a pretended deal- 
er with spirits. God was pleased to cause 
Samuel to appear, with a prophetic mes- 
sage to the king. In Psa. 99 : 6 he is 
ranked with Moses and Aaron. See also 
Jer. 15:1; Heb. 11:32. 

The two BOOKS of Samuel could not 
all have been written by him, because 
his death is mentioned in 1 Sam. 25, 
B. c. 1055. Tlius far it is not improb- 
able that he was the author, while the 
remaining chapters are commonly attrib- 
uted to Nathan and Gad, b. c. 1018. 
Why Samuel's name is given to both 
books cannot be known. In the Scptu- 
agint they are called the First and Sec- 
ond Books of Kings. See Kixos. The 
two books comprise the history of Sam- ■ 
uel, Saul, and David. They are quoted j 
in the Ne^v Testament, Acts 13:22 ; Heb. 
1:5, and alluded to in the Psalms, etc. 

SANBAL'LAT, probably a native of | 
Horonaim in the land of Moab, and a ! 



great enemy of the Jews. He may have 
received from the Persian government 
some authority over the Samaritans or 
imported Cuthites, as one of the govern- 
ors west of the Euphrates. When Nehe- 
miah came from Shushan to Jemsalcm, 
Neh. 2 : 10, 19, b. c. 454, and began to 
rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, Sanbal- 
lat, Tobiah, and Geshem taunted him, 
and sent to inquire on wha^ authority he 
undertook this enterprise, and whether 
it were not a revolt against the king. 
Nehemiah nevertheless proceeded with 
vigor in his undertaking, and completed 
the walls of the city, Is eh. 2:10 ; 4 ; 6. 

Nehemiah being obliged to return to 
king Artaxerxes at Shushan, Neh. 13:6, 
B. c. 441, in his absence the high-priest 
Eliashib married his grandson Manasseh 
son of Joiada to a daughter of Sanballat, 
and allowed Tobiah, a kinsman of San- 
ballat, an apartment in the temple. Ne- 
hemiah, en his return to Jerusalem, (the 
exact year of wliich is not known,) drove 
Tobiah out of the temple, and would not 
suffer Manassch the high-priest's grand- 
son to continue in the city, nor to per- 
form the functions of the priesthood. 
Manasseh being Ihus expelled, retired 
to his father-in-law Sanballat, who pro- 
vided him the means of exercising his 
priestly office on mount Gerizim. See 
Gerizim and Samaritans. 

SANCTIFY, to make holy, or to set 
apart for God, Gen. 2:3 ; Ex. 19:23. In 
the Old Testament, sanctification fre- 
quently denotes the ceremonial or ritual 
consecration of any person or thing to 
God : thus the Hebrews as a people were 
holy unto the Lord, through the cove- 
nant with its rites and atoning sacrifices, 
Ex. 31 : 13 ; and the Jewish tabernacle, 
altar, priests, etc., were solemnly set 
apart for the divine service. Lev. 8 : 10- 
12. In a similar sense, men "sanctified 
themselves" who made special prepara- 
tion for the presence and worship of God, 
Ex. 19:10, 11 ; Num. 11:18; a day was 
sanctified when set apart for fasting and 
prayer, Joel 1 : 14 ; and the Sabbath was 
sanctified when regarded and treated as 
holy unto the Lord, Deut. 5 : 12. All 
such sanctitications were testimonials to 
the holiness of God, and signified men's 
need of moral sanctification, or the de- 
votion of purified and obedient souls to 
his love and service. 

In a doctrinal sense, sanctification is 
the making truly and perfectly holy what 
889 



SAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAN 



was before defiled and sinful. It is a 
progressive work of divine grace upon 
the soul justified by the love of Christ. 
The believer is gradually cleansed from 
the corruption of his nature, and is at 
length presented " unspotted before the 
throne of God with exceeding joy. ' ' The 
Holy Spirit performs this work in con- 
nection with the providence and word 
of God, John 14 : 26 ; 17 : 17 ; 2 Thess. 
2 : 13 ; 1 Pet. 1:2; and the highest mo- 
tives urge every Christian not to resist 
the Spirit of God, but to cooperate with 
him, and seek to be holy even as God is 
holy. The ultimate sanctification of ev- 
ery believer in Christ is a covenant mercy 
purchased on the cross. He who saves 
us from the penalty of sin, also saves us 
from its power ; and in promising to bring 
a believer into heaven, engages also to 
prepare him for heaven. 

SANCTUARY, a holy place, devoted 
to God. It appears to be the name some- 
times of the entire temple, Psa. 73 : 17 ; 
Heb. 9:1; sometimes of the "Holy 
place," where the altar of incense, the 
golden candlestick, and the show-bread 
stood, 2 Chr. 26:18; Heb. 9:2; and 
sometimes of the "Holy of Holies," the 
most secret and retired part of the tem- 
ple, in which was the ark of the cove- 
nant, and where none but the high- 
priest might enter, and he only once a 
year on the day of solemn expiation. 
The same name was also given to the 
most sacred part of the tabernacle set up 
in the wilderness. Lev. 4:6. See Tab- 
ernacle, and Temple. The temple or 
earthly sanctuary is an emblem of heav- 
en, Psa. 102:19 : Heb. 9:1, 24 ; and God 
himself is called a sanctuary, Isa. 8 : 14, 
Ezek. 11 : 16, in reference to the use of 
temples as a place of refuge for fugitives, 
because he is the only safe and sacred 
asylum for sinners pursued by the sword 
of divine justice. 

SAN'DALS, Mark 6:9. The ordinary 
oriental sandal is a mere sole, of leather 
or wood, fastened to the bottom of the 
foot by thongs, one passing around the 
great toe and over the fore part of the 
foot, and the other around the ankle. 
The sole was sometimes plaited of some 
vegetable fibre, or cut from a fresh un- 
dressed skin ; and the ' ' shoe-latchet ' ' or 
thong, and indeed the whole sandal, was 
often of very little value. Gen. 14 : 23 ; 
Amos 2:6; 8:6. Sandals are usually in- 
tended where "shoes" are spoken of in 
390 




our version. Yet shoes are now worn in 
the East, and probably were used to some 
extent in Bible times. The Turks, Syr- 
ians, and Egyptians wear a light shoe, 




resembling our slipper, and sometimes a 
wooden shoe with a high heel. The 
Bedaween wears only a sandal. 

The sandals of females were frequently 
much ornamented. Song 7:1, and prob- 
ably resembled the slippers or light shoes 
of modern orientals, which cover the up- 
per part of the foot, and are often made 
of morocco, or of embroidered work 
wrought with silk, silver, and gold, 
Ezek. 16:10. See Badger's skins. 

It is not customary in the East to wear 
shoes or sandals in the houses ; they are 
always taken off on entering a house, 



SAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAN 




and especially temples and all consecrat- 
ed places. Hence the phrase, "to loose 
one's shoes from off one's feet," Ex. 3:5 ; 
Deut. 25:9; Josh. 5:15. Visitors of the 
highest rank leave their slippers at the 
door; and on entering a Mohammedan 
mosque each worshipper adds his slip- 
pers to the pile in charge of the door- 
keeper, unless attended hy a servant. 
On the summit of mount Gerizim, the 
Samaritans who accompanied Dr. Eob- 
inson took off their shoes as they ap- 
proached the site of their ruined temple. 
To bind on the sandals denoted prepara- 
tion for a journey, Ex. 12:11 ; Acts 12:8. 
To bind on the sandals, to stoop down 
and unloose them, or to carry them un- 
til again needed, was the business of the 
lowest servants ; a slave, newly bought, 
commenced his service by loosing the 
sandals of his new master, and carrying 
them a certain distance. Disciples some- 
times performed this office for their mas- 
ter, and accounted it an honor ; hence 
the expression of John the Baptist, that 
he was not worthy to loose or to carry 
the sandals of Jesus, Matt. 3 : 11 ; Mark 



1:7. See also Foot, with reference to 
washing the feet. The poor of course 
often went barefoot ; but this was not 
customary among the rich, except as a 
sign of mourning, 2 Sam. 15 : 30 ; Isa. 
20 : 2-4 ; Ezek. 24:17, 23. In the prim- 
itive days of the Israelitish common- 
wealth the custom, in transferring real 
estate, was, that the seller drew off his 
shoe and gave it to the buyer before wit- 
nesses, in confirmation of the bargain, 
Euth 4:7-11. The loosing of a shoe of 
one who refused to marry the widow of 
his deceased brother, and spitting upon 
the owner's face, was a ceremony pre- 
scribed in the Jewish law, Deut. 25:7-10. 
SANHE'DRIM, or Bethdin, hoxise of 
judgment, was a council of seventj'- sena- 
tors among the Jews, usually with the 
addition of the high-priest as president, 
who determined the most important af- 
fairs of the nation. It is first mentioned 
by Josephus in connection with the reign 
of John Hyrcanus II., b. c. 69, and is 
supposed to have originated after the 
second temple was built, during the 
cessation of the prophetic office, and in 
391 



SAP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAR 



imitation of Moses' council of seventy 
elders, Num. 11 : 16-24. The room in 
which they met, according to the rab- 
bins, was a rotunda, half of which was 
built without the temple, that is, with- 
out the inner court of Israel, and half 
within, the latter part being that in 
which the judges sat. The Nasi, or pres- 
ident, who was generally the high-priest, 
sat on a throne at the end of the hall ; 
the vice-president, or chief counsellor, 
called Ab-bethdin, at his right hand ; 
and the sub-deputy, or Hakam, at his 
left ; the other senators being ranged in 
order on each side. Most of the mem- 
bers of this council were priests or Le- 
vites, though men in private stations of 
life were not excluded. See Sadducees. 

The authority of the Sanhedrim was 
very extensive. It decided causes 
brought before it by appeal from infe- 
rior courts ; and even the king, the high- 
priest, and the prophets, were under its 
jurisdiction. The general affairs of the 
nation were also brought before this as- 
sembly, particularly whatever was in any 
way connected with religion or worship, 
Mark 14 : 55 ; 15 : 1 ; Acts 4:7; 5 : 41 ; 
6 : 12. Jews in foreign cities appear to 
have been amenable to this court in 
matters of religion. Acts 9:2. The 
right of judging in capital cases belong- 
ed to it, until this was taken aAvay by 
the Romans a few years before the time 
of Christ, John 18 : 31. The Sanhedrim 
was probably the "council" referred 
to by our Lord, Matt. 5 : 22. There 
appears also to have been an inferior tri- 
bunal of seven members, in every town, 
for the adjudication of less important 
matters. Probably it is this tribunal 
that is called " the judgment " in Matt. 
5:22. 

SAPPHI'RA. See Ananias I. 

SAP'PHIIIE, a gem next in hardness 
and value to the diamond, and compris- 
ing, as varieties, all those precious stones 
known by the name of oriental gems, 
namely, the oriental ruby, oriental to- 
paz, and oriental emerald. Job 28:6. In 
general the name of sapphire is given 
to the blue variety, which is either of a 
deep indigo blue, or of various lighter 
tints, Ex. 24 : 10, and sometimes gradu- 
ally passes into perfectly white or color- 
less, which, when cut, may almost pass 
for a, diamond, Ex. 28 : 18 ; 39:11 ; Rev. 
21:19. 

SA'RAH, or Sara, the wife of Abra- 
392 



ham, the daughter of his father by an- 
other mother. Gen. 20 : 12. Most Jew- 
ish writers, however, and many inter- 
preters, identify her with Iscah, the sis- 
ter of Lot, aiid Abraham's niece. Gen. 
11:29; the word "daughter," according 
to Hebrew usage, comprising any female 
descendant, and "sister," any female 
relation by blood. When God made a 
covenant Avith Abraham, he changed 
the name of Sarai, or my princess, into 
that of Sarah, or princess ; and promised 
Abraham a son by her, which was ful- 
filled in due time. The most prominent 
points of her history as recorded in the 
Bible are, her consenting to Abraham's 
unbelieving dissimulation while near 
Pharaoh and Abimelech ; her long-con- 
tinued barrenness ; her giving to Abra- 
ham her maid Hagar as a secondary wife ; 
their mutual jealousy ; and her bearing 
Isaac in her old age, ' ' the child of prom- 
ise," Gen. 12-23. She appears to have 
been a woman of uncommon beauty, and 
a most exemplary and devoted wife. Her 
docility is eulogized in 1 Pet. 3 : 6, and 
her faith in Heb. 11 : 11. See also Isa. 
51 : 2 ; Gal. 4 : 22-31. Sarah lived to the 
age of one hundred and twenty-seven 
years. She died in the valley of He- 
bron, and Abraham came to Beer-sheba 
to mourn for her, after which he bought 
a field of Ephron the Hittite, wherein 
was a cave hewn in the rock, called 
Machpelah, where Sarah was buried, 
Gen. 23:9. 




SAR'DIS, now called Sart, a city of 
Asia Minor, formerly the capital of Croe- 
sus king of Lydia, proverbial for the im- 



SAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SAU 



mensity of his wealth. It was situated 
at the foot of mount Tmoliis on the 
north, having a spacious and delight- 
ful plain before it, watered by several 
streams that flow from the neighboring 
hill and by the Pactolus. It lay upon 
the route of Xerxes to Greece ; and its 
inhabitants were noted for their profli- 
gacy, Rev. 3:4. It is now a pitiful vil- 
lage, but contains a large khan for the 
accommodation of travellers, it being the 
road for the caravans that come out of 
Persia to Smyrna with silk. The inhab- 
itants are for the most part shepherds, 
who have charge of the numerous flocks 
and herds which feed in the plains. 

To the southward of the town are very 
considerable ruins still remaining, chief- 
ly those of a theatre, a stadium, and two 
churches. The height on which the cit- 
adel was built is shattered by an earth- 
quake. There are two remarkable pil- 
lars, remnants, it is thought, of an an- 
cient temple of Cybele, built only three 
hundred years after Solomon's temple. 
These ruins, and the countless sepulchral 
mounds in the vicinity, remind us of 
what Sardis was, before earthquake and 
the sword had laid it desolate. 

The Turks have a mosque here, for- 
merly a Christian church, at the en- 
trance of which are several curious pil- 
lars of polished marble. Some few nom- 
inal Christians still reside here, working 
in gardens, or otherwise employed in 
such like drudgery. The church in Sar- 
dis was reproached by our Saviour for its 
declension in vital religion. It had a 
name to live, but was really dead, Rev. 
3:1-6. 

SAR'DIUS, or Sar'dine, a species of 
precious stone of a blood-red, or some- 
times of a flesh-color. It is more com- 
monly known by the name of carnelian, 
Ex. 28:17; Rev. 4:3. 

SAR'DONYX ; as if a sardius united 
to an onyx ; a species of gem exhibiting 
the reddish color of the carnelian and 
the white of the chalcedony, intermin- 
gled either in shades or in alternate cir- 
cles, Rev. 21:20. 

SAREP'TA. See Zarephath. 

SAR'GON, Isa. 20:1-4, one of the later 
Assyrian kings, who sent liis general. 
Tartan, with an army against Ashdod, 
and took it. The north-west palace at 
Nimroud in the ruins of Nineveh was 
built by him. There is some doubt 
whether he is or is not to be identifled 
17* 



with one of the kings elsewhere men- 
tioned in Scripture ; and some regard 
him as having reigned for about three 
years between Shalmaneser and Sen- 
nacherib. Others think he was the same 
as Shalmaneser, which see. 
SA'RON. See Sharon. 
SA'TAN signifies, properly, adversary, 
enemy, I Kin. II : 14, Psa. 109:6, and is 
so applied by Jesus to Peter, Matt. 16:23 ; 
Mark 8 : 33. Hence it is used particularly 
of the grand adversary of souls, the devil, 
the prince of the fallen angels, the ac- 
cuser and calumniator of men before God, 
Job 1 : 7, 12 ; Zech. 3 : 1, 2 ; Rev. 12:10. 
He seduces them to sin, 1 Chr. 21 : 1 ; 
Luke 22 : 31 ; and is thus the author of 
that evil, both physical and moral, by 
which the human race is afflicted, espe- 
cially of those vicious propensities and 
wicked actions which are productive of 
so much miserv, and also of death itself, 
Luke 13 : 16 ; Heb. 2 : 14. Hence Satan 
is represented both as soliciting men to 
commit sin, and as the source, the effi- 
cient cause of impediments which are 
thrown in the way of the Christian re- 
ligion, or which are designed to diminish 
its eflicacy in reforming the hearts and 
lives of men, and inspiring them with 
the hope of future bliss, Matt. 4 : 10 ; 
John 13 : 27 ; Rom. 16 : 20 ; Eph. 2 : 2. 
See Devil. 

The "synagogue of Satan," Rev. 2:9, 
13, probably denotes the unbelieving 
Jews, the false zealots for the law of 
Moses, who at the beginning were the 
most eager persecutors of the Christians. 
They were very numerous at Smyrna, to 
which church John writes. 

SAT'YRS, in Greek mythology, were 
imaginary demons, half men and half 
goats, believed by the superstitious to 
haunt forests and groves. The Hebrew 
word translated satyrs in Isa. 13 : 21 ; 
34 : 14, means hairy, shaggy creatures, 
such as wild goats, or perhaps monsters 
of the ape family. It is translated 
' ' goats ' ' in Lev. 4 : 24, and ' ' devils ' ' in 
Lev. 17 : 7. Tlie gambols of these M-ild 
animals on the ruins of Babylon mark 
it as an uninhabited and lonely waste. 
See Ape. 

SAUL, the son of Kish, of the tribe of 
Benjamin, the first king of the Israel- 
ites, anointed by Samuel, b. c. 1091, and 
after a reign of forty years filled with 
various events, slain with his sons on 
mount Gilboa. He was succeeded bv 
393 



SAV 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SCA 



David, who was his son-in-law, and 
whom he had endeavored to put to 
death. His history is contained in 
I Ham. 10-31. It is a sad and admoni- 
tory narrative. The morning of his 
reign was briglit with special divine fa- 
vors, both providential and spiritual, 
1 Sam. 9 : 20 ; 10 : 1-11, 24, 25. But he 
soon began to disobey God, and was re- 
jected as unworthy to found a line of 
kings ; his sins and misfortunes multi- 
plied, and his sun went down in gloom. 
In his lirst war with the Ammonites, God 
was with him ; but then follow his pre- 
sumptuous sacrilice, in the absence of 
Samuel ; his equally rash vow ; his vic- 
tories over the Philistines and the Ama- 
lekites ; his sparing Agag and the spoil ; 
his spirit of distracted and foreboding 
melancholy ; his jealousy and persecu- 
tion of David ; his barbarous massacre 
of the priests and people at Nob, and of 
the Gibeonites ; his consulting the witch 
of Endor ; the battle with the Philistines 
in which his army was defeated and his 
sons were slain ; and lastly, his despair- 
ing self-slaughter, his insignia of royalty 
being conveyed to David by an Amalek- 
ite, 1 Sam. 31 ; 2 Sam. 1 ; 1 Chr. 10:13, 



14. The guilty course and the awful 
end of this first king of the Hebrews 
were a significant reproof of their sin in 
desiring any king but Jehovah ; and also 
show to what extremes of guilt and ruin 
one may go who rebels against God, and 
is ruled by his own ambitious and envi- 
ous passions. 

Saul was also the Hebrew name of the 
apostle Paul. 

SAVIOUR is a term applied preemi- 
nently to our Lord Jesus Christ, because, 
as the angel expressed it, he came to 
"save his people from their sins," Matt. 

1 : 21. He was therefore called Jesus, 
which signifies Saviour, John 4:42 ; Acts 
4:15; 5:31. 

SA'VOR, an agreeable taste or odor, 
or that quality of objects which appeals 
to the sense of smell or of taste, Matt. 
5:13. The sacrifice of Noah and that of 
Christ were acceptable to God, like the 
odor of a sweet incense to a man, Gen. 
8:21'; Eph. 5:2. The chief savor of the 
apostles' teaching was Christ crucified ; 
and this teaching was welcomed by some 
to their eternal life, and rejected by oth- 
ers to their aggravated condemnation, 

2 Cor. 2:15, 16. 




SCAPE-GOAT, Hebrew Azazel, a word 
used only in connection with the cere- 
monies of the great Day of Atonement, 
394 



Lev. 16 : 8. 10, 26, as to the derivation 
and meaning of which there has been 
great diversity of opinion. The safest 



SCA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SCO 



and best interpretation is, that the goat 
itself symbolically bore away the sins of 
God's people from His presence and re- 
membrance, Psa. 103 : 12. See Expia- 
tion. 

SCAR'LET, a color much prized by the 
ancients, Ex. 25 : 4 ; 26 : 1, 31, 36. It 
is assigned as a merit of Saul, that he 
clothed the daughters of Israel in scar- 
let, 2 Sam. 1 : 24. So the diligent and 
virtuous woman is said to clothe her 
household in scarlet, Prov. 31:21. The 
depth and strength of the color are al- 
luded to in Isa. 1 : 18 ; and it is used as 
a symbol of profligacy in Eev. 17 : 3, 4. 
This color was obtained from the Coccus 
Ilicis of Linmeus. a small insect found 
on the leaves of a species of oak, the 
Quercus Cocciferus, in Spain and the 
countries on the eastern part of the Med- 
iterranean, which was used by the an- 
cients for dyeing a beautiful crimson or 
deep scarlet color, and was supposed by 
them to be the berry of a plant or tree 
It is the Kermez of the Materia Medica 
As a dye it has been superseded in mod- 
ern times by the cochineal insect, Coc- 
cus Cactus, which gives a more brilliant 
but less durable color. See Purple. 

SCEP'TRE, a " rod " or decorated staff, 
sometimes six feet long, borne by kings 
and magistrates as a symbol of authori- 
ty, Gen. 49:10; Num. 24:17; Esth. 
4:11 ; 5:2 ; Isa. 14:5 ; Zech. 10:11. See 

EOD. 

SCE'VA, a Jew at Ephesus, a leader 
among the priests, perhaps the head of 
one of the twenty-four coiu'ses. His 
seven sons pretended to practise exor- 
cism, and presumed to call on evil spir- 
its to come out from persons possessed, 
in the name of Jesus. Their ignomini- 
ous discomfiture by a man possessed by 
an evil spirit, promoted the cause of the 
gospel at Ephesus, Acts 19:14-16. 

SCHISM, a rent or fissure ; generally 
used in the New Testament to denote a 
division within the Christian church, by 
contentions and alienated affections, 
without an outward separation into dis- 
tinct bodies, 1 Cor. 1:10-12; 12:25, 26. 
The sin may lie on the side of the ma- 
jority, or of the minority, or both. It is 
a sin against Christian love, and strikes 
at the heart of Christianity, John 17:21 ; 
Eom. 12:4-21. 

SCHOOL-MASTER, 1 Cor. 4 : 15, Gal. 
8:24, 25, in Greek Paidagogos ; a sort of 
attendant who took the charge of young 



children, taught them the rudiments of 
knowledge, and at a suitable age con- 
ducted them to and from school. Thus 
the law was the pedagogue of the Jews, 
watching over the childhood of the na- 
tion, and at length conducting them 
through its types and prophecies to 
Christ. When a Jew came to a believ- 
ing knowledge of Christ, this office of 
the law ceased. 

Little is known respecting the schools 
of the Jews, nor when and how far they 
took the place of domestic instruction, 
Deut. 6:7-9; 11 : 18-20. It is probable 
that elementary education was under the 
charge of the ministers of religion, as 
well as the instruction of those of riper 
years. At the time of Christ, it would 
appear that the Jews in general were 
able at least to read and write. 




SCOR'PION, Luke 10 : 19, one of the 
largest and most malignant of all the 
insect tribes. It somewdiat resembles 
the lobster in its general appearance, 
but is much more hideous. Those found 
in Southern Europe seldom exceed two 
inches in length ; but in tropical cli- 
mates it is no uncommon thing to meet 
with them five or six times as long. 
They live upon other insects, but kill 
and devour their own species also. Mau- 
pertuis put about a hundred of them to- 
gether in the same glass, and in a few 
days there remained but fourteen, which 
had killed and devoured all the rest. 
He inclosed a female scorpion in a glass 
vessel, and she was seen to devour her 
yoimg as fast as they were born. There 
was only one of the number that escaped 
the general destruction by taking refuge 
on the back of its parent ; and this soon 
after revenged the cause of its brethren, 
by killing the old one in its turn. Such 
is the terrible nature of this insect ; and 
it is even found that when placed in cir- 
cumstances of danger, from which it per- 
395 



aco 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SCR 



ceives no way of escape, it will sting it- 
self to death. The passage most descrip- 
tive of the scorpion is Rev. 9 : 3-10, in 
which it is to be observed that the sting 
of these creatures was not to produce 
death, but pain so intense that the 
wretched sufferers should seek death, 
ver. G, rather than submit to its endur- 
ance. Dr. Shaw states that the sting of 
scorpions is not always fatal, the malig- 
nity of their venom being in proportion 
to their size and complexion. The poi- 
son is injected by means of a sharp curv- 
ed sting at the end of the six-jointed tail. 
It occasions great pain, inflammation, 
and hardness, with alternate chills and 
burning. These animals frequent dry 
and hot places, and lie under stones and 
in the crevices of old ruins. The Jews 
encountered them in the wilderness, 
Deut. 8 : 15, and a range of cliffs across 
the hot valley south of the Dead sea, 
called Acrabbim, or scorpions, appears 
to have been much infested by them. 
The scorpion of Judea, when curled up, 
greatly resembled an egg in size and 
shape ; hence the comparison and the 
contrast in Luke 11:11, 12. The scorpi- 
ons which the haughty Rehoboam threat- 
ened to use instead of whips, 1 Kin. 
12 : 11, were probably scourges armed 
with knobs like the joints of a scorpion's 
tail ; and like the sting of that animal, 
occasioned extreme pain. 



SCOURGE, or Whip. The punish- 
ment of scourging was very common 
among the Jews. Our Saviour was sub- 
jected to this barbarous and ignominious 
torture, which was at times so severe as 
to end in death, John 19:1. Moses lim- 
its the number of stripes to forty, which 
might never be exceeded, Deut. 25:1-3. 
The Jews afterwards, in order to avoid in 
any case exceeding forty, and thus break- 
ing the law, were accustomed to give 
only thirty-nine stripes, or thirteen bloAvs 
with a scourge of three thongs. There 
were two ways of giving the lash: one 
with thongs or Avhips, made of rope-ends, 
or straps of leather sometimes armed with 
iron points ; the other with rods or twigs. 
The offender was stripped from his shoul- 
ders to his middle, and tied by his arms 
to a low pillar, that he might lean for- 
ward, and the executioner the more eas- 
ily strike his back ; or, according to the 
modern custom in inflicting the bastina- 
do, was made to lie down with his face 
to the ground, Deut. 25 : 2. Paul in- 
forms us, 2 Cor. 11 : 24, that at five dif- 
ferent times he received thirty -nine 
stripes from the Jews ; and in the next 
verse, shows that correction with rods 
was different from that with a whip ; for 
he says, ' ' Thrice was I beaten with 
rods." The bastinado with rods was 
sometimes given on the back, at others 
on the soles of the feet. 




SCRIBE, in the earlier Hebrew writ- 
ings, was one skilled in writing and ac- 
counts, Ex. 5:6 ; Judg. 5:14 ; Jer. 52:25 ; 
the person who communicated to the 
89 (i 



people the commands of the king, like 
the modern Secretary of State, 2 Sam. 
8:17 ; 20:25. In the later times of the 
Old Testament, especially after the cap- 



SCR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEA 



tivity, and in the New Testament, a 
scribe is a person skilled in the Jewish 
law, a teacher or interpreter of the law. 
So Ezra was ' ' a ready scribe in the law 
of Moses," Ezra 7:6; 1 Chr. 27:32. The 
scribes of the New Testament were a 
class of men educated for the purpose of 
preserving and expounding the sacred 
books. They had the charge of tran- 
scribing them, of interpreting the more 
difficult passages, and of deciding in 
cases which grew out of the ceremonial 
law, Matt. 2:4, and were especially skill- 
ed in those glosses and traditions by 
which the Jews made void the law. 
Matt. 15 : 1-6. Jewish writers speak of 
them as the schoolmasters of the nation ; 
and one mode in which they exercised 
their office was, by meeting the people 
from time to time, in every town, for 
the purpose of holding familiar discus- 
sions, and raising questions of the law 
for debate. Their influence was of course 
great ; many of them were members of 
the Sanhedrim, and we often find them 
mentioned in connection with the elders 
and chief priests. Matt. 5 : 20 ; 7 : 29 ; 
12 : 38 ; 20 : 18 ; 21 : 15. Like the Phari- 
sees, they were bitterly opposed to Christ, 
and joined with the priests and counsel- 
lors in persecuting him and his follow- 
ers, having little knowledge of Him con- 
cerning whom Moses and the prophets 
did write. The same persons who are 
termed scribes, are in parallel passages 
sometimes called lawvers and doctors of 
the law, Matt. 22 : 35 ; Mark 12 : 28. 
Hence ' ' scribe ' ' is also used for a per- 
son distinguished for learning and wis- 
dom, ICor. 1:20. 

SCRIP, a bag or wallet, in which trav- 
ellers carried a portion of food, or some 
small articles of convenience, 1 Sam. 
17:40; Matt. 10:10. 

SCRIP'TURE, or Scriptures, the writ- 
ings, that is, by eminence ; the inspired 
writings, comprising the Old and New 
Testaments. See Bible. 

SCYTH'IANS, wandering tribes in the 
immense regions north and north-east of 
the Black and Caspian seas. They are 
said by Herodotus to have made an in- 
cursion into South-western Asia and 
Egypt, some seven hundred years before 
Christ ; and it was perhaps a fragment of 
this host, located at Bethshean, which 
gave that city its classical name Scythop- 
olis. In Col. 3:11, " Scythian " appears 
to signify the rudest of barbarians. 



SEA. The Hebrews give the name of 
sea to any large collection of water, Job 
14:11; as to the lakes of Tiberias and 
Asphaltites, and also to the rivers Nile 
and Euphrates, Isa. 11:15; 18:2; 21:1; 
Jer. 51:36, 42. The principal seas men- 
tioned in Scripture are the following : 

I. The Great sea, the Mediterranean, 
called also the hinder or Western sea. 
Indeed, the Hebrew word for sea, mean- 
ing the Mediterranean, is often put for 
the west. The Great sea is 2,200 miles 
long, and in the widest part 1,200 miles 
in width. In many places it is so deep 
as to give no soundings. It is little af- 
fected by tides, but is often agitated by 
violent winds. The prevailing direction 
of the wind in spring is from the south- 
east and south-west, and from the north- 
east and north-west the rest of the year. 

II. The Red sea, Ex. 10 : 19 ; 13 : 18 ; 
Psa. 106 : 7, 9, 22, derived its name from 
Edom, which lay between it and Pales- 
tine ; or from the hue of the mountains 
on its western coast, or of the animalcu- 
la; which float in masses on its surface. 
It lies between Arabia on the east and 
north-east, and Abyssinia and Egypt on 
the west and south-west, and extends 
from the straits of Babelmandel to Suez, 
a distance of about 1,400 miles, with an 
average width of 150 miles, and a depth 
of 1,800 feet. At the northern end it is 
divided into the two gulfs of Suez and 
Akaba, anciently called the gulf of He- 
roopolis and the Elanitic gulf. The first 
of these is 190 miles in length, and the 
second 100 miles. Between these gulfs 
lies the celebrated peninsula of mount 
Sinai. That of Akaba is connected with 
the Dead sea by the great sand valley 
El Arabah, described under the article 
Jordan. It is only these gulfs of the 
Red sea that are mentioned in Scripture. 
The Israelites, in their exodus out of 
Egypt, miraculously crossed the west- 
ern gulf south of Suez, and then, after 
many years of sojourning and wander- 
ing in the deserts of the peninsula and 
north of it, they came to Ezion-geber, at 
the extremity of the eastern gulf. See 
Exodus and Wanderings. In Zech. 
10 : 11, both the Red sea and the Nile 
appear to be mentioned. 

HI. The Dead sea, also called The 
Salt sea. Gen. 14 : 3 ; The sea of the 
Plain, Deut. 4 : 40 ; The Eastern sea, 
Zech. 14:8 ; by the Greeks and Romans, 
lake Asphaltites; and by the modern 
397 



SEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEA 




THE DEAD SEA I AND THE CONVENT OF SANTA SABA, ON THE BROOK KIDRON. 



Arabs, The sea of Lot. It lay at the 
south-east corner of the Holy Land, and 
receives the waters of the Jordan from 
the north, and of the Arnon and several 
smaller streams from the east. It is over 
forty miles long, and eight or nine miles 
wide, and lies as in a chaldron between 
bare limestone cliffs, which rise on the 
west side 1,200 or 1,500 feet above its 
surface, and on the east side 2,000 feet 
or more. At the south end is a broad 
and low valley, overflowed after the an- 
nual rains. Tlie general aspect of the 
region is dreary, sterile, and desolate ; 
but at a few points there are brooks or 
fountains of fresh water, which in their 
way to the sea pass through spots of 
luxuriant verdure, the abode of birds in 
great numbers. 

The waters of the Dead sea are clear 
and limpid, but exceedingly salt and bit- 
ter. Their specific gravity exceeds that 
of all other waters known, being one- 
fifth or one-fourth greater than that of 
pure water. They are found by repeat- 
ed analyses to contain one-fourth their 
weight of various salts, chiefly the chlo- 
rides of magnesium and sodium. Salt 
also is deposited by evaporation on the 
shore, or on garments wet in the sea. In 
the bed of the sea it is found in crystals, 
and near the shore in incrustations de- 
398 



posited on the bottom. No fish can live 
in these acrid waters, and those which 
are brought down by the Jordan quick- 
ly die. Compare Ezek. 47 : 8-10, where 
the healing of this deadly sea, and its 
abounding in fish, as well as the new 
fertility and beauty of the dreary wilder- 
ness between it and Jerusalem — by means 
of the healing power of the Kidron flow- 
ing from beside the altar of God — forci- 
bly illustrate the healing and renovat- 
ing power of gospel grace. A person 
unacquainted with the art of swimming 
floats at ease upon the surface of lake 
Asphaltites, and it requires an effort to 
submerge the body. The boats of Lieut. 
Lynch met with a gale on entering it 
from the Jordan; and "it seemed as if 
the bows, so dense was the water, were 
encountering the sledge-hammers of tlie 
Titans, instead of the opposing waves of 
an angry sea. ' ' 

At times, and especially after earth- 
quakes, quantities of asphaltum are dis- 
lodged from the bottom, rise and float 
on the surface, and are driven to the 
shores, where the Arabs collect them for 
various uses. Sulphur is likewise found 
on the shores, and a kind of stone or 
coal, called Musca by the Arabs, which 
on being rubbed exhales an intolerable 
odor. This stone, which also comes from 



SEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEA 



the neighboring mountains, is black, and 
takes a une polish. Maundrell saw pieces 
of it two feet square, in the convent of 
St. John in the Wilderness, carved in 
bas-relief, and polished to as great a lus- 
tre as black marble is capable of. The 
inhabitants of the country employ it in 
paving churches, mosques, courts, and 
other places of public resort. In the 
polishing its disagreeable odor is lost. 
AVhen placed by Mr. King upon hot 
coals, a strong stench of sulphur issued 
from it, and it soon began to blaze. The 
blaze rose four or five inches high, and 
continued about two minutes. 

An uncommon love of exaggeration is 
observable in all the older narratives, 
and in some of modern date, respecting 
the nature and properties of the Dead 
sea. Chateaubriand speaks of a "dis- 
mal sound proceeding from this lake of 
death, like the stifled clamors of the peo- 
ple ingulfed in its waters," and says that 
its shores produced a fruit beautiful to 
the sight, but containing nothing but 
ashes ; and that the heavy metals float 
on the surface of the sea. Others allege 
that black and sulphureous exhalations 
are constantly issuing from the water, 
and that birds attempting to fly across it 
are struck dead by its pestiferous fumes. 
These legends are corrected by more reli- 
able accounts, which show that the birds 
fly over or float upon the sea uninjured ; 
that no vapor is exhaled from its surface, 
except that caused by the rapid evapora- 
tion of its Avaters under the hot sun ; and 
that the low level and excessive heat of 
the valley of the Jordan and the Dead 
sea account for the diseases prevailing 
there, without imagining any more fear- 
ful cause. The ' ' apples of Sodom ' ' above 
referred to by Chateaubriand, and de- 
scribed by Josephus and others, answer, 
with some exaggerations, to fruits now 
growing around the Dead sea. 

In 1848, Lieut. Lynch of the United 
States' navy passed down the Jordan 
from the sea of Tiberias, with two me- 
tallic boats, and spent three weeks ih a 
survey of the sea of Sodom. He found 
it nearly 1,300 feet deep, and its surface 
more than 1,300 feet below the level of 
the Mediterranean. From the eastern 
side, some eight miles from the south 
end, a low promontory projects three- 
fourths of the way towards the western 
cliffs, and sends up a point five miles 
towards the north. Below this point 



the lake becomes suddenly shallow, the 
southern bay not averaging more than 
twelve or fifteen feet in depth, Josh. 
15 : 2. This lower part is believed to 
cover the sites of the cities destroyed by 
fire from heaven, Sodom, Gomorrah, 
Admah, and Zeboim. The vale of Sid- 
dim was once a smiling plain, well wa- 
tered, and like a garden of the Lord, 
Gen. 13:10 ; it is now, and for all future 
ages, a monument of his just indigna- 
tion, Deut. 29:23, and an awful warnmg 
to reckless sinners that the day of the 
Lord will come upon them also suddenly 
and without remedy, Matt. 10:15; 11:22- 
24 ; 2 Pet. 2:4-9 ; Jude 7. The bottom 
of the shallow bay is a deep slimy mud, 
Gen. 14 : 10. On its south-west border 
lies a mountain or ridge composed chief- 
ly of rock-salt, and called Usdum or Sod- 
om, between which and the sea st mds a 
round pillar of salt forty feet high, re- 
minding one of Lot's Avife. At present 
the Dead sea has no perceptible outlet, 
and the waters poured into it by the 
Jordan are probably evaporated by the 
intense heat of the unclouded sun, or in 
part absorbed in the earth. It is thought 
by some that the northern and principal 
part of the sea was the product of some 
convulsion of nature, long before that 
which destroyed Sodom and formed the 
south bay ; that the Jordan at first flow- 
ed into the Eed sea through the remark- 
able crevasse Avhich extends from its 
sources to the gulf of Akabah ; and that 
at some period beyond the reach of his- 
tory, its bed and valley sunk down to 
their present level and formed tlie Dead 
sea. Lieutenant Lynch in sounding dis- 
covered a ravine in the bed of the sea, 
corresponding to the channel of the Jor- 
dan in its valley north of the sea. See 
Jordan. 

IV. The SEA or Tiberias or of Galilee ; 
the lake of Gennesareth, or of Cinne- 
reth. Num. 34 : 11, is so called from the 
adjacent country, or from some of the 
principal cities on its shores. It resem- 
bles, in its general appearance, the lake 
of Geneva in Switzerland, though not so 
large. The Jordan passes through it 
from north to south. It is twelve or 
fourteen miles long, six or seven miles 
in breadth, and 1G5 feet deep. Its wa- 
ters lie in a deep basin, surroimded on 
all sides by rounded and beautiful hills, 
from 500 to 1,000 feet higli, except the 
narrow entrance and outlet of the Jor- 
399 



SEA 



BIBLE DiCTiONARY. 



SEA 




SEA OF GALILEE, FROM THE NORTH-WEST COAST ; WITH MAGDALA AND TIBERIAS. 



dan at either end. Its sheltered loca- 
tion protects it in some degree from the 
wind, but it is liable to sudden squalls 
and whirlwinds, and many travellers on 
its shores have met with violent tem- 
pests — reminding them of those encoun- 
tered by Christ and his disciples. A 
strong current marks tlie passage of the 
Jordan through the middle of the lake, 
on its way to the Dead sea. The vol- 
canic origin of the basin of this lake is 
strongly inferred from numerous indica- 
tions, such as the black basaltic rocks 
which abound, frequent and violent 
earthquakes, and several hot springs. 
According to Lieut. Symonds, it is 328 
feet below the level of the Mediterra- 
nean. Lieut. Lynch makes it 653 feet 
below. Its waters are clear and sweet, 
and contain various kinds of excellent 
fish in great abundance. The appear- 
ance of the sea from the hills on the 
western shore is far less grand and more 
beautiful than that of the Dead sea. It 
should be seen in spring, when the hills 
around it are clothed with grain and fes- 
tooned with flowers. The towns that 
once crowded its shores wdth a teeming 
population, the groves and shrubbery 
that covered its hills, and the boats and 
gallies that studded its surface are gone. 
400 



But the sea remains, hallowed by many 
scenes described in the gospels. TTie Sav- 
iour of mankind often looked upon its 
quiet beauty and crossed it in his jour- 
neys ; he stilled its waves by a w^ord, 
and hallowed its shores by his miracles 
and teachings. Here several of the apos- 
tles were called to become "fishers of 
men," and in its waters Peter sank 
trembling and crying, "Lord, save 
me," Matt. 4 : 18 ; 14 : 22 ; Luke 8 : 22 ; 
John 21:1. 

" How pleasant to me thy deep blue wave, 
O sea of Galilee, 
For the glorious One who came to save 
Hath often stood by thee. 

O Saviour, gone to God's right hand, 

Yet the same Saviour still. 
Graved on thy heart is this lovely strand 

And every fragrant hill." 

M'Chetnb. 

Y. Sea or waters of Merom. See Me- 

ROM. 

Tlie BRAZEN or MOLTEN SEA, made by 
Solomon for the temple, was a circular 
vessel at least fifteen feet in diameter, 
which stood in the court of the temple, 
and contained three thousand baths, ac- 
cording to 2 Chr. 4:5, or two thousand 
baths according to 1 Kin. 7:26. Calmet 
supposes this may be reconciled by saying 



SEA 



BIBLE DICTIOXARY 



SEC 




that the cup or howl contained two thou- 
sand haths, and the foot or basin a thou- 
sand more. It was supported by twelve 
oxen of brass, and was probably the lar- 
gest brazen vessel ever made — an evi- 
dence of the skill of the workers in metal 
at that period. It contained from 10,000 
to 24,000 gallons, and was supplied with 
water either by the labor of the Gibeon- 
itcs, or as Jewish writers affirm, by a 
pipe from the well of Etam, so that a 
constant flow was maintained. This 
w^ater was used for the various ablutions 
of the priests, 2 Chr. 4 : 6 ; a perpetual 
and impressive testimony from God of 
the necessity of moral purification in the 
inexhaustible fountam of Christ's grace. 
The preceding engraving must be chiefly 
imaginary. 




SEAL, SEALING. The allusions and 
references to seals and sealing are fre- 
quent in the sacred writings. Seals or 
signets were in use at a very early pe- 
riod, and they were evidently of vari- 
ous kinds. Some were used as a substi- 
tute for signing one's name, the owner's 
name or chosen device being stamped b;v 
it with a suitable ink on the document 
to be authenticated. Seals to be used 



for this purpose, with or without the 
sign manual, appear to have been 
worn by the parties to whom they re- 
spectively belonged. The seal of a 
private person was usually worn on 
his finger, or his wrist, or m a brace- 
let, being small in size, Jer. 32:10; 
Luke 15:22: Jas. 2:2. See Paxes. 
The seal of a governor was worn by 
him, or carried about his person in the 
most secure manner possible. The 
royal seal was either personal, to the 
king, or public, to the state ; in other 
words, the seal of the king and the seal 
of the crown, 2 Sam. 1:10: the first the 
king retained ; the latter he delivered to 
the proper officer of state. So far mod- 
ern usages eruible us to comprehend 
clearly the nature of this important in- 
strument. The impress of the royal seal 
on any document gave it the sanction of 
government, 1 Kin. 21:8 ; and a tempo- 
rary transfer of the seal to another hand 
conveyed a plenarv authority for the oc- 
casion, Esth. 3:10^ 12 ; 8:2. Instead of 
wax, clay was sometimes used to take 
the impression of a seal, probably on 
account of the heat of the climate, Job 
38 : 14. The seal was a token of posses- 
sion and of careful preservation, Deut. 
32 : 34 ; Job 9 : 7 ; 14 : 17. A portion of 
clay covering the lock or opening of a 
door, etc., guarded it from being opened 
clandestinelv, Song 4 : 12 ; Dan. 6 : 17 ; 
Matt. 27 : 66. Travellers in the East 
have met the same custom in modern 
times. The cord around a book, box, or 
roll of parchment was often secured with 
a seal, Isa. 8 : 16 ; Eev. 5:1. The Holy 
Spirit seals Christians, impressing his im- 
age upon them as a token that they are 
his, Eph. 1:13, 14; 4:80. See So. 
SEA'SONS. See Canaan. 
SE'BA. See Sabeaxs. 
SE'BAT, the first month of the Jewish 
civil year, and the eleventh of the eccle- 
siastical year — from the new moon of 
Februaiy to that of March. See Moxth. 
They began in this month to number the 
years of the trees they planted, the fruits 
of which were esteemed impur£ till the 
fourth vear, Zech. 1:7. 
SE'CRET. See Mystery, 
SECT, from a Latin word answering 
; to the Greek word hm-esis, Avhich latter 
our translators have in some places ren- 
dered "sect," in others, "heresy." As 
used in the Kew Testament, it implies 
neither approbation nor censure of the 
401 



SEC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEL 



persons to whom it is applied, or of 
their opinions, Acts 5:17 ; 15:5. Among 
the Jews, tliere were four sects, distin- 
guislicd hy tlaeir practices and opinions, 
yet united in communion witli each 
other and with the body of their nation: 
namely, the Pharisees, the Sadducees, 
the Essenes, and the Herodians. Chris- 
tianity Avas originally considered as a 
new sect of Judaism ; hence Tertullus, 
accusing Paul before Felix, says that he 
was chief of the seditious sect of the 
Nazarenes, Acts 24 : 5 ; and the Jews of 
Pome said to the apostle, when he ar- 
rived in this city, "As concerning this 
sect, we know that everywhere it is 
spoken against," Acts 28:22. See Her- 
esy. 

SECUN'DUS, a disciple at Thessaloni- 
ca, who accompanied Paul in some of his 
journeys, Acts 20:4. 

SEDl'TION, a popular tumult, Acts 
24 : 5, or a religious faction. Gal. 5 : 20. 
The same Greek word is translated ' ' in- 
surrection," in speaking of Barabbas, 
Mark 15:7, and "dissension" in Acts 
15:2. 



SEED, Gen. 1 : 11 ; often used figiira- 
tively in Scripture, Dan. 9:1; 1 I'et. 
1 : 23 ; 1 John 3 : 9. There was an in- 
junction in the Mosaic law against sow- 
ing a field with mingled seed of diverse 
kinds, Lev. 19:19. The "precious seed" 
is often committed to the ground with 
many fears ; but the harvest, at least in 
spiritual things, shall be a season of joy, 
Psa. 126:5, 6. 

SEER, one supernaturally enlighten- 
ed to see things which God only can re- 
veal ; applied to certain Hebrew proph- 
ets, 1 Sam. 9:9; 2 Chr. 29 : 80 ; 83 : 18, 
19 ; Isa. 29:10 ; 30:10. Compare Num. 
24:3, 4. 

SEIR, I., a mountain of Judah, near 
Kirjath-jearim, Josh. 15:10. 

II. A Horite, one of the primitive rul- 
ers of the coimtry south and south- east 
of the Dead sea, Gen. 86:20 ; Deut. 2:12. 

III. A mountainous tract lying be- 
tween the southern extremity of the 
Dead sea and the eastern gulf of the Red 
sea. Mount Hor formed part of Seir, 
and is the only part that retams its orig- 
inal name. See Idujlea. 



^,J^\ 




VIEW OF PART OF THE MAIN VALLEY OF PETRA. 



SE'LA, the name of a place mentioned 
in 2 Kin. 14:7, where it is said that Am- 
a2dah king of Judah slew ten thousand 
402 



men of Edom, in the valley of Salt, and 
took Sela by war, and called the name 
of it JoKTHEEL, subducd by God. Sela. 



SEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEL 



in Hebrew, signifies a rock, and answers 
to the Greek word Petra ; whence it has 
been reasonably inferred that the city 
bearing the name of Petra, and which 
was the celebrated capital of Arabia Pe- 
trifia, is the place mentioned by the sa- 
cred historian. It is also mentioned in 
Isa. 16 : 1, and may be intended by the 
word Sela, translated rock, in Judg. 1 : 36 ; 
Isa. 42:11. The ruins of this place were 
in modern times tirst visited by Burck- 
hardt, 1812, and attest the splendor of 
the ancient city. He says, "At the dis- 
tance of a two long days' journey north- 
east from Akabah, is a rivulet and valley 
in the Djebel Shera, on the east side of 
the Arabah, called Wady Mousa. This 
place is very interesting for its antiqui- 
ties and the remains of an ancient city, 
which I conjecture to be Petra, the cap- 
ital of Arabia Petnea, a place which, as 
far as I know, no European traveller has 
ever visited. In the red sand-stone of 
which the valley is composed are up- 
wards of two hundred and fifty sepul- 
chres, entirely cut out of the rock, the 
greater part of them with Grecian orna- 
ments. There is a mausoleum in the 
shape of a temple, of colossal dimen- 
sions, likewise cut out of the rock, with 
all its apartments, its vestibule, peri- 
style, etc. It is a most beautiful speci- 
men of Grecian architecture, and in per- 
fect preservation. There are other mau- 
solea with obelisks, apparently in the 
Egyptian style, a whole amphitheatre 
cut out of the rock, with the remains of 
a palace and of several temples. Upon 
the summit of the mountain which closes 
the narrow valley on its western side, 
(mount Hor,) is the tomb of Haroun, or 
Aaron. It is held in great veneration by 
the Arabs." That this was indeed the 
ancient Sela or Petra is established by 
various concurring proofs ; Josephus, 
Eusebius, and Jerome afi&rm that the 
tomb of Aaron was near Petra ; and the 
location and. ruins correspond with the 
notices given in the Bible, and by Pliny 
and Strabo. 

Subsequent travellers, especially La- 
borde, have given minute and graphic 
descriptions of this wonderful city, with 
drawings of the principal ruins. The 
valley of Petra, 2,200 feet above the gi-eat 
valley El- Arabah, is about a mile long 
from north to south, and half a mile wide, 
with numerous short ravines in its sides, 
making its whole circuit perhaps four 



miles. It is accessible through ravines 
at the north and the south ; but the 
cliffs which define it on the east and 
west are precipitous, and vary fr(jm two 
hundred to one thousand feet in height. 
Tlie main passage into the city is on the 
east, and bLi^iub between clih-, loity feet 
high and fitly yaid^ apait, which soon 




GORGE IN PETRA, WITH A PART OF EL-KHUSNEH. 

become higher, nearer, and full of exca- 
vated tombs. This winding ravine is a 
403 



SEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEN 



mile long, and gives entrance to a small 
brook ; its sides at one place are but 
twelve feet apart and two hundred and 
fifty feet high. At the termination of 
this narrow gorge you confront the most 
splendid of all the structures of Peti-a, 
el-Khusneh, the temple mentioned by 
Burckhardt, hewn out of the face of the 
opposite cliff. Here you enter a wider 
ravine, which leads north-west, passes 
the amphitheatre in a recess on the left, 
and at length opens on the great val- 
ley of the main city towards the west. 
The tombs excavated in these, and in all 
the side gorges, are without number, 
rising range above range ; many of them 
are approached by steps cut in the rock, 
while others ai-e inaccessible, at the 
height of nearly four hundred feet. The 
theatre was so large as to accommodate 
more than three thousand persons. The 
palace, called Pharaoh's house by the 
Arabs, is the chief structure not exca- 
vated in the mountain that survives in 
any good degree the ravages of time ; 
it was evidently a gorgeous building. 
]\[ost of the valley is stroA\Ti with the 
ruins of public edifices and with frag- 
ments of potter3^ The brook flows 
through the valley towards the west, 
and passes ofl" through a narrow gorge 
like that by which it entered. One of 
the finest temples, the Deir, stands high 
up m a ravine on the west side. It is 
hewn out of the solid rock; its front is 
one hundred and fifty-two feet in length 
and height ; and its lower columns, 
half projecting from the rock, are eight 
feet in diameter. A singular charm is 
thrown over the whole by the beauty of 
the stone from which these various struc- 
tures are wrought. It is a fine and soft 
sandstone, variegated with almost every 
variety of hues, red, purple, black, white, 
azure, and yellow, the deepest crimson 
and the softest pink blending with each 
other, while high above the sculptured 
monuments the rocks rise in their na- 
tive rudeness and majesty. The whole 
strange and beautiful scene leaves on the 
spectator's mind impressions which noth- 
ing can efiace. 

Petra w^as an ancient city, a strong for- 
tress, and for many ages an important 
commercial centre. It was the chief city 
among scores which once filled that re- 
gion. Yet the prophets of God foretold 
its downfall, and its abandonment to 
bolitude and desolation, in terms which 
404 



strikingly agree with the facts. "Thy 
terriblenefis hath deceived thee, and the 
pride of thy heart, thou that dwellest 
in the clefts of the rock, that boldest the 
height of the hill : though thou sliouldest 
make thy nest as high as the eagle, I will 
bring thee down from thence, saith the 



Lord," Jer. 49: 



See also Isa. 34:5- 



15 ; Ezek. 35 ; Joel 3 : 19 ; Amos I : 11, 
12 ; Obad. 3-16. When its ruin took 
place we are not informed. There were 
Christian churches there in the fifth and 
sixth centuries, but after a. d. 536 no 
mention is made of it in history. 

SE'LAH, a musical term which occurs 
seventy-three times in the Psalms, and 
is found also in Hab. 3:3, 9, 13. It usu- 
ally occurs at the end of a period or 
strophe, but sometimes at the end only 
of a clause. This difficult word, it is now 
generally believed, was a direction for a 
meditative pause in the singing of a 
psalm, during which perhaps there was 
an instrumental interlude. 

SELEU'CIA, a fortified city of Syria, 
situated on the seacoast, a little north of 
the mouth of the Orontes. It stood near 
mount Pierius, and w\as therefore some- 
times called Seleucia Pieria, and some- 
times Seleucia by the sea, in order to dis- 
tinguish it from other cities of the same 
name, of which there were not less than 
seven or eight in Syria and the vicinity. 
They were all thus named from Seleucus 
Nicator. Paul and Barnabas embarked 
here for Cyprus, on their first missionary 
tour. Acts 13:4. 

SENATE, Acts 5:21. See Sanhedrim. 

SE'NIR, a name given to mount Her- 
mon by the Amorites, Deut. 3:9 ; 1 Chr. 
5 : 23 ; Ezek. 27 : 5. See Hermon. 

SENNACH'ERIB, king of Assyria, son 
and successor of Shalmaneser, began to 
reign b. c. 710, and reigned but a few 
years. Hezekiah king of Judah having 
shaken off' the yoke of the Assyrians, by 
which Ahaz his father had suffered un- 
der Tiglath-pileser, Sennacherib march- 
ed an army against him, and took all 
the strong cities of Judah. Hezekiah, 
seeing he had nothing left but Jerusa- 
lem, which he perhaps found it difficult 
to preserve, sent ambassadors to Sen- 
nacherib, then besieging and destroying 
Lachish, to make submission. Sennach- 
erib accepted his tribute, but refused to 
depart, and sent Rabshakeh with an in- 
solent message to Jerusalem. Hezekiah 
entreated the Lord, who sent a destroy- 



EN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEN 



ing angel against the Assyrian army, 
and slew in one night 185,000 men. Sen- 
nacherib returned with all speed to Nin- 
eveh, and turned his arms against the 
nations south of Assyria, and afterwards 
towards the north. But his career was 
not long ; within two or three years from 
his return from Jerusalem, while he was 
paying adorations to his god Nisroch, in 
the temple, his two sons Adrammelech 
and Sharezer slew him and fled into Ar- 
menia. Esar-haddon his son reigned in 
his stead, 2 Kin. 18 ; 19 ; 2 Chr. 32. 

A most remarkable confirmation of 
the above Bible history has been found 
in the long buried ruins of ancient Nin- 
eveh. The mound called Kouyunjik, 
opposite Mosul, has been to a good de- 
gree explored, and its ruins prove to be 
those of a palace erected by this power- 
ful monarch. The huge stone tablets 
which formed the -walls of its various 
apartments are covered with bas-reliefs 
and inscriptions ; and though large por- 
tions of these have jDerished by violence 
and time, the fragments that remain are 
full of interest. One series of tablets 
recounts the warlike exploits of Sen- 
nacherib, who calls himself ' ' the sub- 
duer of kings from the upper sea of the 
setting sun to the lower sea of the rising 
sun," that is, from the Mediterranean 
to the Persian gulf. 

The most important of these mural 
pages to Bible readers, are those recount- 
ing the history of his war against Syria 
and the Jews, in the third year of his 
reign. Crossing the upper part of mount 
Lebanon, he appears to have conquered 
Tyre and all the cities south of it on the 
seacoast to Askelon. In this region he 
came in conflict with an Egyptian army, 
sent in aid of king Hezekiah ; this host 
he defeated and drove back. See 2 Kin. 
19:9 ; Isa. 37. The inscription then pro- 
ceeds to say, "Hezekiah king of Judah, 
•who had not submitted to my authority, 
forty-six of his principal cities, and for- 
tresses and villages dependent upon 
them, of which I took no account, I 
captured, and carried away their spoil. 
The fortified towns, and the rest of -his 
towns which I spoiled, I severed from 
his country, and gave to the kings of 
Askelon, Ekron, and Gaza, so as to make 
his country small. In addition to the 
former tribute imposed upon their coun- 
tries, I added a tribute the nature of 
which I fixed." Compare 2 Kin. 18:13 ; 




Isa. 36 : 1. He does not profess to have 
taken Jerusalem itself, but to have car- 
ried away Hezekiah' s family, servants, 
405 



SEP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEP 



and treasures, with a tribute of thirty 
talents of gold and eight hundred tal- 
ents of silver. The amount of gold is 
the same mentioned in the Bible narra- 
tive. The three hundred talents of sil- 
ver mentioned in Scripture may have 
been all that was given in money, and 
the live hundred additional claimed in 
the Ninevite record may include the 
temple and palace treasures, given by 
Hezekiah as the price of peace. 

In another apartment of the same pal- 
ace was found a series of well preserved 
bas-reliefs, representing the siege and 
capture by the Assyrians of a large and 
strong city. It was doubly fortified, and 
the assault and the defence were both 
fierce. Pcirt of the city is represented as 
already taken, while elsewhere the bat- 
tle rages still in all its fury. Meanwhile 
captives are seen flayed, impaled, and 
put to the sword ; and from one of the 
gates of the city a long procession of 
prisoners is brought before the king, 
who is gorgeously arrayed and seated on 
his throne upon a mound or low hill. 
They are presented by the general in 
command, very possibly Kabshakeh, with 
other chief officers. Two eunuchs stand 
behind the king, holding fans and nap- 
kins. Above his head is an inscription 
which is thus translated : ' ' Sennacherib 
the mighty king, king of the country of 
Assyria, sitting on the throne of judg- 
ment at the gate of the city Lachisa ; I 
give permission for its slaughter. ' ' The 
captives are stripped of their armor, or- 
naments, and much of their clothing, 
and are evidently Jews. 

Little did Sennacherib then antici- 
pate the utter ruin of his own proud me- 
tropolis, and still less that the ruins of 
his palace should preserve to this re- 
mote age the tablets containing his o-vvn 
history, and the image of his god Nis- 
roch so incapable of defending him, to 
bt^ar witness for the God whom he blas- 
pliemed and defied. See Nineveh, Nis- 
iiocii, Sn.^LMANESER, and So. 

SE'PHAPt, "a mountain of the East," 
a boundary of the Joktanite tribes, Gen. 
10:30. It is perhaps the same as mount 
Sabber in South-western Arabia. 

SEPH'ARAD, a place in Asia Minor 
near the Bosphorus, to which Jewish 
captives were conveyed, Obad. 20. 

SEPHARVA'IM. When Shalmaneser 
king of Assyria carried away Israel from 
Samaria to beyond the Euphrates, he 
406 



sent people in their stead into Palestine, 
among whom were the Sepharvaim, 
2 Kin. 17:24, 31. That Sepharvaim was 
a small district under its own king, is 
apparent from 2 Kin. 19:13 ; Isa. 37:13. 
It may, with most probability, be as- 
signed to Mesopotamia, because it is 
named along with other places in that 
region, and because Ptolemy mentions a 
city of a similar name, Sipphara, as the 
most southern of Mesopotamia. 

SEP'TUAGIKT, the seventy, is the name 
of the most ancient Greek version of 
the Old Testament, and is so called be- 
cause there were said to have been sev- 
enty translators. The accounts of its 
origin disagree, but it should probably 
be assigned to thc^hird century before 
Christ. This ancient version contains 
many errors, and yet as a whole is a 
faithful one, particularly in the books of 
Moses ; it is of great value in the inter- 
pretation of the Old Testament, and is 
very often quoted by the New Testament 
writers, who wrote in the same dialect. 
It was the parent of the first Latin, the 
Coptic, and many other versions, and 
was so much quoted and followed by the 
Greek and Roman fathers as practically 
to supersede the original Hebrew, until 
the last few centuries. The chronology 
of the Septuagint differs materially from 
that of the Hebrew text, adding, for ex- 
ample, 606 years between the creation 
and the deluge. See Alexandria. 




TOMBS HEWN IN THE ROCK, PETRA. 

SEP'ULCHRE, a place of burial. The 
Hebrews were always very careful about 



SEP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEP 



the burial of their dead. Many of their 
sepulchres were hewn in rocks : as that 




OTHER TOMBS, ETC., IN PETRA. 

of Shebna, Isa. 22 : 16 ; those of the kings 
of Judah and Israel ; and that in which 
our Saviour was laid on Calvar}-. These 
tombs of the Jews were sometimes be- 
neath the surface of the ground ; but 
were often in the side of a cliff, and mul- 
titudes of such are found near the ruins 




•■TOMB OF ABSALOM, ' ROCK TOMBS, AND GRAVES 
IN THE KIDRON VALLEY. 

of ancient cities, 2 Kin. 23 : 16 ; Isa. 
22:16. Travellers find them along the 



bases of hills and mountains in all parts 
of Syria ; as on the south side of Hin- 
nom, the west side of Olivet, at Tiberias, 
in Petra, in the gorge of the Barada, 
and in the sea-clifl's north of Acre. The 
tombs, as well as the general grave- 
yards, were uniformly without the city 
limits, as is apparent at this day with 
respect to both ancient and modern Je- 
rusalem, 2 Kin. 23:6 ; Jer. 26:23 ; Luke 
7:12; John 11:30. See Aceldama, The 
kings of Judah, almost exclusively, ap- 
pear to have been buried within Jerusa- 
lem, on mount Zion. 1 Kin. 2:10; 2 Kin. 
14:20; 2 Chr. 16:14; 28:27; Acts 2:29. 
Family tombs were common, and were 
carefully preserved, Gen. 50:5-13 ; Judg. 
8 : 32 ; 2 Sam. 2 : 32 ; 1 Kin. 13 : 22. Tomb- 
stones with inscriptions were in use. Gen. 
35:20; 2 Kin. 23:16, 17. Absalom was 
buried under a heap of stones, 2 Sam. 
18 : 17. In many ancient heathen na- 
tions, a king was buried under a vast 
mound, with his arms, utensils, horses, 
and attendants, Ezek. 32 : 26, 27 ; and 
the pyramids of Egypt are believed to be 
the tombs of kings, each having but one 
or two apartments, in one of which the 
stone coffin of the builder has been found. 
It was thought an act of piety to pre- 
serve and adorn the tombs of the proph- 
ets, but was often an act of hypocrisy ; 
and our Saviour says that the Pharisees 
were like whited sepulchres, which ap- 
peared fine withoilt, but inwardly were 
full of rottenness and corruption. Matt. 
23 : 27-29 ; and Lightfoot has shown 
that every year, after the winter rains 
were over, the Hebrews whitened them 
anew. In Luke 11 : 44, Christ compares 
the Pharisees to ' ' graves which appear 
not," so that men walk over them with- 
out being aware of it, and may thus con- 
tract an involuntary impurity. A super- 
stitious adoration of the tombs and bones 
of supposed saints was then and is now 
a very prevalent form of idolatry ; and 
our Saviour tells the Jews of his day 
they were as guilty as their fathers, Luke 
II : 47, 48 : they built the sepulchres of 
the prophets, their fathers slew them ; 
the hypocritical idolatry of the sons was 
as fatal a sin as the killing of the proph- 
ets by their fathers. These worshippers 
of the prophets soon afterwards showed 
that they allowed the deeds of their fa- 
thers, by crucifying the divine Prophet 
whom Moses had foretold. In Syria at 
the present day the tomb of David on 
407 



SEP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SEP 



mount Zion and that of Abraham at He- 
bron are most jealously guarded, and 
any intruder is instantly put to death ; 
while almost all the laws of God and man 
may be violated with impunity. Deserted 
tombs were sometimes used as places of 
refuge and residence by the poor, Isa. 
65:4 ; Luke 8:27 ; the shepherds of Pal- 
estine still drive their flocks into them 
for shelter, and wandering Arabs live in 
them during the winter. See Burial. 

MaundrelFs description of the sepul- 
chre north of Jerusalem — supposed by 
many to be the work of Helena queen of 
Adiabene, though now known as "the 
tombs of the kings" — may be' useful for 
illustrating some passages of Scripture : 

' ' The next place we came to was those 
famous grots called the sepulchres of the 
kings ; but for Avhat reason they go by 
that name is hard to resolve ; for it is 
certain none of the kings, either of Israel 
or Judah, were buried here, the holy 
Scriptures assigning other places for their 
sepulchres. Whoever was buried here, 
this is certain, that the place itself dis- 



covers so great an expense, both of labor 
and treasure, that we may well suppose 
it to have been the work of kings. You 
approach to it at the east side through 
an entrance cut out of the natural rock, 
which admits you into an open court of 
about forty paces square, cut down into 
the rock with which it is encompassed 
instead of Avails. On the west side of 
the court is a portico nine paces long 
and four broad, hewn likewise out of the 
natural rock. This has a kind of archi- 
trave, running along its front, adorned 
with sculpture, of fruits and flowers, still 
discernible, but by time much defaced. 
At the end of the portico, on the left 
hand, you descend to the passage into 
the sepulchres. The door is now so ob- 
structed with stoires and rubbish, that 
it is a thing of some difficulty to creep 
through it. But within you arrive in a 
large fair room, about seven yards square, 
cut out of the natural rock. Its sides 
and ceiling are so exactly square, and its 
angles so just, that no architect, with 
levels and plummets, could build a room 




FLAX OF THE "TOMBS OF THE KIXGS. 

more regular. And the whole is so firm ' two innermost are deeper than the rest, 
and entire, that it may be called a cham- having a second descent of about six or 
ber hollowed out of one piece of marble, seven steps into them. In every one of 
From this room you pass into, I think, | these rooms, except the first, were cof- 
six more, one within another, all of the ' fins of stone placed in niches in the sides 
same fabric with the first. Of these the i of the chambers. They had been at first 
408 



SEll 



UlULE DICTIUXAIIY. 



SEJl 



covered with handsome lids, and carved 
•with garlands ; but noAv most of them 
were broken to pieces by sacrilegious 
hands." 

SE'RAH, a daughter of Asher, thrice 
named among those who migrated to 
Egypt, Gen. 4G:17 ; Num. 26:46 ; 1 Chr. 
TTyO. Why she was thus distinguished ! 
is unknown, but the rabbis have many j 
fables respecting her. 

SEPiAl'AH, the name of six persons, 
alluded to in the following passages : 
2 Sam. 8:17 ; 2 Kin. 25 : 18 ; Ezra 7:1; 
Jer. 36 : 26 ; 40 : 8 ; 51 : 59. The last is 
termed "a quiet prince,'' or as in the 
marginal reading, "chief chamberlain." 
He bore to the Jews in Babylon a mes- 
sage from the prophet Jeremiah. 

SER'APHIM, burnii^g ones, celestial 
bein^cs surrounding the throne of God. 
Compare Deut. 4:24; Heb. 12:29. They '• 
appear to be distinguished from the cher- i 
ubim, Ezek. 1 : 5-12. The prophet Isa- : 
iah, 6:2, 3, represents them as reverent- \ 
ly adoring the triune God, and burning 
with zeal to fly and execute his will. , 
Each one had six wings, with two of 
which he covered his face, with two his i 
feet, and with the two others he flew. | 
They cried to one another, and said, | 
"Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts ; 
the whole earth is full of his glory !" 

SEK'GEANTS, Acts 16 : 35, properly 
Roman lictors, public servants wlio bore 
a bundle of rods, sometimes with an axe 
in the centre, before the magistrates of 
cities and colonies as insignia of their 
ofhce, and who executed the sentences 
which their masters pronounced. 

SER'GIUS PAU'LUS, proconsul or 
governor of the isle of Cyprus, was con- 
verted under the ministry of Paul, a. d. 
48, Acts 13:7. 

SER'PENTS. Tliese reptiles, unclean 
among the Hebrews, Lev. 11:10, 41, are 
widely diffused through the world, but 
are most numerous and venomous in 
tropical climates. About one-sixth part 
of all that are known are supposed to 
be poisonous. These are distinguished 
by having two hollow poison-fangs in 
the upper jaw, and are usually of slow- 
er motion than most snakes. Venom- 
ous serpents wore abundant in Egypt 
and Arabia, and seven dilferent kinds 
are mentioned in the Hebrew sci'iptures, 
some of which are identified with exist- 
ing species. See Adder, Asp, Cocka- 
TEiCE, and Viper. 

18 



.r^f^-^^ 




THE COBRA DI CAPELLO. 

The serpents mentioned in Num. 21 ; 
Isa. 14 : 29 ; 30 : 6, and by whom multi- 
tudes of the Israelites were destroyed in 
the desert north of the gulf of Akabah, 
were probably called ' ' fiery ' ' and ' ' fly- 
ing" with reference to the agonizing 
heat caused by their poison, and the 
rapidity of their darting motion. He- 
rodotus indeed speaks of winged ser- 
pents as appearing every spring on the 
Arabian border of Egypt ; but he did not 
see them, nor are there any to be met 
with in modern times. The serpent of 
brass, made and erected on a pole by 
Moses, had no healing virtue in itself, 
but was a test of the penitence and faith 
of the people. The author of Ecclesias- 
ticus says of the Israelites, "They were 
trcubled for a small season that they 
might be admonished, having a sign of 
salvation to put them in remembrance 
of the commandment of thy law. For 
he that turned towards it was not saved 
by the thing that he saw. but by thee, 
that art the Saviour of all." Our Sav- 
iour himself shows that the brazen ser- 
pent was a type of Him, John 3 : 14. 15. 
The believing view of Christ is salvation 
to the soul infected by the fatal poison 
of sin. Respecting the brazen serpent, 
see Neiiusutan. Hezekiah destroyed a 
true and most sacred relic ; Rome, on 
the contrary, fabricates false relics and 
adores them. See Charmers. 

Interpreters have largely speculated 
concerning the nature of the serpent 
that tempted Eve. Some have thought 
that serpents originally had feet and 
speech : but there is no probability that 
this creature was ever otherwise than it 
now is. Its subtle, craftv malignity is 
40^' 



SER 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SER 



often alluded to in the Scriptures, Gen. 
3:1; Matt. 10 : 16 ; 23 : 33. Besides, it 
cannot be doubted but that by the ser- 
pent we are to understand the devil, 
who employed the serpent as a vehicle 
to seduce the first Avoman, Gen. 3 : 13 ; 
2 Cor. 11:3; Kev. 12:9. 

SE'RL'G, a descendant of Shem, and 
an ancestor of Abraham, Gen. 11:20-23 ; 
Luke o : 35. Jewish tradition says he 
was the first of his line that fell into 
idolatry. Josh. 24:2. 

SER'VANT. This word sometimes 
denotes a man who voluntarily dedi- 
cates himself to the service of another. 
Thus Joshua was the servant of Moses ; 
Elisha of Elijah ; and Peter, Andrew, 
Philip, and Paul were servants of Jesus 
Christ. The servants of Pharaoh, of 
Saul, and of David, were their subjects 
in general, and their court officers and 
counsellors in particular. The Philis- 
tines, Syrians, and other nations were 
servants of David, that is, they obeyed 
and paid him tribute. The servants of 
God are those who are devoted to his 
service and obey his holy word. 

In its primary sense, the word usually 
means in the Bible either a hired ser- 
vant, or one whose service was the prop- 
erty of his master for a limited time and 
under various restrictions. Joseph is the 
first whom we read of as sold into bond- 
age, Gen. 37:27. 28. The households of 
some of the early patriarchs contained 
many servants, who were apparently 
treated with kindness and justice; the 
highest trusts were sometimes confided 
to them, and they might inherit their 
master's estate, Gen. 14:11-16; 15:2-4; 
24 : 1-10. They shared the religious priv- 
ileges of the household. Gen. 17 : 9-13, 
27 ; 18 : 19, and were not transferred to 
other masters. 

At the establishment of the Hebrew 
commonwealth, involuntary servitude 
was everywhere prevalent ; and so far 
as it existed among the Jews, Moses 
sought to bring it under the restrictions 
demanded by religion and humanity. 
The mildest form of bond-service was 
that of a Hebrew in the house of another 
Hebrew. He might become bound to 
this service in various ways, chiefly 
through poverty, Ex. 21:7 ; Lev. 25:39- 
47 ; to acquit himself of a debt he could 
not otherwise pay, 2 Kin. 4:1 ; to make 
restitution for a theft, Ex. 22 : 3 ; or to 
earn the price of his ransom from cap- 
410 



tivity among heathen. This form of 
service could not continue more than 
six or seven years ; unless, when the 
Sabbatical year came round, the servant 
chose to remain permanently or until 
the Jubilee Avith his master, in token of 
which he suflered his ear to be bored 
before witnesses, Ex. 21 : 2, 6 ; 25 : 40. 
The Hebrew servant was not to be made 
to serve with rigor, nor transferred to 
any harder bondage ; he had an appeal 
to the tribunals, a right to all religious 
privileges, the power of demanding re- 
lease on providing a pecuniary equiva- 
lent, and a donation from his master at 
his release. Lev. 25:47-55; Deut. 15:12- 
18. Compare also 2 Chron. 28 : 10, 11 ; 
Neh. 5 : 1-13 ; Jer. 34 : 8-22. The law 
likewise provided for the deliverance of 
a Hebrew, who was in bondage to a res- 
ident foreigner. Lev. 25:47-54. 

From the heathen around and among 
them, especially from their captive ene- 
mies and the remains of the Canaanites, 
the Hebrews obtained many servants. 
j These were protected by law, Deut. 1 : 16, 
17; 27:19, and might become proselytes, 
attend the festivals, enjoy religious in- 
I struction and privileges, Ex. 12:44; Deut. 
12 : 18 ; 29:10-13 ; 31:10-13. The ser- 
vant who was mutilated by his master 
was to be set free, Ex. 21 : 26, 27 ; the 
refugee from foreign oppression was to 
1 be welcomed, Deut. 23:15, 16 ; and kid- 
napping or man-stealing was forbidden 
on pain of death, Exod. 21 : 16 ; Deut. 
24:7; 1 Tim. 1:10. 

Ptoman slavery, as it existed in the 
time of Christ, was comparatively un- 
I known to the Jews. The Romans held 
I in bondage captives taken in war, and 
purchased slaves. Their bondage was 
perpetual, and the master held unques- 
tioned control of the person and life of 
his slaves. Yet large numbers Avere set 
j free, and in many instances Roman f reed- 
men rose to the highest honors. 
I The allusions of the Bible to involun- 
I tary servitude, imply that it is an caII 
and undesirable condition of life ; yet 
the bondman Avho cannot obtain his free- 
dom is divinelv exhorted to contentment, 
1 Cor. 7 : 20-24. Meanwhile the Bible 
gives directions as to the mutual duties 
of masters and serA'ants, Eph. 6 : 5-9 ; 
I Col. 3:22; 4:1; Tit. 2:9: Phile. ; 1 Pet. 
j 2:18; and proclaims the great truths of 
! the common origin of all men, the im- 
I mortality of eA'ery human soul, and its 



S£T 



BIBLE DICTION AKY. 



SHA 



right to the Bible and to all necessary 
means of knowing and serving the Sav- 
iour — the application of which to all the 
relations of master and servant, superior 
and inferior, employer and employed, 
would prevent all oppression, which God 
abhors, Deut. 24 : 14 ; Psa. 103 : 6 ; Isa. 
10:1-3 ; Amos 4:1 ; Mai. 3:5; Jas. 5:4. 

SETH, the first son of Adam after the 
death of Abel, Gen. 4:25. 26 ; 5:3, 6, 8, 
and ancestor of the line of godly patri- 
archs. 

SEV'EN. As from the beginning this 
was the number of days in the week, so 
it often has in Scripture a sort of em- 
phasis attached to it, and is very gen- 
erally used as a round or perfect num- 
ber. Clean beasts were taken into the 
ark by sevens. Gen. 7. The years of 
plenty and famine in Egypt were mark- 
ed by sevens, Gen. 41. With the Jews, 
not only was there a seventh day Sab- 
bath, but every seventh year was a sab- 
bath, and after every seven times seven 
years came a jubilee. Their great feasts 
of unleavened bread and of tabernacles 
were observed for seven days ; the num- 
ber of animals in many of their sacrifices 
was limited to seven. The golden can- 
dlestick had seven branches. Seven 
priests with seven trumpets went around 
the walls of Jericho seven days, and 
seven times seven on the seventh day. 
In the Apocalypse we find seven church- 
es mentioned, seven candlesticks, seven 
spirits, seven stars, seven seals, seven 
trumpets, seven thunders, seven vials, 
seven plagues, and seven angels to pour 
them out. 

Seven is often put for any round or 
whole number, just as we use " ten," or 
"a dozen ;" so in Matt. 12 : 45 ; 1 Sam. 
2:5; Job 5 : 19 ; Prov. 26 : 16, 25 ; Isa. 
4:1 ; Jer. 15 : 9. In like manner, seven 
times, or seven-fold, means often, abun- 
dantly, completely. Gen. 4:15, 24; Lev. 
26:24; Psa. 12:6; 79:12; Matt. 18 : 21. 
And seventy times seven is a still higher 
superlative. Matt. 18:22. 

SHAAL'BIM, a town of Gad, long held 
by the Amorites, Josh. 19 : 42, Judg. 
1 : 35, but in the time of Solomon the 
head-quarters of one of his commissa- 
ries, 1 Kin. 4:9. 

SHAD'OW sometimes denotes intense 
darkness and gloom, Psa. 23 : 4, and 
sometimes a cool retreat, Isa. 33 : 2, or 
perfect protection, Psa. 17:8 ; Isa. 49:2; 
Dan. 4 : 12, The long shadows cast by 



the declining sun are alluded to in Job 
7:2 ; Jer. 6:4. The swift, never ceasing 
motion of a shadow is an emblem of hu- 
man life, 1 Chr. 29:15; Psa. 102:11. 

SHADRACH, the Chaldean name 
given to Ananias at the court of Nebu- 
chadnezzar, Dan. 1:7. See Abed-xego. 

SPIAL'ISHA, a district adjoining 
mount Ephraim on the west, 1 Sam. 
9 : 4. Baal-shalisha is placed by Eu&e- 
bius fifteen miles from Lydda, towards 
the north. 

SHAL'LUM, I., son of Jabesh, or a na- 
tive of Jabesh, who treacherously killed 
Zechariah king of Israel, and usurped his 
kingdom, b. c. 772. He held it only one 
month, when Menahem son of Gadi kill- 
ed him in Samaria. Scripture says that 
Shallum was the executioner of the 
threatenings of the Lord against the 
house of Jehu, 2 Kin. 15:10-15. 

II. See Jehoaiiaz II. 

III. The husband of Huldah the proph- 
etess in the time of Josiah, 2 Kin. 22:14. 

Others of this name are alluded to in 
Num. 26:49 ; 1 Chr. 2:40 ; 9:17, 19, 31 ; 
Ezra 2:42; 7:2; 10:24, 42; Neh. 3:12; 
7:45. 

SHALMANE'SER, king of Assyria, 
between Tiglath-pileser and Sennache- 
rib. He ascended the throne about b. c. 
728, and reigned fourteen years. Scrip- 
ture reports that he came into Palestine, 
subdued Samaria, and obliged Hoshea to 
pay him tribute ; but in the third year, 
being weary of this exaction, Hoshea 
combined secretly with So king of Egypt 
to remove the subjection. Shalmaneser 
brought an army against him, ravaged 
Samaria, besieged Hoshea in his capital, 
and notwithstanding his long resistance 
of three years, 2 Kin. 17 ; 18 : 9-12, he 
took the city and dismantled it, put Ho- 
shea into bonds, and carried away most 
of the people beyond the Euphrates. He 
thus ruined the kingdom of Samaria, 
which had subsisted two hundred and 
fifty-four years, from b. c. 975 to 721. 
The bas-relief copied in the next page was 
found on a fine Assyrian obelisk of black 
marble, six and a half feet high, and cov- 
ered on all sides Avith inscriptions. It 
was discovered in the ruins of the north- 
west palace at Nimroud, and is believed 
from various evidences to represent Shal- 
maneser receiving tribute from the Jews 
subdued by his arms. Hezekiah king of 
Judah successfully resisted him, 2 Kin. 
18 : 7 : but he appears to have ravaged 
411 



g H A BIBLE DICTIONARY. S H A 




Moab, Isa. 10:9; 15, 16, 23; and is said I with the exception of insular Tyre, which 
in Josephus to have conquered Phoenicia, | he besieged in vain for five years. 
412 



SUA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHE 



SHAM'BLES, 1 Cor. 10 : 25, a public 
meat-market. 

SHAM'GAR, son of Anath, the third 
judge of Israel, after Ehud and shortly 
before Barak, in a time of great insecu- 
rity and distress, Judg. 3:31; 5:6. Scrip- 
ture only says he defended Israel, and 
killed six hundred Philistines with an 
ox-goad. See Plough. 

SHAM'MAH, I., one of the three chief 
of David's thirty heroes, who shared with 
David and Eleazar the honor of the ex- 
ploit recorded in 2Sani. 23:11, 12 ; 1 Chr. 
11 : 12-14. Another feat is described in 
2 Sam. 23:13-17. 

II. A brother of David, 1 Sam. 16:9 ; 
17: 13 : elsewhere called Shimeah, 2 Sam. 
13:3, 22; 1 Chr. 2:13. 

Others of t'-iis name are mentioned. 
Gen. 36:13, 17 ; 2 Sam. 23:25, 33 ; IChr. 
11:27; 27:8. 

SHA'PHAN, I., a scribe or secretary 
under king Josiah, to whom he read 
from the newly found autograph roll of 
the book of the law, 2 Kin. 22:12 ; Jer. 
29:3; 36:10; Ezek. 8:11. 

11. Thefatherof Ahikam, 2Kin. 22:12; 
25:22; Jer. 26:24. 

SHA'PHAT, I., the father of Elisha, 
IKin. 19:16. 

II. A descendant of David, 1 Chr. 
3:22. 

III. A chief herdsman of David in 
Bashan, 1 Chr. 27:29. 

SHARE'ZER, I., a son of Sennacherib, 
who assisted in slaying his father, Isa. 
37:38. 

II. A delegate sent to Jerusalem with 
Regemmelec and others, probably soon 
after the return from the Babylonish 
captivity, to inquire of the priests at 
Jerusalem whether a certain fast was 
still to be observed, Zech. 7:2; 8:19. 

SHAR'ON, I., a plain adjoining the 
seacoast of Palestine between Carmel 
and Joppa, about sixty miles in length 
and of variable width, expanding inland 
as it stretches from the promontory of 
Carmel towards the south. It contains 
some sandy tracts, but the soil is in gen- 
eral highly productive, and the plain was 
of old ifamous for its beauty and fertilitv, 
1 Chr. 27 : 29 ; Song 2 : 1 ; Isa. 33 : 9 ; 35 : 2 ; 
65 : 10. It contained a town of the same 
name, called Saron in Acts 9 : 35. The 
whole plain was once thickly populated, 
but is now comparatively uninhabited. 
The heat of summer is excessive, and the 
climate somewhat unhealthy. All trav- 



ellers describe the view of the plain from 
the tower of Ramlch as one of surpass- 
ing richness and beauty. The frowning 
hills of Judah on the east confront the 
glittering waters of the Mediterranean 
on the west. Towards the north and 
south far as the eye can reach spreads 
the beautiful plain, covered in many 
parts with fields of green or golden grain. 
Near by are the immense olive-groves of 
Ramleh and Lydda, and amid them the 
picturesque towers, minarets, and domes 
of these villages ; while the hill-sides tow- 
ards the north-east are thickly studded 
with native hamlets. The uncultivated 
parts of the plain are covered in spring 
and the early summer with a rich profu- 
sion of flowers. 

II. A town in the tribe of Gad, in the 
district of Bashan beyond the Jordan, 
IChr. 5:16. 

SHA'VEH, a valley north of Jerusa- 
lem, called also the King's Dale, Gen. 
14:17; 2 Sam. 18:18. 

SHAVING. The Jews shaved their 
beards and hair in time of mourning, 
repentance, or distress. Job 1 : 20, Jer. 
48:37, and in certain ceremonial purifi- 
cations, Lev. 14:9 ; Num. 8:7. At other 
times they wore them long, like other 
oriental nations — except the Egyptians, 
who kept their beards shaved, as we 
learn from Herodotus and from antique 
monuments. Hence Joseph shaved be- 
fore he was presented to Pharaoh, Gen. 
41 : 14. See Beard. 

SHEAL'TIEL. See Salathiel. 

SHEAR-JASH'UB, the remnant shall 
return, Isa. 7:3; 10:21, the name of one 
of Isaiah's sons ; supposed to have had 
a prophetic meaning, like Maher-shalal- 
hash-baz. 

SHE'BA, I., son of Raamah, Gen. 
10 : 7. His posterity are supposed to 
have settled near the head of the Per- 
sian gulf. See Cusii and Raamah. 

II. Son of Joktan, of the race of Shem, 
Gen. 10:28. See Sabeans II. 

III. Son of Jokshan, and grandson of 
Abraham by Keturah, Gen. 25 : 3. He 
is supposed to have settled in Arabia 
Deserta. 

IV. A turbulent Benjamite. who after 
the death of Absalom made a fruitless ef- 
fort to excite a rebellion in Israel against 
David. Being pursued, and besieged in 
Abel-beth-maachah, near the southern 
part of Lebanon, he was beheaded by the 
people of the city, 2 Sam. 20. 

41,3 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



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SiiEBA, Queen of. See Sabeans II. 

SHE'BAT, the fifth month of the Jew- 
ish civil year, and the eleventh of the 
ecclesiastical year, from the new moon 
of February to that of March, Zech. 1:7. 
See Month. 

SHEB'NA, steward of king Hezekiah's 
palace, Isa. 22 : 15, afterwards his secre- 
tary, 2 Kin. 18:18, 37. 

SHE'CHEM, 1., a Canaanite prince, at 
the town of the same name, who abduct- 
ed Dinah the daughter of Jacob, and was 
soon afterwards treacherously slain, with 
many of his people, by Simeon and Levi, 
Gen. 34. 

II. A city of central Canaan, between 
the mountains Gerizim and Ebal, thirty- 
four miles north of Jerusalem ; called 
also Sychar and Sychem, Acts 7:16. It 
is first mentioned in the history of Abra- 
ham, who here erected his first altar in 
Canaan, and took possession of the coun- 
try in the name of Jehovah, Gen. 12:6 ; 



33 : 18, 19 ; 35 : 4. Jacob bought a field 
in its neighborhood, which, by way of 
overplus, he gave to his son Joseph, who 
was buried here. Gen. 48 : 22 ; Josh. 
24 : 32. After the conquest of Canaan 
it became a Levitical city of refuge in 
Ephraim, and a gathering-place of the 
tribes. Josh. 20 : 7 ; 21 : 21 ; 24 : 1, 25 ; 
Judg. 9. Here Rehoboam gave the ten 
tribes occasion to revolt, 1 Kin. 12. In 
its vicinity was Jacob's well or fountain, 
at which Christ discoursed with the Avora- 
an of Samaria, John 4:5. See also Acts 
8 : 25 ; 9 : 31 ; 15 : 3. After the ruin of 
Samaria by Shalmaneser, Shechem be- 
came the capital of the Samaritans ; and 
Josephus says it was so in the time of 
Alexander the Great. At the present 
day it is also the seat of the small rem- 
nant of the Samaritans. See Samari- 
tans. It was called by the Romans Ne- 
apolis, from which the Arabs have made 
Napolose, or Nabulus. 




^^i*^*^ 






VIEW OF NABULUS AND MOUNT GERIZIM FROM THE NORTH-WEST. 

Bible narratives, Dent. 27:11-14; Judg. 
9:7. The winter rains which fall in the 
eastern part of the valley find their way 
to the Jordan, while in the western part 
are nimierous springs, forming a pretty 
brook which flows towards the Mediter- 
ranean. "Here," says Dr. Robinson, 
' ' a scene of luxuriant and almost unpar- 



Tlie valley of Shechem extends several 
miles north-west between mount Ebal 
and mount Gerizim, and is about five 
hundred yards wide ; so that in the pure 
and elastic air of Palestine the two moun- 
tains are within hailing distance of each 
other, one circumstance among thou- 
sands evincing the exact truthfulness of 
414 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



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alleled verdure burst upon our view. 
The whole valley was tilled with gar- 
dens of vegetables and orchai'ds of all 
kinds of fruits, watered by several foun- 
tains which burst forth in various parts 
and flow westward in refreshing streams. 
It came upon us suddenly, like a scene 
of fairy enchantment. We saw nothing 
to compare with it in Palestine." The 
modern town has several long and nar- 
row streets, partly on the base of mount 
Gerizim. It does not appear to extend 
so far to the east as the ancient city did. 
The houses are high, and well built of 
stone, and covered with small domes. 
Nabulus is thought to contain eight 
thousand inhabitants, all Mohammedans 
except live hundred Greek Christians, 
one hundred and fifty Samaritans, and 
as many Jews. The rocky base of mount 
Ebal on the north of the valley is full 
of ancient excavated tombs. On mount 
Gerizim is the holy place of the Samari- 
tans, and the ruins of a strong fortress 
erected by Justinian. At the foot of 
these mountains on the east lies the 
beautiful plain of Mukhna, ten miles 
long and a mile and a half wide ; and 
where the valley opens on this plain, 
Joseph's tomb and Jacob's well are lo- 
cated, by the unanimous consent of Jews, 
Christians, and Mohammedans. The for- 
mer spot is now covered by a Mohamme- 
dan Wely, or sacred tomb ; and the lat- 
ter by an arched stone chamber, entered 
by a narrow hole in the roof, and the 
mouth of the well within is covered by 
a large stone. The well itself is one 
hundred and five feet deep, and is now 
sometimes dry. It bears every mark of 
high antiquity. 

The following extrict is from Dr. 
Clarke's description of this place : 
"There is nothing in the Holy Land 
finer than a view of Napolose from the 
heights around it. As the traveller de- 
scends towards it from the hills, it ap- 
pears luxuriantly embosomed in the most 
delightful and fragrant bowers, half con- 
cealed by rich gardens, and by stately 
trees collected into groves, all around 
the bold and beautiful valley in which 
it stands. Trade seems to flourish among 
its inhabitants. Their principal employ- 
ment is in making soap ; but the manu- 
factures of the town supply a very wide- 
ly extended neighborhood, and are ex- 
ported to a great distance upon camels. 
In the morning after our arrival, wc met 



I caravans coming from Grand Cairo, and 
■ noticed others reposing in the large olive 
I plantations near the gates. 
I ' ' The sacred story of events transacted 
in the fields of Sychem, from our earliest 
' years is remembered with delight ; but 
with the territory before our eyes where 
\ those events took place, and in the view 
I of objects existing as they were describe 
I ed above three thousand years ago, the 
grateful impression kindles into ecstasy. 
I Along the valley we beheld ' a company 
i of Ishmaelites coming from Gilead,' Gen. 
I 37:25, as in the days of Reuben and Ju- 
I dah, ' with their camels bearing spicery 
and balm and myrrh,' who would gladly 
have purchased another Joseph of his 
I brethren, and conveyed him as a slave 
j to some Potiphar in Egypt. Upon the 
hills around, flocks and herds were feed- 
ing, as of old ; nor in the simple garb of 
j the shepherds of Samaria was there any 
' thing repugnant to the notions we may 
I entertain of the appearance presented by 
the sons of Jacob. It was indeed a scene 
to abstract and to elevate the mind ; and 
under emotions so called forth by every 
circumstance of powerful coincidence, a 
single moment seemed to concentrate 
. whole ages of existence. 
I "The principal object of veneration is 
I Jacob's well, over which a church was 
: formerly erected. This is situated at a 
; small distance from the town, in the 
road to Jerusalem, and has been visited 
j by pilgrims of all ages, but particularly 
j since the Christian era, as the place where 
our Saviour revealed himself to the wom- 
an of Samaria. The spot is so distinctly 
marked by the evangelist, and so little 
I liable to uncertainty, from the circum- 
stance of the well itself and the features 
of the country, that, if no tradition ex- 
isted for its identity, the site of it could 
hardly be mistaken. Perhaps no Chris- 
i tian scholar ever attentively read the 
fourth chapter of John, without being 
struck with the numerous internal evi- 
dences of truth which crowd upon the 
mind in its perusal. Within so small a 
compass it is impossible to find in other 
writings so many sources of reflection 
and of interest. Independently of its 
importance as a theological document, it 
concentrates so much information, that 
a volume might be filled with the illus- 
tration it reflects on the history of the 
i Jews and on the geography of their coun- 
! try. All that can be gathered on these 
415 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



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subjects from Josephus seems but as a 
comment to illustrate this cliapter. The 
journey of our Lord from Judea into Gal- 
ilee ; the cause of it ; his passage through 
the territory of Samaria ; his approach to 
the metropolis of this country ; its name ; 
his arrival at the Amorite lield which ter- 
minates the narrow valley of Sychem ; 
the ancient custom of hailing at a well ; 
the female employment of drawing wa- 
ter ; the disciples sent into the city for 
food, by which its situation out of the 
town is obviously implied ; the question 
of the woman referring to existing preju- 
dices which separated the Jews from the 
Samaritans ; the depth of the well ; the 
oriental allusion contained in the expres- 
sion, ' living Avater ;' tlie history of the 
well, and the customs thereby illustrat- 
ed ; the woiship upon mount Gerizim ; 
all these occur within the space of twen- 
ty verses. ' ' 




THE FAT-TAILED SYRIAN SHEEP. 

SHEEP. Of the Syrian sheep, accord- 
ing to Dr. Ptusscll, there are two varie- 
ties: the one called Bedaween sheep, 
which differ in no respect from the larger 
kinds of sheep among us, except that 
their tails are somewhat longer and 
thicker ; the others are those often men- 
tioned by travellers on account of their 
extraordinary tails ; and this species is 
by far the most numerous. The tail of 
one of these animals is very broad and 
large, terminating in a small appendage 
that turns back upon it. It is of a sub- 
stance between fat and marrow, and is 
not eaten separately, but mixed with the 
lean meat in many of their dishes, and 
also often used instead of butter. A 
common sheep of this sort, without the 
416 



head, feet, skin, and entrails, weighs from 
sixty to eighty pounds, of which the tail 
itself is usually ten or fifteen j)Ounds, and 
when the animal is fattened, twice or 
thrice that weight, and very inconven- 
ient to its owner. 

The sheep or lamb was the common 
sacrifice under the Mosaic law ; and it is 
to be remarked, that when the divine 
legislator speaks of this victim, he never 
omits to appoint that the rump or tail 
be laid whole on the lire of the altar, 
Ex. 29 : 22 ; Lev. 3 : 9. The reason for 
this is seen in the account just given 
from Dr. Russell ; from which it appears 
that this was the most delicate part of 
the animal, and therefore the most prop- 
er to be presented in sacrifice to Jeho- 
vah. 

The innocence, mildness, submission, 
and patience of the sheep or lamb, ren- 
dered it peculiarly suitable for a sacri- 
fice, and an appropriate type of the Lamb 
of God, John 1 : 29. A recent traveller 
in Palestine witnessed the shearing of a 
sheep in the immediate vicinity of Geth- 
semane ; and the silent, unresisting sub- 
mission of the poor animal, thrown with 
its feet bomid upon the earth, its sides 
rudely pressed by the shearer's knees, 
while every movement threatened to 
lacerate the flesh, was a touching com- 
mentary on the prophet's description of 
Christ, Isa. 53:7 ; Acts 8:32-35. 

There are frequent allusions in Scrip- 
ture to these characteristics of the sheep, 
and to its proneness to go astray, Psa. 
119 : 176 ; Isa. 53 : 6. It is a gregarious 
animal also ; and as loving the compan- 
ionship of the flock and dependent on 
the protection and guidance of its mas- 
ter, its name is olten given to the people 
of God, 2 Kin. 22:17; Psa. 79:13; 80:1; 
Matt. 25 : 32. Sheep and goats are still 
found in Syria feeding indiscriminately 
together, as in ancient times. Gen. 30:35; 
Matt. 25 : 32, 33. The season of sheep- 
shearing was one of great joy and festiv- 
ity, 1 Sam. 25:2, 8, 36 ; 2 Sam. 13:23. 

Sheep-cotes or folds, among the Israel- 
ites, appear to have been generally open 
houses, or enclosures walled round, often 
in front of rocky caverns, to guard the 
sheep from beasts of prey by night, and 
the scorching heat of noon. Num. 32:16 ; 
2 Sam. 7:8; Jer. 23:3, 6; John 10:1-5. 
See Shepherd. 

SHEEP-MAPvKET, John 5 : 2. Tlie 
original might with at least equal pro- 



SHE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHE 



priety be rendered sheep-gate ; and a 
gate so called is mentioned in N,eh. 3:1- 
32 ; 12:29. It was adjacent to the tem- 
ple, and was so named from the number 
of sheep introduced through it for the 
temple service. Dr. Barclay thinks the 
"sheep-market" was an enclosure for 
sheep and other animals designed for 
sacrifice, outside the temple area on the 
east. 

SHEK'EL. The shekel was properly 
and only a weight. It was used espec- 
ially in weighing uncoined gold and sil- 
ver : "The land is worth 400 shekels of 
silver ; . . . Abraham weighed to Ephron 
the silver — in the audience of the sons of 
Heth," Gen. 23 : 15, 16. In such cases 
the word shekel is often omitted in the 
Hebrew, as in Gen. 20:16 ; 37:28, where 
our translators have supplied the word 
"pieces," but improperly, because coin- 
ed money was not then known. See 
Money. Between the sacred shekel, Ex. 
30:13, and the shekel after the "king's 
weight," 2 Sam. 14 : 26, there would 
seem to have been a difference ; but this 
difference cannot now be determined, 
and many think the phrase "shekel of 
the sanctuary ' ' simply means a full and 
just shekel, according to the temple 
standards. The first coin which bore the 
name of shekel was struck after the ex- 




ile, in the time of the Maccabees, 1 Mac. 
15:6, and bore the inscription, Shekel of 
Israel. Bockh, whose authority in mat- 
ters pertaining to ancient weights and 
measures is very high, fixes it proxi- 
mately at 274 Paris grains. It is the 
coin mentioned in the New Testament, 
Matt. 26 : 15, etc. , where our translators 
have rendered it by "pieces of silver." 

SHEM, a son of Noah, Gen. 5 : 32 ; 
6 : 10, always named before Ham and 
Japheth, as the eldest son ; or, as some 
think, because he was the forefather of 
the Hebrews. In Gen. 10 : 21, the word 
elder may be applied to Shem, instead of 
Japheth, He received a blessing from 
his dying father, Gen. 9 : 26, and of his 
IS* 



line the Messiah was born. He had five 
sons, and their posterity occupied the 
central regions between Ham and Ja- 
pheth, and peopled the finest provinces 
of the East. The languages of some of 
these nations are still called the Shemitic 
languages, including the Hebrew, Chal- 
dee, Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic, etc. ; but 
in this general class are found several 
languages spoken by nations descended 
from Ham. 

SHEMAIAH, I., a prophet of Israel, 
by whom God forbade Rehoboam to en- 
deavor to coerce the ten tribes back to 
their allegiance, and called the king and 
his court to repent at the invasion of 
Shishak. He is said to have written the 
history of Rehoboam 's reign, 1 Kings 
12:22-24; 2 Chr. 12:5-8, 15. 

II. A Levite, who made a registry of 
the twentv-four priestly classes, 1 Chr. 
15:8, 11; 24:6. 
I III. A false prophet among the exiled 
I Jews in Babylon, who opposed the proph- 
et Jeremiah, and incurred divine judg- 
I ments on himself and his family. For 
I his name, Nehelamite, the marginal read- 
' ing is a dreamer, Jer. 29:24-32. 
I IV. A false prophet in the pay of San- 
I ballat and Tobiah, who sought to terrify 
Nehemiah into the cowardly and forbid- 
den step of taking refuge within the tem- 
ple, Num. 3:38; Neh. 6:10-14. 

SHE'MER, the former owner of the 
hill on which Omri built Samaria, 1 Kin. 
16:24. 

SHEM'INITH, in the titles of Psa. 6, 
12, and in 1 Chr. 15:21. It means prop- 
erly the eighth, and seems to have been 
not an instrument, but a j}art in music, 
perhaps the lowest. 

SHE'NIR. See Hermon. 

SHEPHATPAH, the name of seven 

distinguished Jews, alluded to in the 

i following passages : 2 Sam. 3 : 4 ; 1 Chr. 

i 12:5; 27:16; 2Chr. 21:2; Ezra 2:4, 57; 

I Neh. 11:4; Jer. 38:1. 

1 SHEP'HERD, or Pastor. Abel was a 

j keeper of sheep. Gen. 4:2, as were the 

j greater number of the ancient patri- 

I archs. When men began to multiply, 

I and to follow different employments, 

: Jabal son of Lamech was acknowledged 

as father, that is, founder of shepherds 

; and nomads, Gen. 4 : 20. A large part 

j of the wealth of ancient patriarchs con- 

I sisted in flocks and herds, the care of 

j which was shared by their sons, daugh- 

' ters. and servants. Rachel the bride of 

417 



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BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHI 



Jacob was a shepherdess, Gen. 29:6 ; his 
sons, the fathers of the tribes of Israel 
were shepherds, and so was David their 
king, Psa. 78 : 70-72. The employment 
is highly honored in the Bible, Luke 
2 : 8-20. In the time of the kings, the 
"chief herdsman" occupied a post of 
some importance, 1 Sam. 21 : 7 ; 2 Kin. 
3 : 4 ; 1 Chr. 27 : 29-31. In Palestine and 
its vicinity, besides those who united the 
keeping of flocks and herds with the til- 
lage of the ground, there were and still 
are numbers of nomades or wandering 
shepherds confining themselves to no 
settled home. These dwellers in tents 
often had a wide range of pasture grounds, 
from one to another of which they drove 
their flocks as occasion required, Gen. 
37 : 12-17. In the vast deserts east and 
south of Palestine they found many spots 
which in winter and spring were clothed 
with verdure, Ex. 3:1 ; Psa. 65:12. But 
the heat of summer Avithcred these ' ' pas- 
tures of the wilderness," and drove the 
shepherds and their flocks to seek for 
highlands and streams. There are many 
indications in Scripture of the conscious 
strength and independence of the ancient 
shepherd patriarchs, of the extent of 
their households, and the consideration 
in which they were held. Gen. 14:14-24 ; 
21:22-32; 26:13-16; 30:43; Job 1:3. 

God sometimes takes the name of 
Shepherd of Israel, Psa. 80: 1 ; Jer. 31 : 10 ; 
and kings, both in Scripture and ancient 
writers, are distinguished by the title of 
' * Shepherds of the people. ' ' The proph- 
ets often inveigh against the ' ' shepherds 
of Israel," that is, the kings, who feed 
themselves and neglect their flocks ; who 
distress, ill-treat, seduce, and lead them 
astray, Ezek. 34 : 10. In like manner 
Christ, as the Messiah, is often called a 
shepherd, Zech. 13 : 7, and also takes on 
himself the title of "the Good Shep- 
herd," who gives his life for his sheep, 
John 10 : 11, 14, 15. Paul calls him the 
great Shepherd of the sheep, Heb. 13:20, 
and Peter gives him the appellation of 
Prince of shepherds, 1 Pet. 5 : 4. His 
ministers are in like manner the pastors 
or under-shepherds of the flock", Jer. 3:15; 
23:3; Eph. 4:11. 

In John 10:1-16, our Saviour says the 
good shepherd lays down his life for his 
sheep ; that he knows them, and they 
know liim ; that tliey hear his voice, and 
follow him ; that he goes before them ; 
that no one shall force them out of his 
418 



hands, and that he calls them by their 
names. These, however, being all inci- 
dents taken from the customs o£ the 
country, are by no means so striking to 
us as they must have been to those who 
heard our Lord, and who every day wit- 
nessed such methods of conducting this 
domesticated animal. Modern travellers 
in the East meet with many pleasing 
confirmations of the truth of Scripture 
in respect to these particulars ; they see 
the shepherd walking before his flock, 
any one of which will instantly run to 
him when called by its own name. The 
hireling, or bad shepherd, forsakes the 
sheep, and the thief enters not by the 
door of the sheepfold, but climbs in 
another way. See Sheep. The Bible 
applies many of the excellences of the 
faithful shepherd in illustration of the 
Saviour's care of his flock. The shep- 
herd was responsible for each member of 
the flock intrusted to him, Gen. 31 : 39 ; 
Ex. 22 : 12 ; John 10 : 28 ; he had need 
of great courage and endurance. Gen. 
31 : 40 ; 1 Sam. 17:34, 35 ; John 10:15 ; 
he exercised a tender care towards the 
feeble, and carried the lambs in his arms, 
Gen. 33 : 13 ; Isa. 40 : 11 ; Mark 10 : 14, 
16; and searched for the lost sheep, bring- 
ing it back from the ' ' land of drought 
and the shadow of death ' ' into green pas- 
tures and by the still waters, Psa. 23 ; 
Luke 15:4-7. 

SHE'SHACH, a poetical name for Bab- 
ylon, signifying, as some judge, house or 
court of the prince, Jer. 25:26; 51:41. 

SHESHBAZ ZAR. See Zerubbabel. 

SHETHAR-BOZ'NAI. See Tatnai. 

SHIB'BOLETH, a stream. In a war 
between the Ephraimites and the men of 
Gilead under Jephthah, the former were 
discomfited, and fled towards the fords 
of the Jordan. The Gileadites took pos- 
session of all these fords, and when an 
Ephraimite who had escaped came to the 
river side and desired to pass over, they 
asked him if he were not an Ephraimite. 
If he said, No, they bade him pronounce 
shibboleth ; but he pronouncing it sibboleth, 
according to the dialect of the Ephraim- 
ites, thev killed him. In this war there 
fell 42,000 Ephraimites, Judg. 12. This 
incident should not be passed over with- 
out observing, that it affords proof of di- 
alectical variations among the tribes of 
the same nation, and speaking the same 
I language, in those early days. There can 
be no wonder, therefore, if we find in 



{SHI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHI 



later ages the same word written differ- 
ent ways, according to the pronunciation 
of different tribes. That this continued, 
is evident from the peculiarities of the 
Galilean dialect, by which Peter was 
discovered to be of that district, Mark 
14:70. 

SHIELD, a piece of defensive armor. 
God is often called the shield of his peo- 
ple, Gen. 15:1 ; Psa. 5:12 ; «4:11, as are 
also princes and great men, 2 Sam. 1 : 21 ; 
Psa. 47:9. See Armor. 

SHIGGAPON, Psa. 7, title, and Siiig- 
GioNOTH, Hab. 3:1; probably song, or 
song of praise ; perhaps some particular 
species of ode. . 

SHPLOH, I. Tliis temi is used, Gen. 
49 : 10, to denote the Messiah, the com- 
ing of whom Jacob foretells in these 
words : ' ' The sceptre shall not depart 
from Judah, nor a lawgiver from be- 
tween his feet, until Shiloh come ; and 
unto him shall the gathering of the peo- 
ple be ;" that is, imtil the time of Christ, 
Judah' s self-government as a tribe should 
not cease. It must be admitted, how- 
ever, that the literal signification of the 
word is not well ascertained. Some 
translate, "Tlie sceptre shall not depart 
from Judah till he comes to whom it 
belongs." Others, with more probabil- 
ity, till the coming of the Peacemaker, 
or of the One desired. 

11. A famous city of Ephraim, about 
ten miles south of Shechem, and twenty- 
four north of Jerusalem. Here Joshua 
assembled the people to make the second 
distribution of the Land of Promise ; and 



here the tabernacle of the Lord was set 
up, when they were settled in the coun- 
try. Josh. 18 : 1 ; 19 : 51. The ark and 
the tabernacle continued at Shiloh, from 
B. c. 1444 to B. c. 1116, when it was taken 
by the Philistines, under the administra- 
tion of the high-priest Eli. In honor of 
the presence of the ark, there was "a 
feast of the Lord in Shiloh yearly ;" and 
at one of these festivals the daughters of 
Shiloh were seized by a remnant of the 
Benjamites, Judg. 21:19-23. At Shiloh 
Samuel began to prophesy, 1 Sam. 4:1, 
and here the prophet Ahijah dwelt, 
IKin. 14:2. 

SHIM'EI, I., a Benjamite kinsman of 
Saul, who insulted king David when flee- 
ing before Absalom, and humbled him- 
self on David's return. On both occa- 
sions David spared and forgave him ; 
but when dying he cautioned Solomon 
against a man who knew no restraints 
but those of fear. Shimei gave his parole 
never to leave Jerusalem ; but broke it 
by pursuing his fugitive servants to Gath, 
and was put to death on returning, 2 Sam. 
16: 5-14 ; 19 : 16-23 ; 1 Kin. 2 : 8, 9, 36- 
46. 

II. An officer under David, and per- 
haps under Solomon, 1 Kin. 1:8 ; 4:18. 

III. A distinguished family at Jerusa- 
lem, Zech. 12:13. 

SHI'NAR, a level region of indefinite 
extent around Babylon and the junction 
of the Euphrates and Tigris, Gen. 10: 10 ; 
11:2; 14:1; Josh. 7:21, Hcb., garment 
of Shinar ; Isa. 11:11; Dan. 1:2; Zech. 
5 : 11. See Mesopotamia. 




SHIP. The ships of the ancients were 
very imperfect in comparison with mod- 
ern" ones. Navigators crept carefully 
along the shores, from one headland or 
prominent point to another, making a 
harbor if practicable every night ; and 
when out of sight of land, being igno- 
rant of the compass and quadrant, they 



guided their course by the sun and cer- 
tain stars. Even in St. Paul's time, 
vessels passing from Palestine to Italy, 
sometimes wintered on the way ! Acts 
27 : 12 ; 28 : II. The ancient ships were 
in general small, though a few large ships 
are on record. They were often highly 
ornamented both at the prow and the 
419 



SHI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHI 



stern ; and the figurehead or " sign," by 
•which the vessel was known, was some- 
times an image of its tutelar divinity. 



They were usually propelled by oars, 
often in several "banks" or rows one 
above another, as well as by sails. In 




PART OF A WAR-GALLEY, FROM AN ANCIENT BAS-RELIEF. 



war, the galley tried to pierce and run 
down its antagonist. The Ph«nicians 
were celebrated for their ships and their 
extensive commerce, as appears from Eze- 
kiels description, ch. 27, as well as from 
numerous ancient historians. Though 
Joppa and in Christ's time Cresarea were 
Jewish ports, 2 Chr. 2 : 26, Jonah 1 : 3, 
yet the Jews were never a maritime peo- 
ple, and most of their foreign navigation 
would appear to have been carried on 
by the aid of Pha-nicians, 1 Kin. 9 : 26 ; 
10 : 22 ; 22 : 49, 50. Paul's graphic and 
faithful description of his voyage and 
shipwreck in Acts 27, discloses many of 
the peculiarities of ancient navigation. 
For the "ships of Tarshish," see Tar- 
siiisn. 

SHIPH'RAH and PU'AH, midwives 
in Egypt, who through the fear of God 
spared the newborn sons of the Hebrews, 
contrary to the orders of the king. God 
rewarded their kindness to his people, 
though condemning no doul)t the un- 
truthfulness of their excuse to the king. 
He "made them houses," that is, prob- 
ablv gave each of them a numerous fam- 
ily,' Ex. 1:15-21. 

SHI'SHAK, a kmg of Egypt, who de- 
420 



} clared war against Eehoboam king of 
Judah in the fifth year of his reign. He 




SHISHAK, FROM A THEBAN TEMPLE. 

entered Judah, b. c. 971, with an innu- 
merable multitude of people out of 
Egypt, the countries of Lubim, of Su- 
chim, and of Cush, captured the strong- 



SHI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SHU 



est places in the country, and carried 
away from Jerusalem the treasures of 
the Lord's house and of the king's pal- 
ace, as well as the golden bucklers of 
Solomon. Jeroboam having secured the 
friendship of Shishak, his territories were 
not invaded, 1 Kin. 11 : 40 ; 14 : 25, 26 ; 
2 Chr. 12:2-9. Shishak is generally be- 
lieved to have been the Sesonchis of sec- 
ular history, the lirst king of the twenty- 
second or Bubastine line. He dethroned 
the dynasty into which Solomon mar- 
ried, 1 Kin. 3:1, and made many foreign 
conquests. In the palace-temple of Kar- 
nak in Egypt, the walls of which are yet" 
standing, Sesonchis is represented in a 
large bas-relief, dragging captive kings 
in triumph before the three chief The- 
ban gods. Each country or city is per- 
sonitied, and its name written in an oval 



greater part of the tables, altars, and 
planks belonging to the tabernacle. Je- 
rome says, "The wood is hard, tough, 
smooth, without knots, and extremely 
beautiful ; so that the rich and curious 
make screws of it for their presses. It 
does not grow in cultivated places, nor 
in any other places of the Roman em- 
pire, ijut only in the deserts of Arabia." 
It is thought he means the black acacia, 




above it. One of these figures, with Jew- 
ish features, has an inscription which 
ChampoUion interprets, "kingdom of 
Judah." Several other symbols are 
thought to denote as many walled towns 
of Judah, captured by Shishak. See 

PlIARAOir. 

SHIT'TAH, and SHIT'TIM, a valuable 
kind of wood, of which Moses made the 




the Acacia Scyal, which is found in the 
deserts of Arabia, and the wood of which 
is very common about mount Sinai and 
the mountains which border on the Red 
sea, and is so hard and solid as to be 
almost incorruptible. 

SHOES. See Sandals. 

SHOSHAN'NIM-E'DUTH, lilies of testi- 
mony, Psa. 60 ; 80. See Shusiian. 

SHRINE. See Diana. 

SHU'LAMITE, peaceful, in Hebrew a 
feminine name, corresponding to Solo- 
mon as Julia does to Julius. It is the 
figurative name of the bride in Solo- 
mon's Song, 6 : 13 ; and the bridegroom 
is represented by Solomon, also meaning 
peaceful. 

SHU'NEM, a city of Issachar, Josh. 
19 : 18. The Philistines encamped at 
Shunem, in the great field or plain of 
Esdraelon, 1 Sam. 28:4; and "Saul en- 
camped at Gilboa. Abishag, king Da- 
vid's nurse, was of Shunem, 1 Kin. 1:3; 
so also was the woman whose son Elisha 
restored to life, 2 Kin. 4 : 8-37. Euse- 
bius and Jerome place it five miles south 
of Tabor ; and it is now recognized in a 
poor village called Solam, on a declivity 
at the north-west corner of the smaller 
valley of Jezreel. 

SHUR, a city on the north-east border 
421 



SHU 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SID 



of Egypt, not far from the modern Suez, 
Gen. 16:7; 20:1; 25:18; 1 Sam. 15:7; 
27 : 8. It gave its name to the desert 
between it and Canaan, towards the 
Mediterranean, Ex. 15:22. 

SHU'SHAN, I., Psa. 60, title; plural 
Shoshan'nim, Psa. 45, 69, titles ; the 
name of a musical instrument. The 
word signifies a lily, or lilies ; and if the 
instrument were so named from its sim- 
ilarity to this flower, we might under- 
stand the cymbal. Or it may denote a 
melody, so named for its pleasantness, 
or, as some suppose, the pleasantness of 
the subject matter of the song, as in the 
title to Psalm 45. 

II. The capital city of Elam, or Per- 
sia, Gen. 14 : 1, Dan. 8 : 2, on the river 
Ulai. It was the winter residence of the 
Persian kings, after Cyrus, Esth. 1:5; 
and is deeply intei-esting as the scene of 
the wonderful events narrated in the 
book of Esther. Here Daniel had the 
vision of the ram and he-goat, in the 
third year of Belshazzar, Dan. 8. Ne- 
hemiah was also at Shushan, when he 
obtained from Artaxerxes permission to 
return into Judea, and to repair the walls 
of Jerusalem, Neh. 1:1. 

The present Shouster, the capital of 
Khusistan, in long. 49 East, lat. 32 
North, on the river Karun, a branch of 
the Shat-el-Arab, has been generally 
believed to be the ancient Shushan, the 
Susa of the Greeks ; but Mr. Kinneir 
rather thinks the ruins about thirty-five 
miles west of Shouster are those of that 
ancient residence of royalty, ' ' stretch- 
ing not less, perhaps, than twelve miles 
from one extremity to the other. They 
occupy an immense space between the 
rivers Kerah and Abzal; and like the 
ruins of Ctesiphon, Babylon, and Kufa, 
consist of hillocks of earth and rubbish, 
covered with broken pieces of brick and 
colored tile. The largest is a mile in 
circumference, and nearly one hundred 
feet in height ; another, not quite so 
high, is double the circuit. They are 
formed of clay and pieces of tile, with 
irregular layers of brick and mortar, five 
or six feet in thickness, to serve, as it 
should seem, as a kind of prop to the 
mass. Large blocks of marble, covered 
with hieroglyphics, are not unfrequently 
here discovered by the Arabs, when dig- 
ging in search of hidden treasure ; and 
at the foot of the most elevated of the 
pyramids (ruins) stands the tomb of 
422 



Daniel, a small and apparently a mod- 
ern building, erected on the spot where 
the relics of that prophet are believed to 
rest." Major Rennell coincides in the 
opinion that these ruins represent the an- 
cient Susa. The desolation of the place, 
abandoned to beasts of prey, agrees with 
the prediction in Ezek. 32:24. 

The preceding statements are confirm- 
ed by Loftus, who with Col. Williams 
visited and in part explored these ruins 
in 1851-2. Shush, he says, abounds in 
lions, wolves, lynxes, jackals, boars, etc. 
During nine months of the year the 
country is burnt up by the most intense 
heat, though exceedingly rich and beau- 
tiful in the rainy season. His excava- 
tions in the great mound disclosed the 
ruins of a vast palace, commenced ap- 
parently by Darius, carried on by Xer- 
xes, and finished by Artaxerxes Mnemon. 
It is altogether probable that this was 
the scene of the festival described in Es- 
ther 1. The "pillars of marble" may 
perhaps be even now traced in the ruined 
colonnade forming a great central court ; 
the huge columns were fluted and highly 
ornamented, and one of the capitals meas- 
ured was twenty-eight feet high. 

SIB'MAH, a city of Reuben, Num. 
32 : 38 ; Josh. 13 : 19. Isaiah, 16 : 8, 9, 
speaks of the vines of Sibmah, which 
were cut down by the enemies of the 
Moabites ; for that people had taken the 
city of Sibmah, Jer. 48 : 32, and other 
cities of Reuben, after this tribe had been 
carried into captivity by Tiglath-pileser, 
2 Kin. 15 : 29 ; 1 Chron. 5 : 26. Jerome 
says that between Heshbon and Sibmah 
there was hardly the distance of five 
hundred paces. 

SID'DIM. See Sea III. 

SPDON, in the Old Testament Zidon, 
now called Saida, was a celebrated city 
of Phoenicia, on the Mediterranean sea, 
twenty miles north of Tyre and as many 
south of Beyroot. It is one of the most 
ancient cities in the world. Gen. 49 : 13, 
and is believed to have been founded by 
Zidon, the eldest son of Canaan, Gen. 
10 : 15 ; 49 : 13. In the time of Homer, 
the Zidonians were eminent for their 
trade and commerce, their wealth and 
prosperity, their skill in navigation, as- 
tronomy, architecture, and for their man- 
ufactures of glass, etc. They had then a 
commodious harl)or, now choked with 
sand and inaccessible to any but the 
smallest vessels. Upon the division of 



SIG 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SIL 




Canaan among the tribes by Joshua, 
Great Zidon fell to the lot of Asher, Josh. 
11:8; 19 : 28 ; but that tribe never suc- 
ceeded in obtaining possession, Judg. 
1:31; 3:3; 10:12. The Zidonians con- 
tinued long under their own government 
and kings, though sometimes tributary 
to the kings of Tyre. They were sub- 
dued successively by the Babylonians, 
Egyptians, Seleucida\ and Romans, the 
latter of whom deprived them of their 
freedom. Many of the inhabitants of 
Sidon became followers of our Saviour, 
Mark 3 : 8, and he himself visited their 
coasts, Matt. 15 : 21-28 ; Mark 7 : 2-4-31. 
Many of them also resorted to him in 
Galilee, Luke 6 : 17. The gospel was 
proclaimed to the Jews at Sidon after 
the martyrdom of Stephen, Acts 11 : 19, 
and there was a Christian church there, 
when Paul visited it on his voyage to 
Rome, Acts 27 : 3. It is at present, like 
most of the other Turkish towns in Syria, 
dirty and full of ruins, though it still 
retains a little coas^^ing trade, and has 
five thousand inhabitants. It incurred 
the judgments of God for its sins, Ezek. 
28 : 21-24, though less ruinously than 
Tyre. Our Saviour refers to both cities, 
in reproaching the Jews as more highly 
favored and less excusable than they, 
Matt. 11:22. Saida occupies an elevated 
promontory, projecting into the sea, and 



defended by walls. Its environs, watered 
by a stream from Lebanon, are famous 
for their beautiful gardens, and fruit- 
trees of every kind. 

SIGN, a token, pledge, or proof,' Gen. 
9:12, 13; 17:11; Ex. 3:12; Isa. 8:18. 
Also a supernatural portent, Luke 21 : 11; 
and a miracle, regarded as a token of the 
divine agency, Ex. 4:7-9; Mark 8:11. 
The "signs of heaven" were the move- 
ments and aspects of the heavenly bod- 
ies, from which heathen astrologers pre- 
tended to obtain revelations, Isa. 44 : 25 ; 
Jer. 10:2. See Ship. 

SIG'NET, a ring for seahng. See 
Ring, and Seal. 

SI'HON, king of the Amorites at Hesh- 
bon, on reifusing passage to the Hebrews, 
and coming to attack them, was himself 
slain, his army routed, and his domin- 
ions divided among Israel, Num. 21:21- 
34; Deut. 2:26-36. 

SI'HOR, Mack or turhid, the Nile. In 
Isa. 23:3, and Jer. 2:18, this name must 
necessarily be understood of the Nile. 
In Josh. 13 : 3 ; 1 Chr. 13 : 5, some have 
understood it of the little river between 
Egypt and Judah. 

SI'LAS, Acts 15:22, and SILVA'NUS, 
2 Cor. 1 : 19, the former name being a 
contraction of the latter ; one of the chief 
men among the first disciples at Jerusa- 
lem, Acts 15 : 22, and supposed by some 



SIL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SIL 



to have been of the number of the sev- 
enty. On occasion of a dispute at Anti- 
ocli, as to the observance of legal cere- 
monies, Paul and Barnabas were chosen 
to go to Jerusalem, to advise with the 
apostles ; and they returned with Judas 
and Silas. Silas joined himself to Paul ; 
and after Paul and Barnabas had sepa- 
rated. Acts 15:37-41, a. d. 51, he accom- 
panied Paul to visit the churches of Syria 
and Cilicia, and the towns and provinces 
of Lycaonia, Phrygia, Galatia, and Mace- 
donia. He was imprisoned with him at 
Philippi, joined him at Corinth after a 
brief separation, bringing, it is supposed, 
the donation referred to in 2 Cor. 11 : 9, 
Phil. 4 : 10, 15, and probably went with 
him to Jerusalem, Acts 16:19, 25 ; 17:4, 
10, 14 ; 18 : 5 ; 1 and 2 Thess. 1:1. He 
appears always as a " faithful brother, ' ' 
well known and praised by all the church- 
es, 2 Cor. 1:19; 1 Pet. 5:12. 

SILK, in the time of the Ptolemies, 
came to Greece and Ptome from the far 
east of China, etc., by the way of Alex- 
andria, and Avas sold for its weight in 
gold. It sometimes came in the form 
of skeins, and was woven into a light 
and thin gauze. It is mentioned in Rev. 
18 : 12, and probably in Ezek. 16 : 10, 13. 
In Gen. 41:42 and Prov. 31:22, the word 
rendered silk in our version is the same 
that is elsewhere correctly rendered fine 
linen. It is not known how early or 
extensively the Jews used it. 



The pool is now an artificial stone reser- 
voir, fifty-three feet long, eighteen feet 
wide, and nineteen feet deep. Steps lead 
to the bottom of the pool, three or four 
feet above which the water flows off south- 
east to water the cultivated grounds in 
the valley below. The fountain is in an 
arched excavation in the foot of the cliff 
above the pool ; and the small basin 
here is connected by a winding passage 
cut through the solid rock under the 
hill Ophel, with the "Fountain of the 
Virgin ' ' eleven hundred feet north on the 





FOUNTAIN AND POOL OF SILOAM. 

SILOAM, John 9 : 7, 11, or Shiloah, 
Neh. 3 : 15 ; Isa. 8 : 6 ; a fountain and 
pool at the base of the hill Ophel, near 
the opening of the Tyropoeon into the 
valley of the Kidron on the south of 
Jerusalem ; 

" Siloah's brook, that flowed 
Fast by the oracle of God." 

Milton. 
424 



UPPER POOL, OR FOUNTAIN OF THE VIRGIN. 

east side of mount Moriah. See Betiies- 
DA. This passage was traversed through- 
out by Dr. Robinson. The water flowing 
through it is tolerably sweet and clear, 
but has a marked taste, and in the dry 
season is slightly brackish. It is thought 
to be derived from the reservoirs under 
the ancient temple area, and in part 
from moimt Zion. It runs "softly," 
Isa. 8 : 6, but ebbs and flows in the 
"Fountain of the Virgin," and less per- 
ceptibly in that of Siloam, at irregular 
intervals. Thus the water rose more 
than a foot in the upper fountain, and 
fell again within ten minutes, while Dr. 
Robinson was on the spot. He once 
found a party of soldiers there washing 
their clothes, John 9 : 1-11, and it is in 
constant use for purposes of ablution. 
At Siloam also the water is used for wash- 
ing, watering animals, etc. 

Nothing is known respecting the 
"tower " near Siloam, the fall of which 
killed eighteen men. The ancient city 



SIL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SIM 



wall is believed to have enclosed this 
pool. Christ teaches us by the above 
incident tliat temporal calamities are 
not always proofs of special guilt, Luke 
13 : 4, 5, though the utmost suflerings 
ever endured in tliis world are far less 
than the sins of even the best of men 
deserve, Lam. 3:39. 

SILVA'NUS. See Silas. 

SIL'VER, one of the precious metals, 
and the one most commonly used as coin 
among all nations. It is tirst mentioned 
in Scripture in the history of Abraham, 
Gen. 13:2; 20:16; 23:16, and was used 
in constructing the tabernacle, Ex. 26 : 19, 
32, and afterwards the temple, 1 Chr. 
29 : 4. In employing it as a medium of 
trade, the ancient Hebrews weighed it 
out, instead of having coins. In the 
times of tlie New Testament there were 
coins. See Suekel, and Money. 

SIM'EON, I., one of the twelve patri- 
archs, the son of Jacob and Leah, Gen. 
29 : 33 ; Ex. 6 : 15. Some have thought 
he was more guilty than his brethren in 
the treatment of Joscpli, Gen. 37:20; 
42 : 24 ; 43 : 23 ; but he may have been 
detained as a hostage because he was one 
of the eldest sons. The tribes of Simeon 
and Levi were scattered and dispersed in 
Israel, in conformity with the prediction 
of Jacob, on account of their sacrilegious 
and piratical revenge of the outrage com- 
mitted against Dinah their sister. Gen. 
34 ; 49 : 5. Levi liad no compact lot or 
portion in the Holy Land ; and Simeon 
received for his portion only a district 
dismembered from Judali, with some 
other lands the tribe overran in the 
mountains of Seir, and in the desert of 
Gedor, 1 Chr. 4:24, 39, 42. The portion 
of Simeon was west and south of that 
of Judah, having the Philistines on the 
north-west and the desert on the south. 
Josh. 19:1-9. The tribe was reduced in 
numbers while in the wilderness, from 
59,300 to 24,000, Num. 1 : 23 ; 26 : 14 ; 
very probably on account of sharing in 
the licentious idolatry of Moab, with 
Zimri their prince, Num. 25, or for other 
sins. They are little known in subse- 
quent history. We find them faithful 
to David, 1 Chr. 12 : 25, and afterwards 
to Asa, 2 Chr. 15 : 9, and in general ab- 
sorbed by Judah. Moses omits this tribe 
in his dying benedictions, Deut. 33 ; but 
its place in Israel is restored by a cove- 
nant-keeping God, Ezek. 48 : 24 ; Eev. 
7:7. 



II. A venerable saint at Jerusalem, 
full of the Holy Spirit, who was expect- 
ing the redemption of Israel, Luke 2:25- 
35. It had been revealed to him that he 
should not die before he had seen the 
Christ so long promised ; and he there- 
fore came into the temple, prompted by 
inspiration, just at the time when Joseph 
and Mary presented our Saviour there, 
in obedience to the law. Simeon took 
the child in his arms, gave thanks to 
God, and blessed Joseph and Mary. We 
know nothing further concerning him. 

III. Surnamed Ni'ger, or the Black, 
Acts 13:1, was among the prophets and 
teachers of the Christian church at Anti- 
och. Some think he was Simon the Cy- 
renian ; but there is no proof of this. 

IV. The apostle Peter is also called 
Simeon in Acts 15 : 14, but elsewhere 
Simon. 

SI'MON, I., one of the twelve apos- 
tles. See Peter. 

II. The Canaanite, or Zelotes, one of 
the twelve apostles. See Zelotes. 

III. One of the "brethren" of Jesus, 
Matt. 13:55 ; Mark 0:3. He is by some 
supposed to be the same with the preced- 
ing Simon Zelotes. See James III. 

IV. The Cyrenian, Avho was compelled 
to aid in bearing the cross of Jesus, Matt. 
27:32, probably on account of his known 
attachment to His cause. He was " the 
father of Alexander and Rufus," Mark 
15 : 21 ; and from the cordial salutation 
of Paul, Ptom. 16:13, it would seem that 
the femily afterwards resided at Rome, 
and that their labor of love was not for- 
gotten by God. 

V. A Pharisee, probably at Caperna- 
um, who invited Jesus to dinner at his 
house, Luke 7 : 36-50. 

VI. The leper ; that is, who had been 
a leper ; a resident of Bethany, with 
whom also Jesus supped. Matt. 26 : 6 ; 
Mark 14:3. Compare John 12:1-11. 

VII. The tanner ; a disciple who dwelt 
at Joppa, and in Avhose house Peter lodg- 
ed, Acts 9:43; 10:6, 17, 32. 

VIII. The sorcerer of Samaria ; often 
called Simon Magus, that is, the Magi- 
cian. See Sorcerer. This artful im- 
postor, by the aid of some knowledge of 
philosophy, medicine, physics, and as- 
tronomy, acquired an ascendency over 
the people of Samaria. But the preach- 
ing and miracles of Philip brought great 
numbers to Christ, and convinced even 
Simon that a real and great power at- 

425 



SIM 



EIBLE DICTIONARr. 



SIN 



tended the gospel. He coveted these 
spiritual gifts of the apostles for selfish 
ends, and sought them by joining the 
church and afterwards oflering to pur- 
chase them with money. Peter took the 
occasion to expose his hypocrisy by a ter- 
rible demmciation, Acts 8:9-24. There 
are various doubtful traditions as to his 
subsequent course. The sin of traffick- 
ing in spiritual things, called Simony 
after him, was more odious to Peter than 
to many who claim to be his especial fol- 
lowers. 

IX. The father of Judas Iscariot, John 
6:71; 13:2, 26. 

SIM'PLE and SIMPLICITY are some- 
times used in the Bible in a good sense, 
denoting sincerity, candor, and an art- 
less ignorance of evil, Kom. 16 : 19 ; 
2 Cor. 1:12; 11:3; sometimes in a bad 
sense, denoting a heedless foolishness 
both mental and moral. Pro v. 1 : 22 ; 
9:4; 14:15 ; 22:3 ; and sometimes in the 
sense of mere i2:norance or inexperience, 
2 Sam. 15:11; Prov. 1:4; 21:11. 

SIN, I., any thought, word, desire, 
action, or omission of action, contrary 
to the law of God, or defective when 
compared with it. 

The origin of sin is a subject which 
baffles all investigation ; and our inqui- 
ries are much better directed when we 
seek through Christ a release from its 
penalty and power, for ourselves and the 
world. Its entrance into the world, and 
infection of the whole human race, its 
nature, forms, and effects, and its fatal 
possession of every unregenerate soul, 
are fully described in the Bible, Gen. 
6:5; Psa. 51 : 5 ; Matt. 15 : 19 ; Kom. 
5:12; Jas. 1:14, 15. 

As contrary to the nature, worship, 
love, and service of God, sin is called 
ungodliness ; as a violation of the law 
of God and of the claims of man, it is a 
transgression or trespass ; as a deviation 
from eternal rectitude, it is called iniqui- 
ty or unrighteousness ; as the evil and 
bitter root of all actual transgression, 
the dei)ravity transmitted from our first 
parents to all their seed, it is called 
"original sin," or in the Bible, "the 
flesh," " the law of sin and death," etc., 
Kom. 8:1,2; 1 John 3 : 4 ; 5 : 17. The 
just penalty or " wages of sin is death ;" 
this was threatened against the first sin. 
Gen. 2 : 17, and all subsequent sins : 
" The soul that sinneth it shall die." A 
single sin, unrepentcd of and unforgiv- 
426 



en, destroys the soul, as a single break 
renders a whole ocean cable worthless. 
Its guilt and evil are to be measured by 
the holiness, justice, and goodness of the 
law it violates, the eternity of the misery 
it causes, and the greatness of the Sacri- 
fice necessary to expitite it. 

"Sin" is also sometimes put for the 
sacrifice of expiation, the sin-offering, 
described in Lev. 4:3, 25, 29. So, Rom. 
8:3 ; and in 2 Cor. 5 : 21, Paul says that 
God was pleased that Jesus, who knew 
no sm, should be our victim of expia- 
tion : " For he hath made him to be sin 
for us, who knew no sin ; that we might 
be made the righteousness of God in 
him." 

For the sin against the Holy Ghost, 
see Blasphemy. 

II. A desert of Arabia Petr-xa, near 
Egypt, and on the Avestern arm of the 
Red sea, Ex. 16 : 1 ; 17:1 ; Num. 33 : 12. 
To be distinguished from the desert of 
Zin. See Zix. 

III. An ancient fortified city, called 
"the strength of Egypt," Ezek. 30 : 15, 
16. Its name means ynire, and in this 
it agrees with Pelusium and Tineh, the 
Greek and modern names of the same 
place. It defended the north-east fron- 
tier of Egypt, and lay near the Mediter- 
ranean, on the eastern arm of the Nile. 
Its site, near the village of Tineh, is 
surrounded with morasses ; and is now 
accessible by boats only during a high 
inundation, or by land in the driest part 
of summer. A few mounds and columns 
alone remain. 

SI'NAI, a mountain, or mountain 
range, in Arabia Petrcea, in the penin- 
sula formed by the two arms of the Red 
sea, and rendered memorable as the spot 
where the law was given to Israel through 
Moses, Ex. 19:1 to Num. 10:33. As this 
mountain has been almost imknown in 
modern times, until recently, and is of 
such importance in Sciipture history, 
we shall enter into some details respect- 
ing it. 

The upper region of Sinai forms an 
irregular circle of thirty or forty miles 
in diameter, possessing numerous sources 
of water, a temperate climate, and a soil 
capable of supporting animal and vege- 
table life ; for which reason it is the 
refuge of all the Bedaweens when the 
low country is parched up. This, there- 
fore, was the part of the peninsula best 
adapted to the residence of nearly a year, 



SIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SIN 




PLAIN ER-RAHAH, AND CONVENT OF ST. CATHARINE. 



during which the Israelites were num- 
bered, and received their laws from the 
Most High. In the highest and central 
part of this region, seven thousand feet 
above the level of the sea, rises the sa- 
cred summit of Horeb or Sinai. The two 
names are used almost indiscriminately 
in the Bible, the former predominating 
in Deuteronomy. Some have thought 
there were two adjacent summits, called, 
in the time of Moses, Horeb and Sinai ; 
and indeed the monks give these names 
to the northern and southern heights of 
the same ridge, three miles long. But 
the comparison of all the Scripture pas- 
sages rather shows that Horeb was the 
general name for the group, and Sinai 
the name of the sacred summit. 

In approaching this elevated region 
from the north-west, Burckhardt writes, 
"We now approached the central sum- 
mits of mount Sinai, which we had had 
in view for several days. Abrupt cliffs 
of granite, from six to eight hundred 
feet in height, whose surface is black- 
ened by the sun, surround the avenues 
leading to the elevated region to which 
the name of Sinai is specifically applied. 
These cliffs inclose the holy mountain on 
three sides, leaving the east and north- 
east sides only, towards the gulf of Aka- 
ba, more open to the view. At the end 
of three hours, we entered these cliffs 



by a narrow defile about forty feet in 
breadth, with perpendicular granite rocks 
on both sides. The ground is covered 
with sand and pebbles, brought down by 
the torrent which rushes from the upper 
region in the winter time." 

The general approach to Sinai from 
the same quarter is thus described by 
Mr. Carne : "A few hours more, and we 
got sight of the mountains round Sinai. 
Their appearance was magnificent. AVhen 
we drew near, and emerged out of a deep 
pass, the scenery was infinitely striking ; 
and on the right extended a vast range 
of mountains, as far as the eye could 
reach, from the vicinity of Sinai down 
to Tor, on the gulf of Suez. They were 
perfectly bare, but of grand and singular 
form. We had hoped to reach the con- 
vent by daylight ; but the moon had 
risen some time when we entered the 
mouth of a narrow pass, where our 
conductors advised us to dismount. A 
gentle yet perpetual ascent led on, mile 
after mile, up this mournful valley, 
whose aspect was terrific, yet ever vary- 
ing. It was not above two hundred 
yards in width, and the mountains rose 
to an immense height on each side. The 
road wound at their feet along the edge 
of a precipice, and amid masses of rock 
that had fallen from above. It was a 
toilsome path, generally over stones 
427 



SIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SIN 



placed like steps, probably by the Arabs ; 
and the moonlight was of little service 
to us in this deep valley, as it only rest- 
ed on the frowning summits above. 
Where is mount Sinai ? was the inquiry 
of every one. The Arabs pointed before 
to Jebel Moosa, the mount of Moses, as it 
is called ; but we could not distinguish it. 
Again and again point after point was 
turned, and we saw but the same stern 
scenery. But what had the beauty and 



softness of nature to do here? Mount 
Sinai required an approach like this, 
j where all seemed to proclaim the land 
of miracles, and to have been visited by 
the terrors of the Lord. The scenes, as 
you gazed around, had an unearthly 
character, suited to the sound of the 
fearful trumpet that was once heard 
there. We entered at last on the more 
open valley, about half a mile wide, and 
drew near this famous mountain." 




The elevated valley or plain Er-Rahah, 
here and above referred to, is now gen- 
erally believed to be the place where the 
Hebrews assembled to witness the giving 
of the law. It is two miles long from 
north-west to south-east, and on an av- 
erage half a mile wide. Tlie square mile 
thus afforded is nearly doubled by the 
addition of those poi'tions of side val- 
leys, particularly Esh-SVeikh towards 
the north-north-east, from wliich tlic 
summit llas-Sufsafeh can be seen. This 
summit, which Dr. Robinson takes to be 
the true Sinai, rises abruptly on the south 
side of the plain some iifteen hundred 
feet. It is the termination of a ridge 
running three miles south-east, the 
southern and highest point of which is 
called by the Arabs Jebel Musa, or Mo- 
428 



I ses' Mount. Separated from this ridge 
I by deep and steep ravines, are two par- 
allel ridges, of which the eastern is called 
I the Mountain of the Cross, and the west- 
i ern, Jebel Humr. The convent of St. 
Catharine lies in the ravine east of the 
true Sinai ; while mount Catharine is the 
south peak of the western ridge, lying 
j south-west of Jebel Musa, and rising 
I more than one thousand feet higher. 
j From the convent, Dr. Robinson ascend- 
I ed the central and sacred mountain, and 
j the steep peak Ras-Sufsafeh. "The ex- 
i treme difhciilty," he says, "and even 
danger of the ascent, Avas well rewarded 
by the prospect that now opened before 
us. The whole plain Er-Rahah lay spread 
out beneath our feet ; while wady Esh- 
Sheikh on the right and a recess on the 



SIN 



BIBLE DlCTIONARr. 



SIN 



left, both connected with and opening | 
broadly from Er-Kahah, presented an | 
area Avhich serves nearly to double that j 
of the plain. Our conviction was strength- j 
ened that here, or on some one of the ad- 
jacent cliffs, was the spot where the Lord ; 
descended in fire and proclaimed the law. 
Here lay the plain where the whole con- i 
gregation might be assembled ; here was j 
the mount which might be approached ■ 
and touched; and here the mountain brow i 
where alone the lightnings and the thick j 
cloud would be visible, and the thunders j 
and the voice of the trump be heard, ; 
when the Lord came down in the sight ■ 
of all the people upon mount Sinai. We \ 
gave ourselves up to the impressions of 
the awful scene ; and read with a feeling 
which will never be forgotten the sub- \ 
lime account of the transaction and the | 
commandments there promulgated, in j 
the original words as recorded by the 
great Hebrew legislator. ' ' 1 



The plain Er-Rahah is supposed to 
have been reached by the Hebrews from 
the shore of the Eed sea, south of the 
desert of Sin, by a series of wadys or 
broad ravines winding up omong the 
mountains in an easterly direction, chief- 
ly wady Feiian and Avady Esh-Sheikh. 
The former commences near the Red sea, 
and opens into the latter, which making 
a circuit to the north of Sinai, enters the 
plain at its foot from the north-north- 
east. For several miles from its termi- 
nation here, this valley is half a mile 
wide. By the same northern entrance 
most travellers have approached the sa- 
cred mountain. Its south side is less 
known. To the spectator on Jebel Mu- 
sa, it presents no trace of any plain, val- 
ley, or level ground to be compared with 
that on the north ; yet some writers 
maintain that the Hebrews received the 
law at the southern foot of Sinai. See 
map, in the article Exodus. 




In many of the western Sinaite val- 
leys, and most of all in El-Mukatteb, 
which enters wady Feiran from the 
north-west, the more accessible parts of 
the rocky sides are covered by thousands 
of inscriptions, usually short, and rudely 
carved in spots where travellers Avould 
naturally stop to rest at noon ; frequent- 
ly accompanied by a cross and mingled 
with representations of animals. The 



inscriptions are in an unknown charac- 
ter, but were at first ascribed to the an- 
cient Israelites on their way from Egypt 
to Sinai ; and afterwards to Christian pil- 
grims of the fourth century. Recently, 
however, many of them have been deci- 
phered by Prof. Beer of Leipzig, who 
regards them as the only known remains 
of the language and characters once pe- 
culiar to the Nabath;xians of Arabia Pe- 
429 



SIN 



DIBLE DICTIONARY 



SNA 



traea. Those thus far deciphered are 
simply proper names, neither Jewish nor 
Christian, preceded by some such words 
as ' ' peace , " " blessed , " "in memory 
of." 

The giving of the law upon mount Si- 
nai made it one of the most memorable 
spots on the globe. Here, moreover, 
God appeared to Moses in the burning 
bush, Exod. 3 and 4 ; and six centuries 
later, sublimely revealed himself to the 
prophet Elijah when fleeing from the 
fury of Jezebel, 1 Kin. 19. There are 
frequent allusions in Scripture to the 
glorious and awful delivery of the Law, 
Judg. 5:5; Psa. 68:8, 17; Hab. 3:3. In 
the New Testament, the dispensation 
proclaimed on Sinai is contrasted with 
the gospel of the grace of God, Gal. 
4:24, 25; Heb. 12:18-29. 

SI'NIM, Isa. 49 : 12, a people very re- 
mote from the Holy Land, towards the 
east or south ; generally believed to mean 
the Chinese, who have been known to 
Western Asia from early times, and are 
called by the Arabs Sin, and by the Syr- 
ians Tsini. 

SI'NITES, a Canaanite tribe, probably 
near mount Lebanon, Gen. 10:17; IChr. 
1:15. 

SI'ON, I. , a name given in Deut. 4 : 48 
to one of the elevations of the mountain 
ridge called Hermon, which see. 

II. The Greek or New Testament form 
of Zion, which see. 

SIR'ION. See Hermon. 

SIS'ERA, a general in the army of 
Jabin king of Hazor, sent by his master 
against Barak and Deborah, who occu- 
pied mount Tabor with an army. Being 
defeated, he fled on foot, and was inglo- 
riously slain by Jael, Judg. 4, 5. See 
Jael. 

SIS'TER. In the style of the Hebrews, 
" sister ' ' has equal latitude with '-broth- 
er. " It is used, not only for a sister by 
natural relation, from the same father 
and mother, but also for a sister by the 
same father only, or by the same mother 
only ; or for any near female relative, 
Gen. 12:13. See Brother. 

SITH, an obsolete word, meaning 
since, Ezek. 35:6. 

SrVAN, the third Hebrew ecclesiasti- 
cal month, and the ninth of the civil 
year, beginning with the new moon of 
our June, Esth. 8:9. 

SLAVE, Jer. 2 : 14 ; Rev. 18 : 13. See 
Servakt. 

430 



SLIME. See Pitch, and Sea III. 

SLING, an instrument much used in 
war before the invention of flre-arms. 
It w^as a formidable weapon in hands 
like those of David and the Benjamites, 
Judg. 20 : 16 ; 1 Sam. 17: 48-50 ; 1 Chr. 
12:2; 2 Chr. 26:14. 

SMITH, an artificer in brass, iron, etc., 
first mentioned in Gen. 4 : 22. The art 
of the smith is one of the essentials of 
civilization ; and without it a nation was 
peculiarly defenceless in time of war, 
Judg. 5 : 8 ; 1 Sam. 13 : 19-22 ; 2 Kin. 
24 : 14. "Workers in silver and in copper 
were distinguished from each other, Acts 
19:24; 2 Tim. 4:14. 

SMYR'NA, a celebrated Ionian city, 
situated at the head of a deep gulf on 
the western coast of Asia Minor, forty 
miles north by west of Ephesus. It was 
one of the richest and most powerful 
cities of that region, and was frequented 
by great numbers of Jews. A Christian 
church was established there at an early 
day, and Avas one of the seven churches 
addressed by Christ in the Revelation of 
John, 1:11; 2 : 8-11. It is still a pros- 
perous commercial city, being visited by 
many foreign ships, and by numerous 
caravans of camels from the interior. Its 
population is nearly 150,000 ; of whom 
one-half are Turks, one-fourth Greeks, 
and the remainder chiefly Armenians, 
Jews, and Franks. So many of its in- 
habitants are not Mohammedans, that it 
is called by the Turks Giaour Izmir, or 
Infidel Smyrna. It has a deep and capa- 
cious harbor, well protected except tow- 
ards the west by the hills which rise to 
a great height in the rear of the city, 
inclosing it on three sides. On these 
hills lie the scanty remains of the an- 
cient city ; among which is the groinid- 
plot of the stadivnn, where is said to 
have occurred the martyrdom of Poly- 
carp — the pupil of the apostle John, and 
very probably ' ' the angel of the church 
in Ephesus," Rev. 2:8. Smyrna has 
been often devastated by earthquakes 
and conflagrations; multitudes perished 
there of the cholera in 1831, and 60,000 
died of the plague in 1824 ; yet its fine 
situation secures a prompt recovery from 
every disaster. It is now the seat of 
important missionary efforts, and enjoys 
the ordinances of a Protestant church. 

SNAIL, in Lev. 11 : 30, is probably a 
sort of lizard ; and in Psa. 58:8, the com- 
mon slug or snail without a shell, which 



sxo 



WDLE DICTIOXAllY. 



CD 



' ' melteth ' ' away by depositing its slime 
wherever it passes. 

SNOW is often alluded to in Scrip- 
ture, for its whiteness, Ex. 4:6; Num. 
12 : 10 ; 2 Kin. 5 : 27 ; Psa. 51 : 7 ; Isa. 
1 : 18, and for its cleansing qualities, Job 
9 : 30. The expression in Prov. 25 : 13, 
"as the cold of snow in the time of har- 
vest," alludes to its use in preparing cool 
drinks for the reapers ; while on the 
other hand, in Prov. 26:1, "snow in 
summer," that is, a fall of snow, being 
unseasonable and unnatural, is compared 
to honors inappropriately lavished on a 
fool. Snow from Anti-Lebanon is still 
sold at Damascus and Beyroot in the 
summer, and even conveyed to Egypt. 
It rarely fell of any great depth in the 
latitude of Palestine, or remained long 
on the ground except in elevated spots, 
2 Sam. 23:20. Like every other wonder 
of nature, it is ascribed to the hand of 
God, Psa. 147:16, 17. 

SO, king of Egypt, made an alliance 
with Hoshea king of Israel, and prom- 
ised him assistance ; but was unable to 
prevent Shalmaneser king of Assyria 
from taking Samaria and subverting the 
kingdom, b. c. 721, 2 Kin. 17 : 4. See 
Pharaoh. So is believed to have been 
the Servetus or Sabaco II. of secular his- 
tory, the second king of the Ethiopian 
or twenty-fifth dynasty, and the prede- 
cessor of Tirhakah. A singular fact has 
been brought to light by the recent ex- 
plorations at Nineveh, corroborating the 
Scripture record the more forcibly, be- 
cause unexpected and direct. The Bible 
shows that Egypt and Assyria, though 
remote, were often in conflict during the 
height of the Assyrian power, and that 
So was at war with Shalmaneser. After 
war comes the treaty of peace ; and as 
the Bible prepares us to suppose such 
treaties were made, the Assyrian ruins 
furnish evidence of their existence. In 
the remains of Sennacherib's palace re- 
cently disentombed, a small room was 
found which seems to have been a hall 
of records ; and among the seals it con- 
tained was the seal of So, well known 
to students of Egyptian antiquities. It 
was impressed, as was then the custom, 
on a piece of fine clay, which also bore 
the impress of a royal signet of Assyria ; 
thus showing the probability that such 
a treaty between the two nations had 
here been deposited. If so, when the 
two monarchs affixed their seals to a 



document which like themselves has 
turned to dust, the Most High by their 
act affixed an additional seal to his holy 
word, which is true and abideth for ever. 

SOAP, Mai. 3 : 2, Hebrew, borith, the 
cleanser; in Jer. 2 : 22 distinguished from 
nitre, which see. It is well known that 
the ancients used certain vegetables and 
their ashes for the purpose of cleansing 
linen, etc. The ashes of seashore plants 
contain barilla or carbonate of soda, and 
those of poplar and other inland plants 
contain carbonate of potash. Combined 
witli oil or fat these alkalies produced 
soap ; but it is not known in what forms 
the Jews used tliem. 

SO'COH, or Sho'choh, I., 1 Kin. 4:10, 
a town in the plain of Judah, near Aze- 
kah, famous for a battle of David and 
Saul with the Philistines, 1 Sam. 17 : 1 ; 
against whom Piehoboam fortified it, and 
by whom it was afterwards taken, 2 Chr. 
11:7; 28:18. 

II. A town in the mountains of Ju- 
dah, south by west of Hebron, Josh. 
15 : 48. Dr. Eobinson found traces of 
both these sites, under the name of Su- 
weikeh, or Shaukeh. 

SOD'OM, one of the cities of the plain, 
and for some time the dwelling-place of 
Lot, Gen. 13 : 10-13 ; 14:12. Its crimes 
and vices were so enormous, that God 
destroyed it by fire from heaven, with 
three neighboring cities, Gomorrah, Ze- 
boim, and Admah, Avhich Avere as wick- 
ed as_ itself. Gen. 19. The plain of Sid- 
dim in which they stood was pleasant 
and fruitful, like an earthly paradise ; 
but it was first burned, and afterwards 
mostly overflowed by the waters of the 
Dead sea or lake of Sodom. See Jor- 
dan, and Sea III. The prophets, in 
denouncing woes upon other countries, 
mention the destruction of Sodom and 
Gomorrah, and intimate that these places 
shall be desert and dried up and unin- 
habited, Jer. 49 : 18 ; 50 : 40 ; that they 
shall be covered with briers and bram- 
bles, a land of salt and sulphur, where 
can be neither planting nor sowing, 
Deut. 29 : 23 ; Amos 4: 11. Throughout 
Scripture the ruin of Sodom and Gomor- 
rah is represented as a most signal effect 
of God's anger, and as a mirror in which 
those living at ease in sin and lust may 
see their own doom. The name is given 
in Rev. 11 : 8, to the great and corrupt 
city of antichrist. "Sodomites" were 
men addicted to the beastly lusts allud- 
431 



SOL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SOL 



ed to in Gen. 19 ; 1 Kin. 14 : 24 ; Rom. I 
1:26, 27. I 

SOL'OMON, peaceful, the son and suc- 
cessor of David, born of Batlisheba, b. c. 
1033. The prophet Nathan called him 
Jedidiah, " beloved of the Lord," 2 Sam. 
12 : 25, and he was a child of promise, 
1 Chr. 22:9, 10. At the age of eighteen 
he received from David the throne which 
his brother Adonijah liad endeavored to 
usurp. Scripture records his earnest and 
jMous petition for wisdom from above, 
that he might govern that great people 
well ; and the bestowal of that wisdom, 
with numerous other blessings in its 
train. Matt. 6:33. His unequalled learn- 
ing and sagacity soon became renowned 
throughout the East, and continue so 
even to this day. In every kind of tem- 
poral prosperity he was preeminently 
favorecl. His unquestioned dominion 
extended from the Euphrates to the 
"river of Egypt;" Palmyra in the des- 
ert and Ezion-geber on the Red sea were 
in his possession. He accomplished Da- 
vid' s purpose by erecting a temple for 
Jehovah with the utmost magniticence. 
Many other important public and pri- 
vate works were executed during his 
reign. He established a lucrative com- 
merce with Tyre, Egypt, Arabia, India, 
and Babylon, by the fruits of Avhich he 
himself tirst and chiefly, and indirectly 
the whole land, were greatly enriched. 
He was the wisest, wealthiest, most 
honored, and fortunate of men. But 
through the temptations connected with 
this flood of prosperity, he became lux- 
urious, proud, and forgetful of God ; 
plunged into every kind of self-indul- 
gence ; allowed his wives, and at length 
assisted them, in their aboTninable idol- 
atries ; and forfeited the favor of God. 
Yet divine grace did not forsake him ; 
he was reclaimed, and has given us the 
proofs of his repentance and the fruits of 
his experience in his inspired writings. 
His reign continued forty years, b. c. 
1015-975, and was uniformly peaceful, 
and favorable to the people, if we except 
the evils of a corrupt example and an 
excessive taxation. His history is less 
fully recorded than David's by the sacred 
historians, 1 Kin. 1:11 ; 2 Chr. 1-9; but 
we may learn much respecting him from 
his writings, especially from the book of 
Ecclesiastes. Nothing could more em- 
phatically teach us the weakness of hu- 
man nature, even when accompanied 
432 



with the utmost learning and sagacity, 
the perils of prosperity, or the insuffi- 
ciency of all possible earthly good to 
satisfy the wants of man. 

The writings of Solomon covered a 
wide range in the natural sciences, as 
well as in philosophy and morals. " He 
spake three thousand proverbs ; and his 
songs were a thousand and five : and he 
spake of trees — of beasts, and of fowl, and 
of creeping things, and of lishes," 1 Kin. 
4:32, 33. 

Solomon's pools, Eccl. 2:6. Among 
these may perhaps be included the an- 
cient strijctuies now so called, two or 
three miles south-west of Bethlehem. 
These are three large reservoirs lying 
one above and beyond another in a nar- 
row valley. They are built of large 
stones, and plastered within ; and the 
water collected in them, and in several 
fountains in the vicinity, was conveyed 
in an aqueduct to Bethlehem and Jeru- 
salem. The upper pool is 380 feet in 
length, the middle pool 423, and the 
lower one 582. Their average breadth 
is 200 feet, and their depth 38 feet. At 
present they contain comparatively little 
water ; yet they are of incalculable im- 
portance to Bethlehem, and might easily 
be made so to Jerusalem. The aqueduct 
crosses the valley of Hinnom below the 
south-Avest coi"ner of the city wall, winds 
south around mount Zion, and turns 
north again into the city towards the 
Haram area. 

Solomon's porch. See Temple. 

Solomon's Song, called also Canticlks, 
and Song of Songs, b. c. 1012. This 
highly ligurative and beautiful poem has 
always held a place in the canonical 
Scriptures, and of course was a part of 
the Bible in the time of Christ ; it was 
so regarded by the early Christians, and 
appears in the ancient catalogues, man- 
uscripts, and versions. Numerous and 
very different opinions have been held 
as to the subject and plan of this poem ; 
but that its design is to set forth the 
spiritual love and mutual communion 
between Christ and his people, is evident 
from its harmony, when so understood, 
with the large class of Scripture passages 
which represent God and particularly 
Christ as the husband of the church, and 
employ the marriage relation in its va- 
rious aspects to illustrate the relation 
between the Saviour and his people. 
Thus Psiilm Ah is a Messianic nuptial 



BON 



BIBLE BICTIOXAKV. 



tSOP 



song. See also Isa. 54:5 ; G2:5 ; Jer. 3 ; 
Ezek. 1(3; Hos. 1-3; 2 Cor. 11:2; Eph. 
5:28-32; Rev. 19:7-9; 21:2-9. 

In the exposition of this beautiful 
poem we must remember the difference 
between eastern and western nations. 
Modern conventional rules and notions 
are not the standard to which its plan, 
its images, or its phraseology should be 
brought. The veiling of spiritual fervor 
and enjoyment under the symbol of love 
is common among oriental nations, and 
commentators have quoted portions of 
Eastern allegorical songs which bear no 
small resemblance to this inspired alle- 
gory. Many Christians, deeply imbued 
witii the spirit of the gospel, have found 
great delight and benefit in reading it. 
Jonathan Edwards says, "I found an 
inward sweetness that would carry me 
away in my contemplations. This I 
know not how to express otherwise than 
by a calm, delightful abstraction of the 
soul from all concerns of tlie Avorld ; and 
sometimes a kind of vision of fixed ideas 
and imaginations of being alone in the 
mountains or some solitary wilderness, 
far from mankind, sweetly conversing 
with Christ, and rapt and swallowed up 
in Grod. The sense I had of divine things 
would often of a sudden kindle up an 
ardor in my soul that I knew not how to 
express. While thus engaged, it always 
seemed natural to me to sing or chant 
forth my meditations, or to speak my 
thoughts in soliloquies with a singing 
voice." 

Dr. John Brown of Haddington, in the 
introduction to his admirable paraphrase 
of this book, says, " If understood of the 
marriage and fellowship between Christ 
and his people, it will appear most exalt- 
ed, instructive, and heart-warming. Its 
majestic style, its power on men's con- 
science to promote holiness and purity, 
the harmony of its language with that 
of Christ's parables and the book of Rev- 
elation, the sincerity of the bride in ac- 
knowledging her faults, and its general 
reception by the Jewish and Christian 
church, sufficiently prove it inspired of 
God. To such as read it with a carnal 
and especially with a wanton mind, it is 
the savor of death unto death, as the 
mind and conscience of such are defiled ; 
but to such as have experienced much 
fellowship with Christ, and read it with 
a heavenly and spiritual temper of mind, 
it wiU be the savor of life unto life. The 
19 



speakers in it are, Christ, Believers, and 
the Daughters of Jerusalem," or com- 
panions and friends of believers. 

SON sometimes denotes a grandson, 
or any remote descendant, Gen. 29 : 5 ; 
2 Sam. 19:24. At other times a son by 
adoption is meant. Gen. 48 : 5 ; or by 
law, Ruth 4:17 ; or by education, 1 Sam. 
3:6; 20 : 35 ; or by conversion, as Titus 
was Paul's "son after the common 
faith," Tit. 1 : 4. x\nd again it denotes 
a mental or moral resemblance, etc., 
Judg. 19:22; Psa. 89:6; Isa. 57:3; Acts 
13:10. In a similar sense men are some- 
times called sons of God, Luke 3 : 38 ; 
Rom. 8:14. 

Son of God, a peculiar appellation of 
Christ, expressing his eternal relation- 
ship to the Father, Psa. 2:7; Dan. 3:25; 
Luke 1 : 35 ; John 1 : 18, 34. Christ al- 
wavs claimed to be the only-begotten Son 
of the Father, Matt. 4:3 ; 8:29; 27:54; 
John 3 : 16-18 ; and the Jews rightly 
understood bihn as thus making himself 
equal with God, John 5 : 18 ; 10:30-33. 

Son of man, a title of Christ, assumed 
by himself in his humiliation, John 1:51. 
It was understood as a designation of the 
Messiah, according to Old Testament pre- 
dictions, Psa. 80:17 ; Dan. 7:13, 14; but 
appears to indicate especially his true 
humanity or oneness with the human 
race. It is applied to him more than 
eighty times in the New Testament. 

SOOTHSAYER. See Sorckrer. 

SOP, John 13 : 26, a small portion of 
bread, dipped in sauce, wine, or some 
other liquid at table, Ruth 2:14. Mod- 
ern table utensils were unknown or little 
used by the ancients. The food was con- 
veyed to the mouth by the thumb and 
fingers, and a choice morsel was often 
thus bestowed on a favored guest. Sim- 
ilar customs still prevail in Palestine. 
Jowett says, "There are set on the table 
in the evening two or three messes of 
stewed meat, vegetables, and sour milk. 
To me the privilege of a knife, spoon, 
and plate was granted ; Init the rest 
helped themselves immediately from the 
dish, in which five Arab fingers might 
be seen at once. Their bread, wliich is 
extremely thin, tearing and folding up 
like a sheet of paper, is used for rolling 
together a large mouthful, or sopping 
up the fluid and vegetables. When the 
master of the house found in the dish 
any dainty morsel, he took it out with 
his fingers, and put it to ray mouth." 
433 



SOP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SPA 



SOP'ATER, a Berean Cliristian, and 
one of those who attended Paul from 
Greece into Asia Minor, Acts 20 : 4. He 
is supposed to have been the kinsman of 
Paul called Sosipater in Rom. 1G:21. 

SOR'CEPvER, one who practised sor- 
cery ; nearly synonymous Avith magi- 
cian, soothsayer, or wizard. This Avas a 
class of persons who dealt in incantations 
and divinations, and boasted of a power, 
in consequence of their deep science and 
by means of certain rites, to evoke the 
spirits of the dead from their gloomy 
abodes, and compel them to disclose in- 
formation on subjects beyond the reach 
of human powers. They pretended also 
that, by means of certain herbs and in- 
cantations, they were able to expel de- 
mons, Acts 13:6, 8. Those persons also 
who devoted themselves to the general 
studies above mentioned, often abused 
their knowledge and deceived the com- 
mon people, by pretending to foretell 
the destinies of men from the motions 
and appearances of the planets and stars, 
and to cure diseases by repeating certain 
phrases, etc. Of this class appears to 
have been Simon the sorcerer, mention- 
ed in Acts 8:9, 11. Females who prac- 
tised such arts were called sorceresses 
and witches, Mai. 3:5 ; Rev. 22:15. See 
Divination, Enchantments, and Magic. 

SO'REK, a valley in Avhich Delilah 
resided, not far from Zorah and Eshtaol, 
Judg. 16:4. In winter and spring it was 
the channel of a brook, flowing north- 
west from Judah, by the region of Dan 
and the Philistines, into the Mediterra- 
nean. Jerome mentions a village of So- 
rek in that vicinity. Tiie same Hebrew 
word, translated ' ' choice ' ' and ' ' noble ' ' 
in Gen. 49 : 11, Isa. 5 : 2, Jer. 2 : 21, is 
the name of a vine bearing small grapes, 
but very sweet and almost without seeds. 
This vine may have given the valley its 
name. 

SOSIPATER. See Sopater. 

SOS'THENES, the chief of the syna- 
gogue at Corinth, who was beaten by 
the Gentiles when the Jews carried Paul 
before Gallio the proconsul. Acts 18:17. 
He appears to have been the leader of 
the Jews in this attempt to destroy Paul. 
Whether he was converted, and is iden- 
tical with the ' ' Sosthenes our brother ' ' 
in 1 Cor. 1:1, is unknown. 

SOUL. The ancients supposed the 
soul, or rather the animating principle 
of life, to reside in the breath, and that 
434 



it departed from the body with the 
breath. Hence the Hebrew and Greek 
words which, when they refer to man, 
in our Bibles are translated "soul," are 
usually rendered "life" or "breath" 
when they refer to animals, Gen. 2:7; 
7:15; Num. 16:22; Job 12: 10; 34:14, 
15; Psa. 104:29; Eccl. 12:7; Acts 17: 25. 

But together with this principle of life, 
which is common to men and brutes, 
and which in brutes perishes with the 
body, there is in man a spiritual, rea- 
sonable, and immortal soul, the seat of 
our thoughts, affections, and reasonings, 
which distinguishes us from the brute cre- 
ation, and in which chiefly consists our 
resemblance to God, Gen. 1 : 26. This 
must be spiritual, because it thinks ; it 
must be immortal, because it is spiritual. 
Scripture ascribes to man alone under- 
standing, conscience, the knowledge of 
God, wisdom, immortality, and the hope 
of future everlasting happiness. It 
threatens men only Avith punishment in 
another life, and Avith the paias of hell. 
In some places the Bible seems to distin- 
guish soul from spirit, 1 Thess. 5 : 23 ; 
Heb. 4:12 : the organ of our sensations, 
appetites, and passions, allied to the 
body, from that nobler portion of our 
nature which most allies man to God. 
Yet Ave are to conceive of them as one 
indivisible and spiritual being, called 
also the mind and the heart, spoken of 
variously as living, feeling, understand- 
ing, reasoning, Avilling, etc. Its usual 
designation is the soul. 

The immortality of the soul is a fun- 
damental doctrine of revealed religion. 
The ancient patriarchs lived and died 
persuaded of this truth ; and it Avas in 
the hope of another life that they receiv- 
ed the promises. Compare Gen. 50:33 ; 
Num. 23 : 10 ; 1 Sam. 28:13-15; 2 Sam. 
12:23; Job 19:25, 26; Eccl. 12:7; Heb. 
11 : 13-16. In the gospel "life and im- 
mortality," and the Avorth of immortal 
souls, are fullv brought to light. Matt. 
16 : 26 ; 1 Cor." 15 : 45-57 ; 2 Tim. 1 : 10. 
To save the souls of men, Christ freely 
devoted himself to death ; and how does 
it become us to labor and toil and strive, 
in our respective spheres, to promote the 
great Avork for which He bled and died ! 

SPAIN comprehended, in ancient 
usage, the modern kingdoms of Spain 
and Portugal, that is, the whole Spanish 
peninsula. In the time of Paul, it Avas 
subject to the Romans, and was fre- 



!SrA 



BIBLE DICTIONARV. 



iSPt 



quented by many Jews. For the sup- 
posed origin of its name, see Coney. In 
Ptom. 15 : 24, 28, Paul expresses his in- 
tention of visiting Spain ; and many con- 
jecture tlaat he did so between his tirst 
and second imprisonments at Rome, 
about A. D. 64-66. 

SPAN, Lam. 2 : 20, the distance from 
the extremity of the thumb to that of 
the little linger, when stretched apart ; 
some nine inches. 




cincts of which they built their favored 
nests of old, Psa. 84:3. 



SPAR'ROW, a small bird, the Passer 
Domesticus of naturalists, with quill and 
tail feathers brown, and its body gray 
and black, resembling the small "chirp- 
ing-bird" of America. It is a general 
inhabitant of Europe, Asia, and Africa ; 
is bold and familiar in its habits, and 
frequents populous places. It builds 
under the eaves of houses, and in simi- 
lar situations ; feeds on seeds, fruits, and 
insects; and lays five or six eggs of a 
pale ash color, with brown spots. The 
Hebrew name Tzippor includes also other 
small chirping birds, feeding on grain 
and insects, and classed as clean, Lev. 
14 : 4 ; among others the thrush, which 
may be alluded to in Psa. 102 : 7, a bird 
remarkable throughout the East for sit- 
ting solitary on the habitations of men 
and warbling in sweet and plaintive 
strains. A sparrow is of course of com- 
paratively little value ; and it is there- 
fore a striking exemplification of God's 
providence to say that he watches even 
over the sparrow's fall, Matt. 10 : 29. 
These birds are still very numerous, 
troublesome, and cheap in Jerusalem, 
Luke 12 : 6, and flit in great numbers 
around the mosque of Omar, on the site 
of the ancient temple, within the pre- 




THE NARDOSTACHYS JATAMANSI. 

SPIKE'NARD, Song 1:12 ; 4:13, 14, a 

highly perfumed ointment prepared from 
I a plant in India growing in short spikes. 
; It was highly prized by the ancients, and 
I was a favorite perfume at their baths and 
banquets. Horace represents a small box 
of it as equivalent to a large vessel of 
wine, and as a handsome quota for a 
guest to contribute to an entertainment. 
It was kept closely sealed, sometimes in 
alabaster boxes ; and to unseal and open 
it was called breaking the box, Mark 
14 : 3. The evangelists speak of it as 
diffusing a rich perfume ; and as ' ' pre- 
cious," and "very costly," a pound of 
it being worth more than three hundred 
denarii, or over forty dollars, John 12:3- 
5. See Alabaster, and Penny. 

SPPDER, a well-known insect, re- 
markable for the thread which it spins, 
and with which it forms a web of curious 
texture, but so frail that it is exposed to 
be broken and destroyed by the slightest 
accident. To the slenderness of this filmy 
workmanship Job compares the hope of 
433 



SPI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



8ri 




the wicked, 8 : 14. So also in Isa. 59 : 5, 
it is shown that the works of sinners are 
utterly inadequate to cover or protect | 
them. In Prov. 30 : 28, it is said in our ' 
version that "the spider taketh hold; 
with her hands, and is in kings' pal- 
aces ;" but the Hebrew employs here a 
different Avord, which signifies, accord- 
ing to the best interpreters, a species of 
lizard frequent in Palestine. 

RPIR'IT is a word employed in various 
senses in Scripture. 

I. For THE Holy Spirit, the third per- 
son of the Holy Trinity, Avho inspired the 
prophets, animates good men, pours his 
unction into our hearts, imparts to us 
life and comfort ; and in whose name we 
are baptized and blessed, as well as in 
that of the Father and the Son. When 
the adjective Holy is applied to the term 
Spirit, we should always understand it 
as here explained ; but there are many 
places where it must be taken in this 
sense, although the term Holy is omit- 
ted. See Holy Spirit. 

II. Breath, respiration ; or the princi- 
ple of animal life, common to men and 
animals : this God has given, and this ; 
he recalls Avhen he takes away life, Eccl. j 
3:21. See Soul. 

HI. The rational sotjl which ani- 
mates us, and preserves its being after i 
the death of the body. That spiritual, | 
reasoning, and choosing substance, which ; 
is capable of eternal happiness. See i 
Soul. 

The "spirits in prison," 1 Pet. 3 : 19, j 
it is generally thought, are the souls of 
antediluvian sinners now reserved unto 
the judgment-day, but unto whom the 
Spirit preached by the agency of Noah, 
etc., 2 Pet. 2 : 5, when they were in the 
flesh. Thus Christ "preached" to the 
Ephesians, whom he never visited in per- 
son, Eph. 2:17. 

IV. An ANGEL, good or bad ; a soul 
436 



separate from the body, Mark 14:26. It 
is said. Acts 23 : 8, that the Sadducees 
denied the existence of angels and spir- 
its. Christ, appearing to his disciples, 
said to them, Luke 24:39, " Handle me, 
and see ; for a spirit hath not flesh and 
bones, as ye see me have." 

V. The DISPOSITION of the mind or in- 
tellect. Thus we read of a spirit of jeal- 
ousy, a spirit of fornication, a spirit of 
prayer, a spirit of infirmity, a spirit of 
wisdom and understanding, a spirit of 
fear of the Lord, Hos. 4: 12 ; Zech. 12: 10 ; 
Luke 13:11; Isa. 11:2. 

VI. The RENEWED NATURE of truc be- 
lievers, which is produced by the Holy 
Spirit, and conforms the soul to his lilce- 
ness. Spirit is thus the opposite of flesh, 
John 3:6. This spirit is vitally united 
with, and in some passages can hardly 
be distinguished from the ' ' Spirit of 
Christ," which animates true Christians, 
the children of God, and distinguishes 
them from the children of darkness, who 
are animated by the spirit of the world, 
Rom. 8:1-16. This indwelling Spirit is 
the gift of grace, of adoption — the Holy 
Spirit poured into our hearts — which em- 
boldens us to call God ' ' Abba, my Fa- 
ther." Those who are influenced by this 
Spirit " have crucified the flesh, with its 
ail'ections and lusts," Gal. 5:16-25. 

' ' Distinguishing or discerning of spir- 
its" consisted in discerning whether a 
man were really inspired by the Spirit of 
God, or was a false prophet, an impos- 
tor, who only followed the impulse of 
his own spirit or of Satan. Paul speaks, 
1 Cor. 12:10, of the discerning of spirits 
as being among the miraculous gifts 
granted by God to the faithful at the 
first settlement of Christianity. 

To "quench the Spirit," 1 Thess. 
5:19, is a metaphorical expression easily 
understood. The Spirit may be quench- 
ed by forcing, as it were, that divine 
Agent to withdraw from us, by irregu- 
larity of life, frivolity, avarice, negli- 
gence, or other sins contrary to charity, 
truth, peace, and his other gifts and 
qualifications. 

We "grieve" the Spirit of God by 
withstanding his holy inspirations, the 
impulses of his grace ; or by living in a 
lukewarm and incautious manner ; by 
despising his gifts, or neglecting them ; 
by abusing his favors, either out of van- 
ity, curiosity, or indifference. In a con- 
trary sense, 2 Tim. 1 : 6, we "stir up" 



SPO 



BIBLE UICTIOXArxY. 



STE 



the Spirit of God which is in us, by 
the practice of virtue, by compliance 
with his inspirations, by fervor in his 
service, by renewing our gratitude, and 
by diligently serving Christ and doing 
the works of the Spirit. 

SPOIL, booty taken in war, in which 
all the soldiers were permitted by David 
to share, whether actually engaged in 
battle or not, 1 Sam. 30:21-35. A portion 
of what was thus gained was devoted to 
the Lord of hosts as early as the time of 
Abraham, Gen. 1-1 : 20 ; and under the 
Mosaic legislation a definite rule for this 
purpose was established. Num. 81 : 26- 
47; 1 Chr. 26:27. Christ " spoiled ]' 
principalities and powers when by his 
atoning work he triumphed over Satan 
and his hosts, and deprived them of their 
power to injure his people. Col. 2 : 15. 
Paul warns Christians not to permit 
human philosophy, tradition, etc., to 
"spoil" them, that is, to rob them of 
Scripture truths and spiritual blessings, 
Col. 2:8. See Philosophy. 

STA'CHYS, a disciple of Paul, by 
whom he is honorably mentioned, Piom. 
16:9. From his name it would seem 
that he was a Greek, though residing at 
Kome. 

STAC'l'E, one of the four ingredients 
composing the sacred perfume, Exod. 
30 : 34, 35. Some think the gum called 
storax is intended ; but it is generally 
understood to be the purest kind of 
myrrh ; and as the Hebrew properly sig- 
nifies a drop, it would seem to refer to 
myrrh as distilling, dropping from the 
tree of its own accord, without incision. 
So Pliny, speaking of the trees whence 
myrrh is produced, says, "Before any 
incision is made, they exude of their 
own accoid what is called Stacte, to 
which no kind of myrrh is prefei-able." 

STAR. Under the name of stars, the 
Hebrews comprehended all the constel- 
lations, planets, and heavenly lumina- 
ries, except the sun and moon. The 
psalmist, to exalt the power and om- 
niscience of God, says, "He telleth the 
number of the stars ; he calleth them all 
by their names," Psa. 147 : 4 ; God being 
described as a king taking a review of 
his- army, and knowing the name of 
every one of his soldiers. Christ is called 
"the Morning Star," which is the bright- 
est of the heavenly train, and ushers in 
the day, Rev. 22 : 16. Compare Num. 
24:17. To express a very extraordinary 



increase and midtiplication. Scripture 
uses the similitude of the stars of heav- 
en, or of the sands of the sea. Gen. 15:5 ; 
22 : 17 ; 26 : 4 ; Ex. 32 : 13. In times of 
disgrace and public calamity, it is said 
the stars withhold their light ; they are 
covered with darkness ; they fall from 
heaven, and disappear. These figurative 
and emphatic expressions, which refer 
to the governing powers of nations, are 
only weakened and enervated by being 
explained. 

In the pure atmosphere of Judea and 
the East the stars shine with peculiar 
brilliancy, and seem as if hanging mid- 
way in the heavenly canopy, while the 
eye penetrates the ether far beyond 
them. The bepaity and splendor that 
men observed in the stars ; the great 
advantages they derived from them ; 
the wonderful order apparent in their 
courses ; the influence ascribed to their 
returns, in the production and preserva- 
tion of animals, fruits, plants, and min- 
erals, have induced almost all heathen 
nations to impute to them life, know- 
ledge, power, and to pay them a sove- 
reign worship and adoration. ITie Is- 
raelites also needed to be warned against 
this sin. "Learn not the way of the 
heathen," says God, "and be not dis- 
mayed at the signs of heaven ; for the 
heathen are dismayed at them," Jer. 
10:2. See Idolatiiy. 

Star in the kast. It is a fact of great 
interest, that when the Saviowr appeared, 
not onl)^ were the Jews eagerly expect- 
ing the ]\Iessiah. but many in various 
heathen lands were cherishing similar 
hopes : in part through the difliision of 
the Hebrew prophecies ; in part through 
the felt need of a Saviour ; and in part 
perhaps through direct divine intima- 
tions. The eastern magi apparently 
were not only apprized of the coming 
birth of a royal and divine being in 
Judea, but were miraculously guided to 
Bethlehem by a meteoric light, appear- 
ing in the right direction for their course, 
Matt. 2 : 9. The fanciful theory of the 
distinguished astronomer Kepler, that 
the conjunction of the planets Jupiter 
and Saturn six years before the common 
Christian era may have constituted the 
"star in the east," does not appear to 
meet the terms of the inspired narrative. 
See Magi. 

STEPHANAS, a Christian of Corinth, 
whose farailv Paul baptized, the first con- 
437 



STE 



BIBLE DICTIO>'ARY 



STO 



vert to the gospel in Achaia, probably 
about A. D. 52, 1 Cor. 1 : 16. He Avas for- 
ward in the service of the church, and 
came to Paul at Ephesus, 1 Cor. 16 : 15, 
17. 

STE'PHEN, one of the seven deacons 
first chosen by the church at Jerusalem, 
and distinguished among them as "a 
man full of faith and of the Holy Ghost. ' ' 
He seems from his name to have been a 
Hellenistic Jev*', (see Greci^vxs,) and to 
have been chosen in part as being famil- 
iar with the language, opinions, and cus- 
toms of the Greeks, Acts 6 : 1-6. His 
mighty works and unanswerable argu- 
ments roused the bitterest hostility 
against liim, and he was brought before 
the Sanhedrim for trial, on the charge 
of blasphemy and heresy. His speech in 
his own defence, probably recorded only 
in part, shows historically that Christi- 
anity was the true development of the 
religion of Moses, fulfilling all its types 
and prophecies ; and that the opponents 
of Christianity were but the children and 
imitators of those who had always op- 
posed true religion. His enraged hear- 
ers hurried him to death, a judicial tri- 
bunal becoming a riotous mob for the 
occasion. Compare John 18 : 31. With 
Christlike magnanimity he forgave his 
murderers, and ' ' fell asleep ' ' amid their 
stones, with his eyes upon the Saviour 
" standing at the right hand of God," as 
if rising from his throne to protect and 
receive the first martyr of his church, 
Acts 7. The results of Stephen's death 
illustrate the saying of Tertullian, "The 
blood of the martyrs is the seed of the 
church," Acts 8 : 1, 4 ; 11 : 19-21. Au- 
gustine observes that the church owes 
the conversion and ministry of Paul to 
the praver of Stephen. Paul, himself a 
Cilician, Acts 6:9; 22 : 3, had undoubt- 
edly felt the force of his arguments in 
the discussions which preceded his arrest; 
and long afterwards alluded to his own 
presence at the martvr's death, Acts 
22 : 19, 20 — that triumph of Christian 
faith and love which has taught so many 
martyrs and Christians how to die. Yet 
nothing he heard or witnessed availed 
for his conversion, till he saw the Sav- 
iour himself. Acts 9. The scene of Ste- 
phen's martyrdom is placed by modern 
tradition on the east side of Jerusalem, 
near the gate called after his name. Ear- 
lier traditions located it more to the 
north. 

4.SS 



STOCK, the trunk of a tree. Job 14:8, 
or a reproachful name for the idols carv- 
ed out of it, Jer. 2:27 ; Hos. 4:12. The 
stocks in which Paul and Silas were fast- 
ened, Acts 16 : 24, were an instrument 
well known in Europe and America until 




recent times ; consisting of two beams, 
the upper one movable, with grooves 
between them large enough to receive 
the ancles of the prisoner. The arms 
also were sometimes confined. Stocks 
were frequently erected in market-places, 
that the insults of the populace might be 
added to the pain of confinement, Job 
13:27; Jer. 20:2. 

STO'ICS, a set of fatalistic heathen 
philosophers, so named from the Greek 
word signifying porch, or portico, be- 
cause Zeno its founder, more than three 
centuries before Christ, held his school 
in a porch of the city of Athens. They 
placed the supreme happiness of man in 
living agreeably to nature and reason ; 
affecting the same stiffness, patience, 
apathy, austerity, and insensibility as 
the Pharisees, whom they much resem- 
bled. They were in great repute at Ath- 
ens when Paul visited that city, Acts 
17 : 18. 

STONE. The allusion in Eev. 2 : 17 

may be to the practice at the Olympic 

games of giving the successful competi- 

i tor a white stone, inscribed with his 

I name and the value of his prize ; or to 

i the mode of balloting with black and 



STO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



STR 



white stones on the question of the ac- 
quittal of an accused person, or his ad- 
mission to certain privileges ; if the 
stones deposited in the urn bj^ the judges 
were all white, the decision was favor- 
able. In early ages, tlint-stone knives 
were in common use, instead of steel, 
Ex. 4 : 25 ; Josh. 5:2. It was also custom- 
ary to raise a heap or mound of stones 
in commemoration of any remarkable 
event, Gen. 31 : -46 ; Josh. 4:5-7 ; 7 : 26 ; 
8:29; 2 Sam. 18:17. The same custom 
still prevails in Syria, and passing trav- 
ellers are wont to add each one a stone 
to the heap. See Corner-stone. 

STONTNG was a punishment much in 
use among the Hebrews, and the rabbins 
reckon all crimes as being subject to it, 
which the law condemns to death with- 
out expressing the particular mode. 
They say that when a man was con- 
demned to death, he was lea out of the 
city to the place of execution, and there 
exhorted to acknowledge and confess his 
fault. He was then stoned in one of two 
ways ; either stones were thrown upon 
him till he died, or he was thrown head- 
long down a steep place, and a large 
stone rolled upon his body. The former 
was the usual mode ; and the witnesses 
Avere required to cast the first stones, 
Deut. 17 : 5-7 ; for which purpose they 
sometimes threw off their outer gar- 
ments. Acts 7 : 58. To the latter mode 
it is supposed there is a reference in 
Matt. 21 : 44. So also in Luke 4 : 2'J, 
where compare Nazareth. 




STORK. Its Hebrew name signifies 
kindness or mercy, and its Greek name 
natural affection, probably because of 
the tenderness which it is said to mani- 
fest towards its parents — never, as is re- 



ported, forsaking them, but feeding and 
defending them in their decrepitude. In 
modern times, parent storks are known 
to have perished in the effort to rescue 
their young from flames ; and it has 
been a popular, but perhaps ill-founded 
opinion, that in their migratory flights, 
the leader of the flock when fatigued is 
partially supported by others as he falls 
into the rear. In Jer. 8 : 7, allusion is 
made to the unerring instinct of the 
stork as a bird of passage, and perhaps 
to its lofty flight: "The stork in the 
heavens knoweth her appointed times. ' ' 
Moses places it among unclean birds. 
Lev. 11:19 ; Deut. 14:18. The psalmist 
says, "As for the stork, the fir-trees are 
her house," Psa. 104:17. In the climate 
of Europe, she commonly builds her nest 
on some high tower or ruin, or on the 
top of a house ; but in Palestine, where 
the coverings of the hou.ses are flat, she 
builds in high trees. 

The stork has the beak and legs long 
and red ; it feeds on field-mice, lizards, 
snakes, frogs, and insects. Its plumage 
%vould be wholly white, but that the 
extremities of its wings, and some small 
part of its head and thighs, are black. 
It sits for the space of thirty days, and 
lays but four eggs. Storks migrate to 
southern countries in August, and return 
in the spring. They are still the object 
of much veneration among the common 
people in some parts of Europe and Asia. 

STRAIT, narrow, and difficult to pass, 
Matt. 7 : 13, 14. This word should not 
be confounded with straight. To be "in 
a strait," is to have one's wsxj beset with 
doubts or difficulties, to be at a loss, 
1 Sam. 13:6 ; 2 Sam. 24:14 ; Phil. 1:23. 

STRAN'GER is sometimes used in a 
special sense, easily understood from the 
context. It usually denotes a foreigner, 
one who is not a native of the laird in 
which he resides. Gen. 23 ; 4. The Mo- 
saic law enjoined a generous hospitality 
towards foreign residents, saving, "Thou 
shalt love him as thvself," Lev. 19 : 33, 
34 ; Deut. 10 : 18, 19 : 24 : 17 ; 27 : 19. 
They were subject to the law. Ex. 20:10, 
Lev. 16 : 20, and were admitted to many 
of the privileges of tlie chosen people of 
God, Num. 9:14; 15:14. The strangers 
whom David collected to aid in building 
the temple, 1 Chr. 22 : 2, probably com- 
prised many of the remnants of the Ca- 
naanite tribes, 1 Kin. 9:20, 21. Hospi- 
tiility to strangers, including all travel- 
439 



STR 



BIBLE DICTIONABY. 



SWI 



lers, was the duty of all good ciiizens, 
Job 31:32; Heb. 13:2. 

STREETS, in the towns and cities of 
Palestine, are supposed to have been 
comparatively narrow and ill graded, on 
account of the unevenness of their sites, 
and the little use of wheel -carriages. 
They were wider, however, than in many 
modern cities, Luke 14 : 21, and termi- 
nated in large public areas around the 
gates, Neh. 8:1. Josephus says that 
those of Jerusalem were paved. They 
were named, like our own streets, Acts 
9:11, and often resembled the bazaars of 
modern eastern cities, the shops of the 
same kind being in the same street and 
giving it its name, as the bakers' street, 
Neh. 3 : 31, 32 ; Jer. 37:21, and the val- 
ley of the cheesemongers. Here, and 
especially at the prominent points and 
corners, men loved, as the Turks do 
now, to spread their piece of carpet and 
sit, 1 Sam. 4: 13 ; Job 29:7 ; and here at 
the hours of prayer they performed their 
devotions. Matt. 6:5. 

STRONG DRINK. See Wine. 

SUC'COTH, booths, I., a spot in the val- 
ley of the Jordan and near the Jabbok, 
where Jacob set up his tents on his return 
from Mesopotamia, Gen. 33:17. Joshua 
assigned the city subsequently built here 
to the tribe of Gad, Josh. 13:27. Gideon 
tore the flesh of the principal men of 
Succoth with thorns and briars, because 
they returned him a haughty answer 
when pursuing the Midianites, Judg. 8:5. 
It seems to have lain on the east side of 
the Jordan ; but may possibly have been 
on the west side, at the place now called 
Sakut. Compare 1 Kin. 7 : 46 ; Psa. 
60:6. 

II. The first encampment of the Is- 
raelites, on their way out of Egypt, Ex. 
12 : 37. 

SUCCOTH BE'NOTH, tents of the daugh- 
ters, 2 Kin. 17:30, an object of idolatrous 
worship among tlie Babylonians : an idol ; 
or as some think, tents or booths, in 
which the Babylonian females prosti- 
tuted themselves to Mylitta, the Assyr- 
ian Venus. 

SUK'KIIM, allies of Shishak in his 
invasion of Judah, 2 Chr. 12 : 3 ; proba- 
bly from regions south-east of Egypt. 

SUM'MER. See Canaan. 

SUN, the great luminary of day, which 
furnishes so many similitudes to the He- 
brew poets, as well as those of all nations, 
Judg. 5 : 31 ; Psa. 84.: 11 ; Prov. 4 : 18 ; 
440 



Luke 1 : 78, 79 ; John 8 : 12. For the 
idolatrous worship of the sun, see Baal. 

SUPERSTI'TION and SUPERSTI'- 
TIOUS, Acts 17:22 and 19:25, are not to 
be understood offensively. Paul found 
the Athenians "much addicted to devo- 
tion," such as it was: perhaps "relig- 
ion" and " religiously inclined " may 
better express the sense of the original. 

SUP'PER, see Eating, and Lord's Sup- 
per. For the suppers, or love-feasts, 
which used to accompany the celebration 
of the Lord's supper, see Feasts. 

SURE'TY, one who makes himself per- 
sonally responsible for the safe appear- 
ing of another. Gen. 43 : 9 and 44 : 32, or for 
the full payment of his debts, etc., Prov. 
22:26. Christ is the "surety of a better 
testament ;" that is, in the glorious and 
complete covenant of grace he engages 
to meet all the claims of the divine law 
against his people, that they may be ab- 
solved, and enriched with all covenant 
blessings, Heb. 7 : 22. Hence his obedi- 
ence unto death, Isa. 53:5, 12. 




SWAL'LOW, the well-known bird of 
passage, Avhich is so common both in our 
country, in Europe, and in the East, Psa. 
84 : 3 ; isa. 38 : 14 ; Jer . 8 : 7 . See Crane, 
and Sparrow. 

SWAN. This bird is mentioned only 
in Lev. 11 : 18, and Deut. 14:16 ; and it 
is there quite doubtful whether tlie He- 
brew word moans a swan. The Septua- 
gint calls it the ibis, and the pui-ple hen, 
a water-fowl. 

SWEAR'ING. See Oath. 

SWINE, a well-known animal, forbid- 
den as food to the Hebrews, who held its 
flesh in such detestation that they would 
not so much as pronounce its name, Lev. 



SYC 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SYE 



11:7; Deut. 14:8. The eating of swine's 
flesh was among the most odious of the 
idolatrous abominations charged upon 
some of the Jews, Isa. 65 : 4 ; 66 : 3, 17. 
The hei-d of swine destroyed by evil spir- 
its in the sea of Gennesaret, Matt. 8:o2, 
are supposed to have been kept by Jews 
for sale to the Gentiles around them, in 
deliance of the law. The beautiful and 
affecting parable of the prodigal son 
shows that the tending of swine was 
considered to be an employment of the 
most despicable character ; it was the 
last resource of that depraved and un- 
happy being who had squandered his 
patrimony in riotous living, Luke 15:14- 
16. The irreclaimably filthy habits of | 
this animal illustrate the insufficiency of ' 
reformation without regeneration, 2 Fet. 
2 : 22 ; as its treading in the mire any 
precious thing which it cannot eat, illus- 
trates the treatment which some profli- 
gates give to the gospel, Matt. 7:6. 




SYCAMORE, or Stc.\minb, Luke 17:6, 
a curious tree, which seems to partake of 
the nature of both the mulberry and the 
fig, the foi-mer in its leaf, and the latter 
in its fruit. Hence its name in Greek, 
meaning the mulberry-fig. The syca- 
more is thus described by Norden : "I 
shall remark that they hav3 in Egypt 
divers sorts of figs ; but if there is any 
difference between them, a particular 
kind differs still more. I mean that 
which the sycamore bears, that they 
name in Arabic giomez. It was upon a 
tree of this sort that Zaccheus got up, to 
see our Saviour pass through Jericho, 
Luke 19 : 4. This sycamore is of the 
height of a beech, and bears its fruit in 
a manner quite different from other 
trees. It has them on the trunk itself, 
which shoots out little sprigs in form of 
190 



a grape-stalk, at the end of which grows 
the fruit, close to one another, much 
like bunches of grapes. The tree is al- 
ways green, and bears fruit several times 
in the year, for I have seen some syca- 
mores which had fruit two months after 
others. The fruit has the figure and 
smell of real figs, but is inferior to them 
in the taste, having a disgustful sweet- 
ness. (Compare Amos 7 : 14. ) Its color 
is a yellow, inclining to an ochre, shad- 
owed by a flesh color ; in the inside, it 
resembles the common fig, excepting 
that it has a blackish coloring, with yel- 
low spots. This sort of tree is pretty 
common in Egypt. The people, for the 
greater part, live on its fruit." 

The sycamore has a very large trunk, 
which breaks up into five or six stout 
branches not many feet above the 
ground; it is planted by the roadside, 
and often where two ways meet ; and 
sends its enormous roots deeply into the 
ground in every direction, so that few 
trees can compare with it in steadfast 
firmness. The power that could say to 
it, " Be thou plucked up by the root, 
and be thou planted in the sea," and it 
should obey, must be of God, Luke 17:6. 
From 1 Kin. 10 : 27 ; 1 Chr. 27 : 28, and 
2 Chr. 1 : 15, it is evident that this tree 
was quite common in Palestine, as well 
as in Egypt ; and from its being joined 
with the vines in Psa. 78 : 47, as well as 
from the circumstance of David's ap- 
pointing a particular officer to superin- 
tend the plantations of them, it seems to 
have been as much valued in ancient as 
in modern times. From Isa. 9 : 10, we 
find that the timber of the sycamore was 
used in the construction of buildings ; 
and notwithstanding its porous and 
spongy appearance, it was of extreme 
durability. Describing the catacombs 
and mummies of Egypt, Dr. Shaw states 
that he found the mummj' chests, and 
the little square boxes containing vari- 
ous figures, which are placed at the feet 
of each mummy, to be both made of syc- 
amore wood, and thus preserved entire 
and uncorrupted for at least three thou- 
sand years. 

SY'CHAR, or Sy'chem. See Shechem. 

SYE'NE, a city on the southern fron- 
tiers of Egvpt, towards Ethiopia, between 
Thebes and the cataracts of the Nile, and 
now called Assouan. Pliny says it stands 
in a peninsula on the eastern shore of 
the Nile ; that it was a mile in circum- 
441 



SYN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SYN 



ference, and had a Eoman garrison. 
" From Migdol," the tower, "unto Sye- 
ne," denotes the whole length of Egypt 
from north to soutli, Ezek. 29:10; 30:6. 
Few remains of the ancient city are now 
extant. In its vicinity are quarries of 
the Egyptian granite called Syenite, 
which furnished the material for numer- 
ous obelisks and colossal statues. 

SYN'AGOGUE, a word which prima- 
rily signifies an assembly ; but, like the 
word church, came at length to be ap- 
plied to the buildings in which the ordi- 
nary Jewish assemblies for the worship 
of God were convened. From the silence 
of the Old Testament with reference to 
these places of worship, many commen- 
tators and writei's on biblical antiquities 
are of opinion that they were not in use 
till after the Babylonish captivity ; and 
that before that time, the Jews held 
their social meetings for religious wor- 
ship either in the open air or in the 
houses of the prophets. See 2 Kin. 4:23. 
In Psa. 7-4 : 8, it is at least very doubtful 
whether the Hebrew word rendered syna- 
gogues, refers to synagogue-buildings such 
as existed after the captivity. Properly 
the word signifies only places where relig- 
ious assemblies were held. In the time 
of our Saviour they abounded. Syna- 
gogues could only be erected in those 
places where ten men of age, learning, 
piety, and easy circumstances could be 
found to attend to the service which was 
enjoined in them. Large towns had sev- 
eral synagogues ; and soon after the cap- 
tivity their utility became so obvious, 
that they were scattered over the land, 
and became the parish churches of the 
Jewish nation. Their number appears 
to have been very considerable ; and 
when the erection of a synagogue was 
considered a mark of piety, Luke 7 : 5, 
or a passport to heaven, we need not be 
surprised to hear that they were multi- 
plied beyond all necessity, so that in 
Jerusalem alone there were not fewer 
than 460 or 480. They were generally 
built on the most elevated ground, and 
consisted of two parts. The westerly 
part of the building contained the ark 
or chest in which the book of the law 
and the sections of the prophets were 
deposited, and was called the temple by 
way of eminence. The other, in which 
the congregation assembled, was termed 
the body of the synagogue. The people 
sat with their faces towards the temple, 
442 



and the elders in the contrJiry direction, 
and opposite to the people ; the space 
between them being occupied by the 
pulpit or reading-desk. The seats of the 
elders w^ere considered more holy than 
the others, and are spoken of as " the 
cliief seats in the synagogues," Matt. 
23:6. The women sat by themselves in 
a gallery secluded by lattice-work. 

The stated office-bearers in every syn- 
agogue were ten, forming six distinct 
classes. We notice first the Archisyn- 
agogos, or ruler of the synagogue, who 
regulated all its concerns and granted 
permission to address the assembly. Of 
these there were three in each syna- 
gogue. Dr. Lightfoot believes them to 
have possessed a civil power, and to have 
constituted the lowest civil tribunal, 
commonly known as ' ' the council of 
three," whose office it was to judge mi- 
nor offences against religion, and also to 
decide the differences that arose between 
any members of the synagogue, as to 
money matters, thefts, losses, etc. To 
these officers there is perhaps an allusion 
in 1 Cor. 6 : 5. See also Judgment. The 
second office-bearer Avas ' ' the angel of the 
synagogue," or minister of the congre- 
gation, who prayed and preached. In al- 
lusion to these, the pastors of the Asiatic 
churches are called "angels," Kev. 2 ; 3. 

The service of the synagogue was as 
follows : The people being seated, the 
' ' angel of the synagogue ' ' ascended the 
pulpit, and offered up the public pray- 
ers, the people rising from their seats, 
and standing in a posture of deep devo- 
tion, Matt. 6:5; Mark 11 : 25 ; Luke 
18 : 11, 13. The praj^ers were nineteen 
in number, and were closed by reading 
the execration. The next thing was the 
repetition of their phylacteries ; after 
which came the reading of the law and 
the prophets. The former was divided 
into fifty-four sections, with which were 
united corresponding portions from the 
prophets; (see Acts 13:15, 27; 15:21;) 
and these were read through once in the 
course of the year. After the return 
from the captivity, an interpreter was 
employed in reading the law and the 
prophets, Neh. 8 : 2-8, who interpreted 
them into the Syro - Chaldaic dialect, 
which was then spoken by the people. 
The last part of the service Avas the ex- 
pounding of the Scriptures, and preach- 
ing from them to the people. This was 
done either by one of the officers, or bjr 



SYN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



SYR 



some distinguished person who happen- 
ed to be present. The reader will recol- 
lect one memorable occasion on which 
our Saviour availed himself of the oppor- 
tunity thus afforded to address his coun- 
trymen, Luke 4 : 20 ; and there are sev- 
eral other instances recorded of himself 
and his disciples teaching in the syna- 
gogues. See Matt. 13 : 54 ; Mark 6:2; 
John 18 : 20 ; Acts 13 : 5, 15, 44 ; 14 : 1 ; 
17 : 2-4, 10, 17 ; 18 : 4, 2G ; 19 : 8. The 
whole service was concluded with a short 
prayer or benediction. 

The Jewish synagogues were not only 
used for the purposes of divine worship, 
but also for courts of judicature, in such 
matters as fell under the cognizance of 
the Council of Three, of which we have 
already spoken. On such occasions, the 
sentence given against the off'ender was 
sometimes, after the manner of prompt 
punishment still prevalent in the East, 
carried into effect in the place where the 
council was assembled. Hence we read 
of persons being beaten in the syna- 
gogue, and scourged in the synagogue, 
Matt. 10 : 17 ; Mark 13 : 9 ; Acts 22 : 19 ; 
20 : 11 ; 2 Cor. 11 : 24. To be " put out 
of the synagogue," or excommunicated 
from the Jewish church and deprived of 
the national privileges, was a punish- 
ment much dreaded, John 9 : 22 ; 12:42; 
IG : 2. In our own day the Jews erect 
synagogues wherever they are sufficient- 
ly numerous, and assemble on their Sab- 
bath for worship ; this being conducted, 
that is, the reading or chanting of the 
Old Testament and of prayers, in the 
original Hebrew, though it is a dead 
language spoken by few among them. 
Among the synagogues of Jerusalem, 
now eight or ten in number, are some 
for Jews of Spanish origin, and others 
for German Jews, etc., as in the time of 
Paul there were separate synagogues for 
the Libertines, Cyrenians, Alexandrians, 

SYN'TYCHE, and EUO'DIAS, Phil. 
4 : 2, 3, women eminent for virtue and 
good works in the church at Philippi. 
Paul exhorts them to persevere, or rath- 
er, to act harmoniously together in their 
Christian labors, as all should do who 
are ' ' in the Lord. ' ' 

SYKACUSE, now Siracasa, a large 
and celebrated city on the eastern coast 
of Sicily, furnished with a capacious 
and excellent harbor. The city, found- 
ed 734 B. c, was opulent and powerful, 



and was divided into four or five quar- 
ters or districts, which were of them- 
selves separate cities. The whole cir- 
cumference is stated by Strabo to have 
been one hundred and eighty stadia, or 
about twenty-two English miles. Syra- 
cuse is celebrated as having been the 
birthplace and residence of Archimedes, 
whose ingenious mechanical contrivances 
during its siege by the Romans, 200 u. c, 
long delayed its capture. Paul passed 
three days here, on his way from Melita 
to Ptome, in the spring of a. d. 63, Acts 
28 : 12. Population anciently 200,000 ; 
now 11,000. 

SYRTA, in Hebrew Aram, a large dis- 
trict of Asia, lying, in the widest accep- 
tation of the name, between the Medi- 
terranean, mount Taurus, and the Ti- 
gris, and thus including Mesopotamia, 
that is, in Hebrew, Syria of the two riv- 
ers. See Aram II. Excepting the Leb- 
anon range, it is for the most part a level 
country. In the New Testament, Syria 
may be considered as bounded west and 
north-west by the IMediterranean and by 
mount Taurus, which separates it from 
Cilicia and Cataonia in Asia Minor, east 
by the Euphrates, and south by Arabia 
Descrta and Palestine, or rather Judea, 
for the name Syria included also the 
northern part of Palestine. The valley 
between the ridges of Lebanon and Anti- 
Lebanon was called Cixle-Syria, which 
appellation was also sometimes extended 
to the adjacent country on the east. At 
the time of the Jewish exile, Syria and 
Phoenicia were subject to the king of 
Babylon, and they afterwards were trib- 
utary to the Persian monarchs. After 
the country fell into the hands of the 
Romans, Syria was made the province of 
a proconsul ; to which Judea, although 
governed by its own procurators, was 
annexed in such a way, that in some 
cases an appeal might be made to the 
proconsul of Syria, who had at least the 
power of removing the procurators from 
office. Syria is now in the possession of 
the Turks. Its better portions have been 
thickly populated from a very early pe- 
riod, and travellers ffnd traces of numer- 
ous cities wholly unknown to history. 

SY'RO-PHCENI'CIA is Phcenicia prop- 
erly so called, but during the period 
when by conquest it was united to the 
kingdom of Syria, it prefixed to its old 
name Phoenicia, that of Syria. The 
Canaanitish woman is called a Syro- 
443 



TAA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TAB 



Phoenician, Mark 7 : 26, because she was 
of Phoenicia, then considered as part of 
Syria. Matthew, who is by some sup- 
posed to have written in Hebrew or Syr- 
iac, calls her a Canaanitish woman, Matt. 
15 : 22, because that country was really 
peopled by Canaanites, Zidon being the 
eldest son of Canaan, Gen. 10 : 15. See 

PlKENICIA. 



TA'ANACH, a Canaanite royal city, 
Josh. 12:21, in the territory of Issachar, 
but assigned to Manasseh, Josh. 17 : 11 ; 



21:25. There is still a small place called 
Taannuk on the south border of the plain 
of Esdraelon, four miles south-east of the 
site of Megiddo, which is usually named 
with Taanach, Judg. 1:27 ; 5:19 ; IKin. 
4:12. 

TA'BER, to beat the tabret, a small 
drum or tambourine. The word is used 
in Nah. 2 : 7 of women beating their 
breasts in sign of grief. 

TAB'EPtAH, burning, so named on ac- 
count of the fire Avhich fell upon the 
Israelites for their murmurings while 
encamped here, Num. 11 : 1-3 ; Deut. 
9:22. 




TAB'ERNACLE, a tent, booth, pavil- 
ion, or temporary dwelling. For its 
general meaning and uses, see Tent. In 
the Scriptures it is employed more par- 
ticularly of the tent made by Moses at 
the command of God, for the place of 
religious worship of the Hebrews, before 
the building of the temple. The direc- 
tions of God, and the account of the ex- 
ecution of them, are contained in Exod. 
25, and the following chapters. This is 
usually called the tabernacle of the con- 
gregation, or tent of assembly, and some- 
times the tabernacle of the testimony. 

The tabernacle was of an oblong rec- 
tangular form, thirty cubits long, ten 
broad, and ten in height, Ex. 26:15-30 ; 
36 : 20-30 ; that is, about fifty-five feet 
long, eighteen broad, and eighteen high. 
The two sides and the western end were 
444 



formed of boards of shittim wood, over- 
laid with thin plates of gold, and fixed 
in solid sockets or vases of silver. 
Above, they were secured by bars of the 
same wood overlaid with gold, passing 
through rings of gold which were fixed 
to the boards. On the east end, which 
was the entrance, there Avere no boards, 
but only five pillars of shittim wood, 
whose chapiters and fillets were overlaid 
with gold, and their hooks of gold, 
standing in five sockets of brass. The 
tabernacle thus erected was covered with 
four different kinds of curtains. The 
first and inner curtain was composed of 
tine linen, magnificently embroidered 
Avith figures of cherubim, in shades of 
blue, purple, and scarlet ; this formed 
the beautiful ceiling. The next cover- 
ing was made of tine goats' hair ; the 



TAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



TAB 



third of rams' skins or morocco dyed 
red ; and the fourth and outward cover- 
ing of a thicker leather. See Badgers' 
SKINS. We have ah-eady said that the 
east end of the tabernacle had no boards, 
but only five pillars of shittim wood ; it 
was therefore closed with a richly em- 
broidered curtain suspended from these 
pillars, Ex. 27:16. 



'W. 



ilFTHE. ^CO\E 

cfmoI/ls 




"i 



INT. 



Such was the external appearance of 
the sacred tent, which was divided into 
two apartments by means of four pillars 
of shittim wood overlaid with gold, like 
the pillars before described, two cubits 
and a half distant from each other ; only 
they stood in sockets of silver instead of 
brass, Ex. 26 : 32 ; 36 : 36 ; and on these 
pillars was hung a veil, formed of the 
same materials as the one placed at the 
east end, Exod. 26:31-33; 36:35; Heb. 
9:3. The interior of the tabernacle was 
thus divided, it is generally supposed, in 
the same proportions as the temple after- 
wards built according to its model ; two- 
thirds of the whole length being allotted 
to the first room, or the Holy Place, and 
one-third to the second, or Most Holy 
Place. Thus the former would be twen- 
ty cubits long, ten wide, and ten high, 
and the latter ten cubits every way. It 
is observable, that neither the Holy nor 
the Most Holy place had any window. 
Hence the need of the candlestick in the 
one, for the service that was performed 
therein. 

The tabernacle thus described stood 
in an open space or court of an oblong 
form, one hundred cubits in length, and 
fifty in breadth, situated due east and 
west, Ex. 27 : 18. This court was sur- 
rounded with pillars of brass, filleted 
with silver, and placed at the distance 
of five cubits from each other, twenty 
on each side and ten on each end. Their 



0LAV£R 



□ 



E. 



sockets were of brass, and were fastened 
to the earth with pins of the same metal, 
Exod. 38 : 10, 17, 20. Their height was 
probably five cubits, that being the length 
of the curtains that were suspended on 
them, Ex. 38:18. These curtains, which 
formed an enclosure round the court, 
were of fine twined white linen yarn, 
Ex. 27 : 9 ; 38 : 9, 16, except that at the 
entrance on the east end, which was of 
blue and purple and scarlet and fine 
white twined linen, with cords to draw 
it either up or aside when the priests 
entered the court, Ex. 27 : 16 ; 38 : 18. 
Within this area stood the altar of burnt- 
offerings, and the laver with its foot or 
base. This altar was placed in a line 
between the door of the coiu't and the 
door of the tabernacle, but nearer the 
former, Exod. 40 : 6, 29 ; the laver stood 
between the altar of burnt-olfcring and 
the door of the tabernacle, Ex. 38 : 8. 
In this court all the Israelites presented 
their offerings, voavs, and prayers. 
But although the tabernacle was sur- 
445 



TAB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TAB 



rounded by the court, there is no reason 
to think that it stood in the centre of it. 
It is more probable that the area at the 
east end was fifty cubits square ; and in- 
deed a less space than that could hardly 
suffice for the work that Avas to be done 
thei-e, and for the persons who were im- 
mediately to attend the service. We 
now proceed to notice the furniture 
which the tabernacle contained. 

In the Holy Place, to which none but 
priests were admitted, Heb. 9 : 6, were 
three objects Avorthy of notice : namely, 
the altar of incense, the table for the 
show-bread, and the candlestick for the 
lights, all of which have been described 
in their respective places. The altar of 
incense was placed in the middle of the 
sanctuary, before the veil, Ex. 30:6-10; 
40 : 26, 27 ; and on it the incense was 
burnt morning and evening, Ex. 30 : 7, 
8. On the north side of the altar of 
incense, that is, on the right hand of the 
priest as he entered, stood the table for 
the show-bread, Ex. 26 : 35 ; 40 : 22, 23 ; 
and on the south side of the Holy Place, 
the golden candlestick, Ex. 25 : 31-39. 
In the Most Holy Place, into which only 
the high -priest entered once a year, 
Heb. 9:7, was the ark, covered by the 
mercy-seat and the cherubim. 

The gold and silver employed in dec- 
orating the tabernacle are estimated at 
not less than a million of dollars. The 
remarkable and costly structure thus 
described was erected in the wilderness 
of Sinai, on the first day of the first 
month of the second year, after the Is- 
raelites left Egypt, Ex. 40:17 ; and when 
erected was anointed, together with its 
furniture, with holy oil, ver. 9-11, and 
sanctified by blood, Ex. 24 : 6-8 ; Heb. 
9 : 21. The altar of burnt-offerings, es- 
pecially, was sanctified by sacrilices dur- 
ing seven days, Ex. 29 : 37 ; while rich 
donations were given by the princes of 
the tribes for the service of the sanctu- 
ary, Num. 7. 

We should not omit to observe, that 
the tabernacle was so constructQd as to 
be taken to pieces and put together 
again, as occasion required. This was 
indispensable ; it being designed to ac- 
company the Israelites during their trav- 
els in the wilderness. With it moved 
and rested the pillar of fire and of cloud. 
As often as Israel removed, the taber- 
nacle Avas taken to pieces by the priests, 
closely covered, and borne in regular 
446 



order by the Levites, Num. 4. Wher- 
ever they encamped, it was pitched in 
the midst of their tents, which were set 
j up in a quadrangular form, xmder their 
! respective standards, at a distance from 
the tabernacle of two thousand cubits ; 
Avhile Moses and Aaron, with the priests 
and Levites, occupied a place between 
them. 

How long this tabernacle existed we 
do not know. During the conquest it 
remained at Gilgal, Josh. 4 : 19 ; 10 : 43. 
After the conquest it was stationed for 
many years at Shiloh, Josh. 18: 1 ; 1 Sam. 
1:3. In 2 Sam. 6 : 17, and 1 Chr. 15 : 1, 
it is said that David had prepared and 
pitched a tabernacle in Jerusalem for the 
ark, wdiicli before had long been at Kir- 
jath-jearim, and then in the house of 
bbed-edom, 1 Chr. 13:6, 14; 2 Sam. 
6:1J, 12. In 1 Chr. 21:29, it is said that 
the tabernacle of Moses was still at Gib- 
eon at that time ; and it would there- 
fore seem that the ark had long been 
separated from it. The tabernacle still 
remained at Gibeon in the time of Solo- 
mon, who sacrificed before it, 2 Chr. 1:3, 
13. This is the last mention made of it ; 
for apparently the tabernacle brought 
with the ark into ths temple, 2 Chr. 5:5, 
was the tent in Avhich the ark had been 
kept on Zion, 2 Chr. 1:4 ; 5:2. 

Feast of Tabernacles. This festival 
derives its name from the booths in 
which the people dwelt during its con- 
tinuance, which were constructed of the 
branches and leaves of trees, on the 
roofs of their houses, in the courts, and 
also in the streets. Nehemiah describes 
the gathering of palm-branches, olive- 
branches, myrtle-branches, etc., for this 
occasion, from the mount of Olives. It 
Avas one of the three gieat festiA^als of 
the year, at Avhich all the men of Israel 
Avere required to be present, Deut. 16: 16. 
It Avas celebrated during eight days, 
commencing on the fifteenth day of the 
month Tisliri, that is, fifteen days after 
the new moon in October ; and the first 
and last days Avere particularly distin- 
guished. Lev. 23:34-43 ; Nch. 8 : 14-18. 
This festival was instituted in memory 
of the forty years' wanderings of the 
Israelites in the desert. Lev. 23 : 42, 43, 
and also as a season of gratitude and 
thanksgiving for the gathering in of the 
harvest; whence it is also called the 
Feast of the Harvest, Ex. 23:16 ; 34:22. 
The season was an occasion of rejoicing 



Tab 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TAB 



and feasting. The public sacrifices con- 
sisted of two rams and fourteen lambs 
on each of the first seven days, together 
with thirteen bullocks on the first day, 
twelve on the second, eleven on the | 
third, ten on the fourth, nine on the 
fifth, eight on the sixth, and seven on 
the seventh ; while on the eighth day 
one bullock, one ram, and seven lambs 
were offered, Num. 29:12-39. On every 
seventh year, the law of Moses was also 
read in public, in the presence of all the 
people, Deut. 31:10-13; Neh. 8:18. To 
these ceremonies the later Jews added a 
libation of water mingled with wine, 
which was poured upon the morning 
sacrifice of each day. The priests, hav- 
ing filled a vessel of water from the 
fountain of Siloam, bore it through the 
water-gate to the temple, and there, 
while the trumpets and horns were 
sounding, poured it upon the sacrifice 
arranged upon the altar. This was 
probably done as a memorial of the 
abundant supply of water which God 
afforded to the Israelites during their 
wanderings in the desert ; and perhaps 
with reference to purification from sin, 
1 Sam. 7:6. This was accompanied with 
the singing of Isa. 12 : "With joy shall 
ye draw water from the wells of salva- 
tion ;" and may naturally have suggest- 
ed our Saviour's announcement while 
attending this festival, "If any man 
thirst, let him come unto me and 
drink," John 7: 37, 38. The first and 
eighth days of the festival were sabbaths 
to the Lord, in which there was a holy 
convocation, and in which all labor was 
prohibited,- Lev. 23 : 39 ; Num. 29 : 12, 
35 ; and as the eighth was the last festi- 
val day celebrated in the course of each 
year, it appears to have been esteemed 
as peculiarly important and sacred. 

TA'BLE. See Bread, and Eating. 

TAB'ITHA. See Dorcas. 

TA'BOR, an isolated mountain of Gal- 
ilee, on the north-eastern side of the 
plain of Esdraelon, an arm of which ex- 
tends beyond the mountain in the same 
direction. It is of limestone formation, 
conical in form, and well wooded, espec- 
ially on the north side, with fine oaks 
and other trees and odoriferous plants. 
It rises 1,350 feet above the plain at its 
base, which is 400 feet above the Medi- 
terranean, and by a winding path on the 
north-west side one may ride to its sum- 
mit in an hour. There is a small oblong 




MOUNT TABOR, FROM THE PLAIN OF ESDRAELON. 

plain on the summit, surrounded by a 
larger but less regular tract, perhaps a 
mile in circumference. The prospect 
from mount Tabor is extensive and beau- 
tiful. Dr. Robinson and many others 
speak of it as one of the finest in Pales- 
tine ; and Lord Nugent declared it the 
most splendid he could recollect having 
ever seen from any natural height. See 
Jer. 46:18. Its general features are the 
same as those of the view from the 
heights of Nazareth, five miles to the 
west. See Nazareth. Glimpses of the 
Mediterranean appear over the high 
grounds which intervene. In the plain 
at the southern base of the mountain 
are the sources of the brook Kishon, and 
the villages Endor and Nain, famous in 
Bible history. Besides the fertile ex- 
panse of Esdraelon, and mounts Carmel, 
Gilboa, etc. , on its borders, the view em- 
braces a portion of the sea of Galilee in 
the north-east ; and towards the north 
the mountains of Galilee, with the town 
of Safed crowning the highest of them 
all, recalling the proverb which it is said 
to have first suggested, " A city that is 
set on a hill cannot be hid." Still far- 
ther to the north and east, the snow- 
crowned head of Hermon overlooks the 
fifty miles which intervene. Psa. 89:12. 

On the summit of Tabor a fortified 
town anciently stood, probably of the 
same name, 1 Chr. 6 : 77. This was in 
existence, and was garrisoned by the 
Romans in the time of Christ, which 
conflicts with the tradition that makes 
Tabor the scene of the transfiguration. 
447 



TAB 



IBLE DICTIONARY. 



TAH 



Kuins of ancient walls enclose the area 
on the summit ; and at various points 
there are remains of fortifications and 
dwellings, some of which are of the age 
of the crusaders, and others of more an- 
cient date. Tabor lay on the borders 
of Issachar and Zebulun, Josh. 19 : 12, 
22. The host of Barak encamped upon 
it, before the battle with Sisera, Judg. 
4 : 6, 12, 14. At a later day it appears 
to have been desecrated by idolatry, 
Hos. 5:1. 

TAB'RET, Gen. 31:27, Isa. 5 : 12, a 
sort of small drum or tambourine, play- 
ed as an accompaniment to singing. See 
Timbrel. 

TACH'ES, golden and brazen clasps, 
uniting the separate curtains of the tab- 
ernacle, Ex. 26:6, 11. 




TAD^MOR, or Ta'mar, apalm-tree, IKin. 
9 : 18, a city founded by Solomon in the 
desert of Syria, on the borders of Arabia 
Dcserta, towards the Euphrates, 2 Chr. 
8:4. It was remote from human habi- 
tations, on an oasis in the midst of a 
dreary wilderness ; and it is probable 
that Solomon built it to facilitate his 
commerce with the East, as it aiforded a 
supply of water, a thing of the utmost 
importance in an Arabian desert. It was 
about one hundred and twenty miles 
north-east of Damascus, more than half 
the distance to the Euphrates. The 
original name was preserved till the 
time of Alexander, who extended his 
418 



conquests to this city, which then ex- 
changed its name Tadmor for that of 
Palmyra, both signifying that it was a 
' ' city of palms. ' ' It submitted to the 
Romans about the year 130, and contin- 
ued in alliance with them during a pe- 
riod of one hundred and fifty years. In 
the third century the famous queen Ze- 
nobia reigned here over all the adjacent 
provinces, till conquered and carried cap- 
tive to Rome by Aurelian. When the 
Saracens triumphed in the East, they 
acquired possession of this city, and re- 
stored its ancient name. It is still called 
Thadmor. Of the time of its ruin there 
is no authentic record ; but it is thought, 
with some probability, that its destruc- 
tion occurred during the period in which 
it was occupied by the Saracens. 

Of its appearance in modern times, 
Messrs. Wood and Dawkins, who visited 
it in 1751, thus speak: "It is scarcely 
possible to imagine any thing more strik- 
ing than this view. So great a number 
of Corinthian pillars, mixed with so lit- 
tle wall or solid building, afforded a most 
romantic variety of prospect." Volney 
observes, ' ' In the space covered by these 
ruins, we sometimes find a palace, of 
which nothing remains but the court 
and walls ; sometimes a temple, whose 
peristyle is half thrown down ; and now 
a portico, a gallery, a triumphal arch. 
If from this striking scene we cast our 
eyes upon the ground, another almost 
as varied presents itself. On which side 
soever we look, the earth is strowed with 
vast stones half buried, with broken en- 
tablatures, mutilated friezes, disfigured 
reliefs, effaced sculptures, violated tombs, 
and altars defiled by the dust. ' ' Most of 
the edifices the ruins of which are above 
described, date from the first three cen- 
turies of the Christian era ; while shape- 
less mounds of rubbish, covered with soil 
and herbage, contain the only memori- 
als of the Tadmor of Solomon. The city 
was situated imder and east of a ridge of 
barren hills, and its other sides were sep- 
arated only by a wall from the open des- 
ert. It was originally about ten miles 
in circumference; but such have been 
the destructions eftected by time, that 
the boundaries are with difiiculty traced 
and determined. 

TAHAPANES, Jer. 2:16, or Tahpan'- 
HES, Jer. 43:7, 9, or Tehaph'nehes, Ezek. 
30:18, the name of an Egyptian city, for 
which the Seventy put Taphne, and the 



TAL 



BIBLE DICTIOXAilY. 



TAR 



Greek historians Daphne. This city lay 
in the vicinity of Pelusium, towards the 
soutli-west, on the western bank of tlie 
Pelusiac branch of the Nile, and is there- 
fore called by Herodotus the Pelusiac 
Daphne. To this city Johanan and many 
of the Jews retired, after the destruction 
of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans, taking 
Avith them the prophet Jeremiah, Jcr. 
43 : 7-9; 44:1. That Tahapancs was a 
large and important city, is apparent 
from the threats uttered against it by 
Ezeldel, 30:18. According to some, Ha- 
nes. in Isa. 30:4, is an abbreviated name 
of the same city. 

TALE sometimes means a number, 
verihed by counting, Ex. 5:8, 18; IChr. 
9:28. 

TAL'ENT. Tliis was a weight used 
among the Jews, Greeks, and Ptomans, 
but varying exceedingly in dillerent 
countries and in different parts of the 
same country. Tlie Jewish talent is 
usually estimated at about 125 pounds 
troy weight, though others estimate it 
a little less than 114 pounds troy. The 
common Attic talent was equal, on the 
usual estimate, to about 66 lbs. 11 oz. 
troy. In the New Testament, a talent is 
a denomination of money, which was an- 
ciently reckoned by weight. The value 
of the talent, therefore, varied in differ- 
ent countries, in proportion to the differ- 
ent weights of the talent. The Jewish 
talent appears, from Ex. 38 : 25, 26, to 
have been equal to 3,000 shekels ; and 
as the shekel is estimated at about fifty 
cents, the value of the talent would be 
about 1,500 dollars. The Attic talent is 
usually reckoned at about 225 pounds 
sterling, or 1,000 dollars, though others 
make it only about 860 dollars. The 
talent spoken of in the New Testament 
is probably the Jewish, and is used only 
of an indehnitely large sum, Matt. 18:24; 
25:14-30. 

TALMAI, king of Geshur, on the boi*- 
ders of Palestine and Syria. David mar- 
ried Maacha his daughter, the mother of 
Tamar and Absalom. The latter aveng- 
ed the wrongs of his sister Tamar by the 
murder of Amnon, and then took refuge 
at the court of his grandfather, where he | 
remained three years, 2 Sam. 3:3; 13 , 
and 14. 

TA'MAPt, a palm-tree, I., a Canaanitish 
woman, mother of Pharez and Zarah, 
Gen. 38. 

11. A daughter of David. SeeTALMAi. 



III. A daughter of Absalom, 2 Sam. 
14:27. 

TAM'MUZ, a Syrian idol, mentioned 
in Ezek. 8: 14, where the women are rep- 
resented as weeping for it. It is gener- 
ally supposed that Tammuz was the same 
deity as the Phoenician Adonis, and per- 
haps the Egyptian Osiris. The fabled 
death and restoration of Adonis, sup- 
posed to symbolize the departiu'c and 
return of the sun, were celebrated at 
the summer solstice first Avith lamenta- 
tion, and then with rejoicings and ob- 
scGiiG revels 

TAP'ESTPtY, cloth for hangings and 
bed -covers, covered with ornamental 
needlework, Prov. 7:16. 

TAP'PUAH, L, now Teffuh, a town 
among the hills north-west of Hebron, 
Josh. 12:17; 15:53. 

II. Another city of Judah, south-west 
of Hebron, Josh. 15:34. 

III. A town on the line of Ephraim 
and Manasseh, Josh. 16:8. 

IV. A descendant of Caleb, 1 Chr. 
2:43. 




TARES, a noxious plant of the grass 
family, supposed to mean the darnel, 
the "infelix lolium" of Virgil, now 
called Si wan or Zowan by the Arabs. 
It grows among the wheat everywhere 
in Palestine, and bears a great resem- 
blance to it while growing, so much so 
that before they head out the two plants 
449 



TAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TEA 



can hardly be distinguished. Tlie grains 
are found two or three together in a 
dozen small husks scattered on a rather 
long head. The Arabs do not separate 
the darnel from the wheat, unless by 
means of a fan or sieve after threshing, 



Matt. 13 



50. If left to mingle with 



the bread, it occasions dizziness, and 
often acts as an emetic. 

TAR'GET, 1 Sam. 17 :G, a small round 
shield. The same word in verse 45 is 
translated a shield, and elsewhere a jav- 
elin. See Armor. 

TAPt'SHISH, L, the second son of Ja- 
van. Gen. 10:4. 

II. Tartessus, an ancient city between 
two mouths of the Guadalquiver, in the 
south of Spain. It was a Phoenician col- 
ony, and was the most celebrated empo- 
rium in the west to which the Hebrews 
and Phoenicians traded. That Tarshish 
was situated in the west is evident from 
Gen. 10:4, where it is joined with Elisha, 
Kittim, and Dodanim. See also Psa. 
72:10. According to Ezek. 38: 13, it 
was an important place of trade ; accord- 
ing to Jer. 10 : 9, it exported silver, and 
according to Ezek. 27 : 12, 25, silver, iron, 
tin, and lead to the Tyrian markets. 
Thev embarked for this place from Jop- 
pa, Jonah 1:3, 4. In Isa. 23:1, 6, 10, it 
is evidently represented as an important 
Phoenician colony. It is named among 
other distant states, in Isa. GG : 10. All 
these notices agree with Tartessus. 

In some of these passages, however, 
Tarshish may be used as a general ex- 
pression, applicable to all the distant j 
shores of Europe ; and thus the custom I 
may have arisen of designating as ' ' ships ; 
of Tarshish ' ' any large merchant ships | 
bound on long voyages in any direction, i 
The English term Indiaman is very sim- [ 
ilarly used. Whether the ships fitted out | 
by Solomon at Ezion-geber on the Red j 
sea, sailed around Africa to Tarshish in 
Spain, or gave the name of Tarshish to 
some place in India or Ethiopia, as the 
discoverers of America gave it the east- 
ern names India and Indians, cannot 
now be determined, IKin. 10:22 ; 22:48, 
49; 2 Chr. 9:21 ; 20:26 ; Isa. 23 : 1, 14 ; 
60:9. 

TAR'SUS, the name of a celebrated 
city, the metropolis of Cilicia, in the 
south-eastern part of Asia Minor ; situ- 
ated six miles from the Mediterranean, 
on the banks of the river Cydnus, which 
flowed through and divided it into two 
450 



parts. Tarsus was distinguished for the 
culture of Greek literature and philoso- 
phy, so that at one time, in its schools 
and in the number of its learned men, it 
was the rival of Athens and Alexandria. 
In reward for its exertions and sacrifices 
during the civil wars of Rome, Tarsus 
was made a free city by Augustus. It 
was the privilege of such cities that they 
were governed by their own laws and 
magistrates, and were not subjected to 
tribute, to the jurisdiction of a Roman 
governor, nor to the power of a Roman 
garrison, although they acknowledged 
the supremacy of the Roman people, and 
were bound to aid them against their 
enemies. That the freedom of Tarsus, 
however, was not equivalent to being a 
Roman citizen, appears from this, that 
the tribune, although he knew Paul to 
be a citizen of Tarsus, Acts 21 : 39, yet 
ordered him to be scourged, 22 : 24, but 
desisted from his jDurpose when he learn- 
ed that Paul was a Roman citizen, 22:27. 
It is therefore probable that the ances- 
tors of Paul had obtained the privilege 
of Roman citizenship in some other way, 
Acts 9 : 30 ; 11 : 25 ; 22 : 3. It is now call- 
ed Tarsous ; and though much decayed 
and full of ruins, is estimated to contain 
a population in summer of 7,000, and in 
winter of 30,000, chiefly Turks. During 
the excessive heat of summer, a large 
part of the people repair to the high 
lands of the interior. 

TAR'TAK, an idol, introduced by the 
Avites into Samaria, 2 Kin. 17:31. 

TAR'TAN, an Assyrian general, sent 
to Jerusalem with Rabshakeh by Sen- 
nacherib, 2 Kin. 18:17 ; and perhaps the 
same who captured Ashdod in the reign 
of Sargon, Isa. 20:1. 

TAT'NAI, a governor of Samaria un- 
der Darius, whose administration was 
characterized by great justice and mod- 
eration towards the Jews, Ezra 5 and 6, 
B. c. 519. 

TAVERNS, Three, a village thirty- 
three miles south of Rome, mentioned 
by Cicero, and still called Tre Taverne. 
See Appii Forum. 

TEARS. Small urns or lachrymato- 
ries, of thin glass or simple pottery, and 
containing the tears of mourners at fu- 
nerals, used to be placed in the sepul- 
chres of the dead at Rome and in Pales- 
tine, where tliey are found in great num- 
bers on opening ancient tombs. This 
custom is illustrative of Psa. 56:8, which 



TEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



TEM 



shows that God is ever mindful of the 
sorrows of his people. In Ecv. 7 : 17 he is 
represented as tenderly wiping all tears 
from their eyes, or removing for ever all 
their griefs. 

TE'BETH, Esth. 2:16, the tenth month 
of the Hebrew sacred year, commencing 
"with the new moon in January. 

TEHAPH'XEIiES. Bee Taiiapanes. 

TEIL-TPiEE, the lime or linden. See 
Oak. 

TEKO'A, Jer. 6:1, a city of Judah, 
now in ruins, situated on an extended 
height, twelve miles south of Jerusalem. 
Here originated the wise woman who 
■was Joab's agent, 2 Bam. 14 : 2, and 
Amos the prophet, Amos 1:1. It was 
inhabited by Christians in the time of 
the crusades. The wilderness of Tekoa, 
mentioned in 2 Chr. 20:20, inclines tow- 
ards the Dead sea. 

TEL-A'BIB, a place on the river Che- 
bar in Mesopotamia, where a colony of 
captive Jews was located, Ezek. 3 : 15. 
A town called Thallaba is still found in 
that region. 

TEOIA, an Ishmaelite tribe and dis- 
trict, in the north of Arabia Deserta tow- 
ards Damascus, Gen. 25 : 15. It is asso- 
ciated with Dedau, Isa. 21 : 14 ; Jer. 
25:23, and was famous for its caraA'ans, 
Job 6:19. The region is still called Te- 
ma by the Arabs. 

TE'MAN, south, a city and region in 
Eastern Iduma^a, settled by Ternan the 
grandson of Esau, Gen. 36 : 11, 15, 42 ; 
Amos 1:12; E[ab. 3 : 3. The men of 
Teman, Gen. 36 : 34, like others of the 
Edomites, had the reputation of great 
wisdom, Jer. 49:7, 20; Obad. 8, 9. Com- 
pare the sayings of Eliphaz the Temanite 
in the book of Job. 

TEM'PLE, a building hallowed by the 
special presence of God, and consecrated 
to his worship. The distinctive idea of 
a temple, contrasted with all other build- 
ings, is that it is the dwelling-place of a 
deity ; and every heathen temple had its 
idol, but the true and living God dwelt 
" between the cherubim " in the Holy of 
HoUes at Jerusalem. Hence, figurative- 
ly applied, a temple denotes the church 
of Christ, 2 Thess. 2:4 ; Rev. 3 : 12 ; heav- 
en. Psa. 11:4; Ptev. 7:15; and the soul 
of the believer, in which the Holy Spirit 
dwells, I Cor. 3 : 16, 17 ; 6 : 19 ; 2 Cor. 
6:16. 

After the Lord had instructed David 
that Jerusalem was the place he had 



chosen in which to fix his dwelling, that 
pious prince began to realize his design 
of preparing a temple for the Lord that 
might be something appropriate to His 
divine majesty. But the honor was re- 
served for Solomon his son and successor, 
who was to be a peaceful prince, and not 
like David, who had shed much blood in 
war. David, however, applied himself 
to collect great quantities of gold, silver, 
brass, iron, and other materials for this 
undertaking, 2 Sam. 7 ; 1 Chr. 22. 

_ The place chosen for erecting this mog- 
nificent structure was moimt Moriah, 
Gen. 22 : 2, 14 ; 2 Chr. 3 : 1, the summit 
of which originally was unequal, and its 
sides irregular ; but it was a favorite ob- 
ject of the Jews to level and extend it. 
The plan and the whole model of this 
structure was laid by the same divine 
architect as that of the tabernacle, name- 
ly, God himself; and it Avas built much 
in the same form as the tabernacle, but 
; was of much larger dimensions. The 
j utensils for the sacred service were also 
the same as those used in the tabernacle, 
I only several of them were larger, in pro- 
1 portion to the more spacious edifice to 
I Avhich they belonged. The foundations 
I of this magnificent edifice were laid by 
: Solomon, in the year b. c. 1011. about 
j four hundred and eighty years after the 
! exodus and the building' of the taber- 
j nacle ; and it was finished b. c. 1004, 
: having occupied seven years and six 
I months in the building. It Avas dedi- 
cated Avith peculiar solemnity to the Avor- 
ship of Jehovah, avIio condescended to 
make it the place for the special mani- 
festation of his glory, 2 Chr. 5-7. The 
front or entrance to the temple AA-as on 
the eastern side, and consequently facing 
the mount of Olives, which commanded 
a noble prospect of the building. The 
I temple itself, strictly so called, Avhich 
i comprised the Porch, the Sanctuary, and 
[ the Holy of Holies, formed only a small 
I part of the sacred precincts, being sur- 
rounded by spacious courts, chambers, 
and other apartments, Avhich AA^ere much 
more extensive than the temple itself. 
{ It should be observed that the Avord 
temple does not al\A'ays denote the cen- 
j tral edifice itself, but' in many passages 
some of the outer courts are intended. 

From the descriptions Avhich are hand- 
ed down to us of the temple of Solomon, 
I it is utterly impossible to obtain so accu- 
rate an idea of its relative parts and their 
4ol 



TEM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TEM 



respective proportions, as to furnish such 
an account as may be deemed satisfac- 
tory to the reader. Hence we find no 
two writers agreeing in their descrip- 
tions. The following account may give 
a general idea of the building. 

The Temple itself was seventy cubits 
long ; the Porch being ten cubits, 1 Kin. 
G:3, the Holy place forty cubits, ver. 17, 
and the Most Holy place, twenty cubits, 
2 Chr. 3 : 8. The width of the Porch, 
Holy, and Most Holy places was twenty 
cubits, 2 Chr. 3 : 3, and the height over 
the Holy and Most Holy places was thir- 
ty cubits, 1 Kin. 6:2 ; but the height of 
the porch was much greater, being no 
less than one hundred and twenty cu- 
bits, 2 Chr. 3 : 4, or four times the height 
of the rest of the building. The ]\Iost 
Holy place was separated from the Sanc- 
tuary by an impervious veil, Luke 23:45, 
and was perhaps wdiolly dark, 1 Kings 
8: 12, but for the glory of the Lord which 
filled it. To the north and south sides, 
and the west end of the Holy and Most 
Holy places, or all around the edifice, 
from the back of the porch on one side, 
to the back of the porch on the other 
side, certain buildings were attached. 
These were called side chambers, and 
consisted of three stories, each five cu- 
bits high, 1 Kin. 6:10, and joined to the 
wall of the temple without. Thus the 
three stories of side chambers, when 
taken together, were fifteen culnts high, 
and consequently reached exactly to half 
the height of the side walls and end of ' 
the temple ; so that there was abun- | 
dance of space above these for the Avin- 
dows which gave light to the temple, 
ver. 4. 

Solomon's temple appears to have been 
surrounded by two main courts : the in- 
ner court, that " of the Priests," 1 Kin. 
6:36 ; 2 Chr. 4:9; and the outer court, 
that "of Israel;" these were separated 
by a "middle wall of partition," with 
lodges for priests and Levites, for wood, 
oil, etc., 1 Chron. 28 : 12. The ensuing 
description is applicable to the iemple 
courts in the time of our Lord. 

The "court of the Gentiles" was so 
called because it might be entered by 
persons of all nations. The chief en- 
trance to it was by the east or Shushan 
gate, which was the principal gate of 
the temple. It was the exterior court, 
and by far the largest of all the courts 
belonging to the temple, and is said to 
452 



have covered a space of more than four- 
teen acres. It entirely surrounded the 
other courts and the temple itself; and 
in going up to the temple from its east 
or outer gate, one would cross first this 
court, then the court of the Women, 
then that of Israel, and lastly that of the 
Priests. This outmost court was sepa- 
rated from the court of the women by a 
wall three cubits high of lattice work, 
and having inscriptions on its pillars for- 
bidding Gentiles and unclean persons to 
pass bevond it, on pain of death. Acts 
21 : 28 ; Eph. 2 : 13, 14. From this court of 
the Gentiles our Saviour drove the per- 
sons who had established a cattle-market 
in it, for the purpose of supplying those 
with sacrifices wdio came from a distance, 
Matt. 21:12, 13. We must not overlook 
the beautiful pavement of variegated 
marble, and the "porches" or covered 
walks, with columns supporting mag- 
nificent galleries, with which this court 
was surrounded. Those on the east, 
west, and north sides were of the same 
dimensions ; but that on the south w^as 
much larger. The porch called Solo- 
mon's, John 10 : 23, Acts 3 : 11, was on 
the east side or front of this court, and 
was so called because it was built by this 
prince, upon a high wall rising from the 
valley of Kidron. 

The "court of the Women," called in 
Scripture the "new court," 2 Chr. 20:5, 
and the " outer court," Ezek. 46:21, sep- 
arated the court of the Gentiles from the 
court of Israel, extending along the east 
side only of the latter. It was called the 
court of the \vomen because it was their 
appointed place of worship, beyond which 
they might not go, unless when they 
brought a sacrifice, in which case they 
w'cnt forward to the court of Israel. The 
gate Avhich led into this court from that 
of the Gentiles, was "the Beautiful 
gate" of the temple, mentioned in Acts 
3 : 2, 10 ; so called, because the folding- 
doors, lintel, and side -posts were all 
overlaid with Corinthian brass. The 
worshipper ascended to its level by a 
broad flight of steps. It was in this 
court of the women, called the "treas- 
ury," that our Saviour delivered his 
striking discourse to the Jews, related 
in John 8 : 1-20. It was into this court 
also that the Pharisee and the publican 
went to pray, Luke 18:10-13, and hith- 
er the lame man followed Peter and 
John, after he was cured — the court of 



TEM 



BIBLE DICTIUNAKV 



TEM 



the women Leing the ordinary place of 
worship for those who brought no sacri- 
lice, Acts 3:8. From thence, after pray- 
ers, he went bacli wdth them, through 
the "Beautiful gate" of the temple, 
where he had been lying, and through 
tlie sacred fence, into the court of the 



Gentiles, where, under the castex'n piaz- 
za, or Solomon's porch, Peter preached 
Christ crucihed. It was in the same 
court of the women that the Jews laid 
hold of Paul, when they judged him a 
violater of the temple by taking Gentiles 
within the sacred fence. Acts 21 : 26-29. 




rLA_N- OF THE TEMPLE IN THE TIME OF CHRIST. 



A. The Holy of Holies. 

B. The Holv Place. 

C. The Altar of Burnt-offerings. 

D. The brazen Laver. 

E. The court of the Priests. 

F. The court of Israel. 

G. The gate Nicanor. 

H. The court of the Women. 



I. The gate Beautiful. 

J. The court of the Gentiles. 

K. The Eastern or Shushan gate. 

L. Solomon s Porch, or colonnade. 

31. The Koyal Porch. 

N. The outer Wall. 

o. Apartments for various uses. 



The "court of Israel" was separated I was, that as the rock on which the tem- 



from the court of the women by a wall 
thirty-two and a half cubits high on the 
outside, but on the inside only twenty- 
five. The reason of which difference 



pie stood became higher on advancing 
westward, the several courts naturally 
became elevated in proportion. The as- 
cent into this court from the east was by 
453 



TEM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TEM 



a flight of fifteen steps?, of a semicircular 
form, and the magnificent gate Nicanor. 
On these steps the Levites stood in sing- 
ing the ' ' songs of degrees. ' ' The whole 
length of the court from east to west was 
one hundred and eighty-seven cubits, 
and the breadth from north to south, 
one hundred and thirty-five cubits. In 
this court, and the piazza which sur- 
rounded it, the Israelites stood in sol- 
emn and reverent silence while their sac- 
rifices were burning in the inner court, 
and while the services of the sanctuary 
were performed, Luke 1:8-11, 21, 22. 

Within this court, and surrounded by 
it, was the "court of the Priests;" one 
hundred and sixty-five cubits long and 
one hundred and nineteen cubits wide, 
and raised two and a half cubits above 
the surrounding court, from which it 
was separated by pillars and a railing. 
Within this court stood the brazen altar 
on which the sacrifices were consumed, 
the molten sea in which the priests 



washed, and the ten brazen lavers for 
washing the sacrifices ; also the various 
utensils and instruments for sacrificing, 
which are enumerated in 2 Chr. 4. It is 
necessary to observe here, that although 
the court of the Priests was not accessi- 
ble to all Israelites, as that of Israel was 
to all the priests, j^et they might enter 
it for three several purposes : to lay their 
hands on the animals which they offered, 
or to kill them, or to wave some j)art of 
them. 

From the court of the Priests, the 
ascent to the temple was by a flight of 
twelve steps, each half a cubit in height, 
which led into the sacred porch. Of the 
dimensions of this in Solomon's temple, 
as also of the Sanctuary and Holy of Ho- 
lies, we have already spoken. It Avas 
within the door of the porch, and in the 
sight of those who stood in the courts 
immediately before it, that the two pil- 
lars, Jachin andBoaz, were placed, 2 Chr. 
3:17; Ezek. 40:49. 




Il_____^,^L-__-_ji2,AX~h 




SIDE VIEW OF THE TEMPLE, IN PART AFTER DR. BARCLAY. 

In this profile view of the Temple and its precincts from the south, n n is the outer soutlv 
ern wall of the temple area ; a is a part of the royal buildings on mount Zion ; h is the Tyro, 
poeon bridge, connecting Zion with the south portico of the temple ; o and p are gates lead- 
ing subterraneously to the area above ; 7 is a gate to the substructions ; I is the tower Ophel ; 
and m the Red heifer bridge over the Kidron. 

Within, towards the north, is shown a section of the temple area ; c representing the west- 
ern cloister ; d the hit or sacred fence ; e the high wall in the rear of the temple ; / the Holy 
House ; g the great altar of burnt oflerings ; h a covered colonnade in the court of the jirie.sts ; 
I the gate Nicanor in front of the court of Israel ; j the gate Beautiful in front of the court of 
the women ; and k the southern cloister, Solomon s porch. 



The temple of Solomon retained its 
pristine splendor but thirty-three years, 
when it was plundered by Shishak king 
of Egypt, 1 Kin. 14:25, 26 ; 2 Chr. 12:9. 
After this period it underwent sundry 
profanations and pillages from Hazael, 
Tiglath-pileser, Sennacherib, etc., 2 Kin. 
12 ; 16 ; 18 ; and was at length utterly 
destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar king of 
Babylon, b. c. 588, after having stood, 
according to Usher, four hundred ancl 
454. 



twenty-four years, three months, and 
eight days. 

After lying in ruins for fifty -two years, 
the foundations of the second temple 
were laid by Zerubbabel, and the Jews 
who had availed themselves of the priv- 
ilege granted by Cyrus and returned to 
Jerusalem, Ezra 1:1-4; 2:1; 3 : 8-10. 
After various hinderances, it was fin- 
ished and dedicated twenty-one years 
after it was begun, b. c. 515, Ezra 6:15, 



TExM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TEM 



16. The dimensions of this temple in 
breadth and height were double those of 
Solomon's. The weeping of the people 
at the laying of the foundation, there- 
fore, Ezra 3 : 12, 13, and the disparaging 
manner in which they spoke of it, when 
compared with the first one. Hag. 2 : 3, 
were occasioned by its inferiority not in 
size, but in glory. It wanted the five 
principal things which could invest it 
Avith this : namely, the ark and mercy- 
seat, the divine presence or visible glo- 
ry, the holy fire on the altar, the urim 
and thummim, and the Spirit of proph- 
ecy. In the year b. c. 163, this temple 
was plundered and profaned by Antio- 
chus Epiphanes, who ordered the dis- 
continuance of the daily sacrifice, oflered 
swine's flesh upon the altar, and com- 
pletely suspended the worship of Jeho- 
vah, 1 Mac. 1:46, 47, etc. Thus it con- 
tinued for three years, when it was re- 
paired and purified by Judas Maccabteus, 
who restored the divine worship, and 
dedicated it anew. 

Herod, having slain all the Sanhe- 
drim, except two, in the first year of his 
reign, b. c. 37, resolved to atone for it 
by rebuilding and beautifying the tem- 
ple. This he was the more inclined to 
do, both from the peace which he en- 
joyed, and the decayed state of the edi- 
fice. After employing two years in pre- 
paring the materials for the work, the 
temple of Zerubbabel was pulled down, 
B. c. 17, and forty-six years before the 
first Passover of Christ's ministry. Al- 
though this temple was fit for divine 
service in nine years and a half, yet a 
great number of laborers and artificers 
were still employed in carrying on the 
outbuildings all the time of our Sav- 
iour's abode on earth. His presence ful- 
filled the predictions in Hag. 2:9; Mai. 
3:1. The temple of Herod was consid- 
erably larger than that of Zerubbabel, 
as that of Zerubbabel was larger than 
Solomon's. For whereas the second 
temple was seventy cubits long, sixty 
broad, and sixty high, this was one hun- 
dred cubits long, seventy broad, and one 
hundred high. The porch was raised to 
the height of one hundred cubits, and 
was extended fifteen cubits beyond each 
side of the rest of the building. All 
the Jewish writers praise this temple 
exceedingly for its beauty and the cost- 
liness of its workmanship. It was built 
of white marble, exquisitely wrought, 



and with stones of large dimensions, 
some of them twenty-five cubits long, 
eight cubits high, and twelve cubits 
thick. To these there is no doubt a ref- 
erence in Mark 13 : 1 ; Luke 21:5: " And 
as he went out of the temple, one of his 
disciples saith unto him. Master, see 
what manner of stones, and what build- 
ings are here!" Luke says, "goodly 
stones." See a description of the orna- 
ments of one of its gates under Vine. 

This splendid building, which rose like 
a mount of gold and of snow, and was 
once the admiration and envy of the 
world, has for ever passed away. Ac- 
cording to our blessed Lord's prediction, 
that ' ' there should not be left one stone 
upon another that should not be thrown 
down," Mark 13:2, the whole structure 
above ground was completely demol- 
ished by the Koman soldiers, under Ti- 
tus, A. D. 70. The temple area is now 
occupied by two Turkish mosques, into 
which, until recently, neither Jew nor 
Christian was permitted to enter. Be- 
neath the vast area of El-Haram still 
exist immense arched ways and vaults 
of unknoAATi date ; also a large and deep 
well, and other indications that the 
temple always possessed a copious and 
perennial supply of water, derived per- 
haps in part from Gihon by Hezekiah's 
aqueduct, and in part from Solomon's 
pools, and flowing off through the foun- 
tain of the Virgin and the pool of Siloam. 
In the outer walls of the present area are 




seen at several places stones of vast size, 
evidently belonging to the ancient walls. 
455 



TEM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TEN 



Near the south-west corner certain huge 
stones mark the beginning of an arch, a 
part of the stately bridge which anciently 
connected the temple area with mount 
Zion ; and a little north of this spot is 
the celebrated wailing-place of the Jews. 
See Wall. 

In the time of the kings, a regular 
guard of Levites was always on duty at 
the temple, 1 Chr. 26 ; 2 Chr. 23 : 19. 
During the supremacy of the Eomans 
there was a lloman garrison in the 
strong tower of Antonia, which, with its 
various courts and fortifications, adjoin- 
ed the temple area on the north, and 
was connected with it by passages both 
above and under ground, John 18 : 12 ; 
Acts 4:1; 5:26; 21:31-40. 

The utmost veneration and love were 
always cherished towards the temple by 
pious Jews, Psa. 84. All the people also, 
from various motives, gloried in it, many 
Avith a bigoted and idolatrous regard. 
Hence the charge of blaspheming the 
temple, which Avas found the most effec- 
tual means of enraging the populace 
against Christ and his followers. Matt. 
26 : Gl ; 27 : 40 ; John 2 : 19, 20 ; Acts 
6:13; 21:27-30. 

TEMPT, to make trial of, Luke 10:25, 
and usually to present inducements to 
sin. Satan is the great tempter, seeking 
thus most effectually to destroy men's 
souls, 1 Chr. 21 : 1 ; Job 1 and 2 ; Matt. 
4: 1 ; 1 Thess. 3 : 5. Men are also led into 
sin by their own evil inclinations and by 
other men, James 1 : 14, 15. God, being 
holy and desirous of men's holiness, does 
not thus tempt them, James 1 : 13 ; but 
he makes trial of them, to prove, exer- 
cise, and establish their graces. Gen. 
22:1 ; James 1:2, 3. Christ stands ready 
to support his people under any possible 
temptation, 1 Cor. 10 : 13 ; Heb. 2 : 18 ; 
4:15 ; 2 Pet. 2:19. Yet they are not to 
rush into temptation unbidden, Luke 
11 : 4. Men tempt God by presumptu- 
ously experimenting on his jirovidence 
or his grace, or by distrusting him, Ex. 
17 : 2, 7 ; Isa. 7:12; Matt. 4:7; Acts 
5:9; 15 : 10. Sore afflictions are often 
called temptations or trials, as they are 
frequently the occasions of gin, Matt. 
6:13; Luke 8 : 13 ; 22 : 28 ; James 1 : 12 ; 
1 Pet. 1:6,7. 

Christ, at the outset of his public 
ministry, was violently assailed by the 
tempter, who thus displayed his effront- 
ery and his blindness, hoping perhaps 
456 



that the human soul of the Eedeemer 
would be left unaided by his divinity, 
Matt. 4. The temptations are to be un- 
derstood as real transactions, and not as 
visions. The tempter was baffled, and 
left him for a season, to meet a like re- 
buff on every future assault, Luke 4:13; 
22 : 53 ; John 14 : 30. The Saviour tri- 
umphed, and paradise was regained. 




*^i 



TENT. Dwelling in tents was very 
general in ancient times among Eastern 
nations. Gen. 4:20 ; their way of life be- 
ing pastoral, locomotion became neces- 
sary for pasturage, and dwellings adapt- 
ed for such a life became indispensable, 
Isa. 38 : 12. The patriarchs Abraham, 
Isaac, and Jacob dwelt in tents. Gen. 
18:1 ; Heb. 11:9; and on the exodus of 
the Israelites from Egypt, throughout 
their peregrinations until they obtained 
the promised land, and to some extent 
afterwards, they adopted the same kind 
of habitation. See Booths. Hence the 
expression, "Every man to his tents, O 
Israel," etc., Judg. 7 : 8 ; 2 Sam. 20 : 1 ; 
2 Kin. 8:21. Indeed, the people of the 
East, men, Avomen, and children, lived 
very much in the open air, as is obvious 
from the Ncav Testament narratives. 
And the same- is true of them at the 
present day. The Midianites, the Phi- 
listines, the Syrians, the descendants of 
Ham, the Hagarites, and the Ciishanites 
are mentioned in Scripture as living in 
tents. But the people most remarkable 
for this unsettled and Avandering mode 
of life are the Arabs, Avho from the time 
of Ishmael to the present have continued 
the custom of dAvelling in tents. Amid 
the revolutions which have transferred 
kingdoms from one possessor to anoth- 
er, these Avandering tribes still dAvell in 
tents, unsubdued and Avild as Avas their 
progenitor. This kind of dwelling is 
not, hoAvever, confined to the Arabs, but 
is used throughout the continent of Asia. 
The word tent is formed from the Latin, 



TEN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY, 



TER 



" to stretch ;" tents being usually made 
of canvas stretched out, and sustained 
by poles with cords secured to pegs driv- 
en into the ground. The "nail of the 
tent ' ' with which Jael pierced the head 
of Sisera was such a tent-pin, Judg. 4:21. 
See also Isa. 38:20; 40:22; 54:2. The 
house of God, and heaven, are spoken of 
in Scripture as the tent or tabernacle of 
Jehovah, Psa. 15:1 ; 61 : 4 ; 84:1 ; Heb. 
8:2; 9:11; and the body as the taber- 
nacle of the soul, taken down by death, 
2 Cor. 5:1; 2 Pet. 1:13. Says Lord Lind- 
say, "There is something very melan- 
choly in our morning flittings. The 
tent-pins are plucked up, and in a few 
minutes a dozen holes, a heap or two of 
ashes, and the marks of the camels' 
knees in the sand, soon to be obliter- 
ated, are the only traces left of what has 
been for a Avhile our home. " " Often, ' ' 
says M'Cheyne, "we found ourselves 
shelterless before being fully dressed. 
What a type of the tent of our body ! 
Ah, how often is it taken down before 
the soul is made meet for the inheritance 
of the saints in light." A tent is also 
put for its inmates, Hab. 3:7; Zech. 12:7. 

Tents are of various colors ; black, as 
the tents of Kedar, Psa. 120 : 5 ; Song 
1:5 ; red, as of scarlet cloth; yellow, as 
of gold shining brilliantly ; white, as of 
canvas. They are also of various shapes ; 
some circular, others of an oblong figure, 
not unlike the bottom of a ship turned 
upside down. In Syria, the tents are 
generally made of cloth of goats' hair, 
woven by women, Exod. 35 : 26. Those 
of the Arabs are of black goats' hair. 
Some other nations adopt the same kind, 
but it is not common. The Egyptian 
and Moorish inhabitants of Askalon are 
said to use white tents; and D'Arvieux 
mentions that the tent of an Arab emir 
he visited was distinguished from the 
rest by its being of white cloth. An 
Arab sheikh will have a number of tents, 
for himself, his family, servants, and vis- 
itors ; as in patriarchal times Jacob had 
separate tents for himself, for Leah, Ra- 
chel, and their maids, Gen. 31:33 ; Judg. 
4 : 17. Usually, however, one tent suf- 
fices for a family; being divided, if large, 
into several apartments by curtains. 

TENTH-DEAL, that is, tenth part, cor- 
responding to the Hebrew assaron, or the 
tenth part of aa ephah. It may there- 
fore be the same as the omer, about five 
pints, Lev. 23:17. 

20 



TE'RAH, the son of Nahor, and father 
of Nahor, Haran, and Abraham, Gen. 
11:24, begat Abraham at the age of sev- 
enty-two years, in Ur of the Chaldeans. 
Upon Abraham's first call to remove 
into the land of promise, Terali and all 
his family went with him as far as Ha- 
ran, in Mesopotamia, about b. c. 1918, 
Gen. 11:31, 32. He died there the same 
year, aged two hundred and seventy-five 
years. Scripture intimates plainly that 
Terah had fallen into idolatry, or had 
for a time mingled some idolatrous prac- 
tices with the worship of the true God, 
Josh. 24 : 2, 14 ; and some think that 
Abraham himself at first did the same 
thing ; but that afterwards God, being 
gracious to him, convinced him of the 
vanity of this worship, and that he im- 
deceived his father Terah. 




TERAPHIM, small idols or supersti- 
tious figures, from the possession, adora- 
tion, and consultation of which extraordi- 
nary benefits were expected. See margin 
2 Kin. 23 : 24 ; Ezek. 21 : 21. The East- 
ern people are still much addicted to 
this superstition of talismans. The an- 
cient teraphim appear to have been 
household gods, and their worship was 
sometimes blended with that of Jeho- 
vah, Judg. 17. They seem in one case 
to have resembled the human form in 
shape and size, 1 Sam. 19 : 13, 16. The 
images of Rachel, Gen. 31 : 19, 30, were 
teraphim. So Judg. 17 : 5 ; 18 : 14, 20 ; 
Hos. 3:4. 

TEREBINTH. See 0.\k. 

TER'TIUS, a Christian whom Paul 
employed as his amanuensis in writing 
the epistle to the Romans, Rom. 16:22. 

TER'TULLUS, a Roman orator or ad- 
457 



TES 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



THE 



vocate, whom the Jews emploj-ed to 
bring forward their accusation against 
Paul, before the Roman procurator at 
Ciesarea, probably because they were 
themselves unacquainted with the modes 
of proceeding in the Roman courts, Acts 
24:1, 2. 

TES'TAMENT, in Scripture, usually 
signifies covenant, and not a man's last 
will, Matt. 26 : 28. Both meanings are 
blended, however, in Heb. 9 : 16, 17. 
Paul speaks of the new testament, or 
covenant, in the blood of the Redeemer ; 
and calls the law the old covenant, and 
the gospel the new covenant, 1 Cor. 
11:25; 2 Cor. 3:6, 14; Heb. 7:22; 10; 
12:24. See Bible, and Covenant. 

TES'TIINIONY, the whole revelation 
of God, testifying to man what he is to 
believe, do, and hope, Psa. 19:7; 119:88, 
99 ; 1 Cor. 1:6; Rev. 1 : 2. The two 
stone tables of the law were a visible 
"testimony" or witness of God's cove- 
nant with his people ; and hence the ark 
of the covenant was called sometimes 
the testimonv, or the ark of the testi- 
mony, Ex. 2o:22 ; 34:29. See Ark. 

TE'TRARCH is strictly the ruler of the 
fourth part of a state or province ; but 
in the New Testament it is a general 
title applied to those who governed any 
part of a kingdom or province, with an 
authority subject only to that of the Ro- 
man emperor. Thus Herod the Great 
and his brother were at one time, in 
early life, constituted tetrarchs of Judea 
by Antony. At the death of Herod the 
Great, he left half his kingdom to Arche- 
laus, with the title of ethnarch ; while 
the other half was divided between two 
of his other sons, Herod Antipas and 
Philip, with the title of tetrarchs. See 
Herod I. and II. In the same manner 
Lysanias is also said to have been te- 
trarch of Abilene, Luke 3:1. It is Herod 
Antipas who is called the tetrarch in 
Matt. 14:1; Luke 3:19; 9:7; Acts 13:1. 
As the authority of the tetrarch was sim- 
ilar to that of the king, so the general 
term king is also applied to Herod, Matt. 
14:9; Mark 6:14. 

THADDE'US, a surname of the apostle 
Jude. See Judas II. 

THAM'MUZ. See Tammuz. 

THEBES. See Ammon. 

THE'BEZ, an Ephraimite town near 
Shechem, at the siege of which Abime- 
lech was killed, Judg. 9 : 50-55 ; 2 Sam. 
11:2L 

458 



THEFT, Ex. 20:15, Prov. 22 : 22, un- 
der the Mosaic law, was punished by 
exacting a double or a qiiadruple resti- 
tution, which was secured if necessary 
by the sale of the goods or services of 
the thief to the requisite amount, Exod. 
22 : 1-8, 23 ; 2 Sam. 12:6; Prov. 6 : 30, 
31 ; Luke 19 : 8. A night-robber might 
lawfully be slain in the act ; and a man- 
stealer was to be punished by death, Ex. 
21:16; 22:2. 

THEOFR'TLUS, friend of God, an hon- 
orable person to whom the evangelist 
Luke addressed his gospel, and the Acts 
of the Apostles, Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1. 
We can only say of him, in general, that 
most probably he was a man of some 
note, who lived out of Palestine, and 
had abjured paganism in order to em- 
brace Christianity. 

THESSALO'NIANS, Epistle to the, I. 
and II. These were the earliest of Paul's 
epistles, and were written from Corinth, 
in A. D. 52 and 53. In the first epistle, 
Paul rejoices over Timothy's good report 
of the faith of Christians at Thessaloni- 
ca ; and confirms them against the per- 
secutions and temptations they would 
meet, by discussing the miraculous tes- 
timony of God to the truth of the gos- 
pel, 1:5-10 ; the character of its preach- 
ers, 2:1 to 3:13 ; the holiness of its pre- 
cepts, 4 : 1-12; and the resurrection of 
Christ and his people, 4:13 to 5: 11. The 
remainder of the epistle consists of prac- 
tical exhortations. 

In the second epistle, he corrects cer- 
tain errors into which they were falling, 
particularly respecting the second com- 
ing of Christ. This, he shows, must be 
preceded by the career of "the man of 
sin," "the son of perdition," "whose 
coming is after the working of Satan, 
with all power and signs and lying won- 
ders ;" who usurps divine authority over 
the church, and " oppose th and exalteth 
himself above all that is called God." 
The exact fulfilment in the Romish 
church of these predictions, at first so 
contrary to human anticipations, proves 
that the apostle wrote by inspiration. 

THESSALONPCA, a city and seaport 
of the second part of Macedonia, at the 
head of the Thermaic gulf. When ^mil- 
ius Paulus, after his conquest of Macedo- 
nia, divided the country into four dis- 
tricts, this city was made the capital of 
the second division, and was the station 
of a Roman governor and questor. It 



THE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



THO 



was anciently called Therma. It was 
inhabited by Greeks, Romans, and Jews, 
from among whom the apostle Paul gath- 
ered a numerous church. There Avas a 
large number of Jews resident in this 
city, where they had a synagogue, in 
which Paul, a. d. 52, preached to them 
on three successive Sabbaths. Some of 
the Jews, and many of the Gentiles, em- 
braced the gospel ; but the rest of the 
Jews determined to maltreat the apos- 
tle, and surrounded the house in which 
they believed he was lodging. The 
brethren, however, secretly led Paul and 
Silas out of the cit}"-, towards Berea, and 
they escaped from their enemies, Acts 
17. Thessalonica, now called Saloniki, 
is at present a wretched town, but has a 
population of about 70,000 persons, one- 
third of whom are Jews. 

When Paul left Macedonia for Athens 
and Corinth, he left behind him Timo- 
thy and Silas, at Thessalonica, that they 
might confirm those in the faith who 
had been converted under his ministry. 
He afterwards wrote to the church of 
the Thessalonians two epistles. See 
Paul. 

THEU'DAS, an insurgent Jew, men- 
tioned by Gamaliel, a. d. 33, as of the 
preceding generation. Acts 5:36, 37, and 
therefore not to be confounded with a 
Theudas of a. d. 44, mentioned by Jose- 
phus. The period following the death 
of Herod the Great was full of revolts. 
Theudas was also a common name, an- 
swering to the Hebrew Matthew, under 
which name Josephus speaks of an un- 
successful reformer who was burnt in the 
latter part of Herod's reign. 

THIGH. The mode of taking an oath, 
alluded to in Gen. 24 : 2-9 ; 47 : 29-31, 
was significant of the sw-earer's obliga- 
tion to obedience. Jacob's thigh was 
disabled by the Angel, to show the pa- 
triarch that his prevalence was through 
his faith and prayer, not through force. 
Gen. 32 : 25-31. Smiting the thigh was 
a gesture of self-condemnation and grief, 
Jer. 31 : 19 ; Ezek. 21 : 12. Warriors wore 
their swords upon the left thigh, unless 
left-handed, in readiness for use, Judg. 
3 : 15-21 ; Psa. 45 : 3 ; Song 3:8 ; so too 
they may have borne their names and 
titles, not only on their shields, but on 
their swords, or on the robe or mailed 
coat covering the thigh, Rev. 19 : 16. 
"Hip and thigh," Judg. 15 : 8, seems to 
mean utterly and irrecoverably. 



THIS'TLES, and THORNS. Under 
these terms, together with brambles, 
briers, and nettles, are included numer- 
ous troublesome plants, many of them 
with thorns, well fitted to try the hus- 
bandman's patience. Gen. 3:18. Plants 
of this class -svere a symbol of desolation, 
Prov. 24:31, and were often used as fuel, 
Psa. 58:9; Eccl. 7:6; Isa. 33:12. They 
also served for hedges, Hos. 2:6. A 
petty village on the plain of Jericho is 
now protected against Arab horsemen by 
a hedge of thorny Nubk branches. Dr. 
Eli Smith, visiting the plain where Gid- 
eon once threatened to tear the flesh of 
the princes of Succoth with thorns and 
briers, noticed such plants there of re- 
markable size, some of the thistles ris- 
ing above his head on horseback, Judg. 
8:7. Few of the Hebrew terms can 
now be affixed with certainty to particu- 
lar varieties among the many found in 
Syria. The jlant of wh'ca the thorny 




crown of the Saviour was made, with the 
design to mock rather than to torture 
him, is supposed to have been the Zizy- 
phus Spina Christi, a common tree with 
dark and glossy leaves, having many 
small and sharp spines on its round and 
pliant branches. Matt. 27:29 ; John 19:2, 
3. Paul's "thorn in the flesh," 2 Cor. 
12:7-10, may have been some bodily in- 
firmity, unfavorable to the success of his 
public ministrations. Compare Gal. 4:13, 
14; 2 Cor. 10:10. 

THOMAS, the apostle, Matt. 10:3, 
called in Greek Didj^mus, that is, a twin, 
John 20:24, was probably a Galilean, as 
well as the other apostles ; but the place 
of his birth, and the circumstances of his 
calling, are unknown, Luke 6 : 13-15. 
.459 



TliO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



THR 



He appears to have been of an impulsive 

character, suicerely devoterl to Christ, 
ready to act upon his convictions, and 
perhaps slow to be convinced, as he at 
lirst doubted our Lord's resurrection, 
John 11 : 16 ; 14: 5, 6 ; 20: 19-29. Several 
of the fathers inform us that he preached 
in the Indies ; and others say that he 
preached in Cush, or Ethiopia, near the 
Caspian sea. 

There are nominal Christians in the 
Exst Indies, who bear the name of St. 
Thom.is, because they report that this 
apostle preached the gospel there. They 
dwell in a peninsula of the Indus, on this 
side the gulf. 

TH0RX3. See Thistles. 

THREE. The phrase, ' ' three days and 
three nights," Matt. 12:40, \x£is equiva- 
lent in Hebrew to the English "tliree 
days;" the Jews employing the expres- 
sion '* a day and a night" to denote our 
"day" of twenty-four hours. Nor did 
"three days," 1 Sam. 30:13, literally 
"this third day," according to their 
usage, necessarily include the whole of 



three days, but a part of three days, a 
continuous period including one whole 
day of twenty-four hours, and a portion 
of the day preceding it and the day fol- 
lowing it. Compare Gen. 7 : 12, 17 ; 
1 Sam. 30:12, 13. 

THRESH'ING was anciently and is 
still peiformed in the East, sometimes 
with a flail, Ruth 2 : 17 ; Isa. 28 : 27 ; 
sometimes by treading out the grain 
with unmuzzled oxen, Deut. 25 : 4, but 
more generally by means of oxen drag- 
ging an uncouth instrument over the 
sheaves of grain. See Corn. The in- 
strument most used in Palestine at this 
time is simply two short planks fastened 
side by side and turned up in front, like 
our common stone-sledge, having sharp 
stones or irons projecting from the un- 
der side, Isa. 28:27 ; 41:15 ; Amos 1 : 3. 
The Egyptian mode is thus described by 
Niebuhr : "They use oxen, as the an- 
cients did, to beat out their corn, by 
trampling upon the sheaves, and drag- 
ging after them a clumsy machine. This 
machine is not, as in Ai-abia, a stone cyl- 




^""t 



inder, nor a plank with sharp stones, as 
in Syria, but a sort of sledge, consisting 
of three rollers fitted with irons, which 
turn upon axles. A farmer chooses out 
a level spot in his fields, and has his corn 
carried thither in sheaves, upon asses or 
4C0 



dromedaries. Two oxen are then yoked 
in a sledge ; a driver gets upon it, and 
drives them backward and forward upon 
the sheaves ; and fresh oxen succeed in 
the yoke from timj to time." By this 
operation, the straw is gradually chop- 



THR 



BIBLE DlCTIOxXARY, 



TIB 



ped fine and the grain released. Mean- 
while the whole is repeatedly turned 
over by wooden pitchforks with three or 
more prongs, and in due time thrown 
into a heap in the centre of the floor. 
The machine thus described is called a 
noreg, and answers to the Hclirew rnorag 
mentioned in 2 Sam. 2'1 : 22 ; 1 Chron. 
21:23. 

When the grain is well loosened from 
the straw by the treading of oxen, with 
or without one of the instruments above 
mentioned, the whole heap is next 
thrown with forks several yards against 
the wind, which blowing away the chaff, 
the grain falls into a heap by itself, 2 Kin. 
13 : 7 ; and if necessary, the process is re- 
peated. For this purpose the threshing- 
floors are in the open air, Judg. G : 37, 
and often on high ground, like that of 
Araunah on mount Moriah, 1 Chr. 21 : 15, 
that the wind may aid more effectually 
in winnowing the grain, Jer. 4 : 11, 12, 
which is afterwards sometimes passed 
through a sieve for farther cleansing. 
The ground is prepared for use as a 
threshing-floor by being smoothed off, 
and beaten down hard. While the wheat 
was carefully garnered, the straw and 
chaff were gathered up for fuel ; a most 
instructive illustration of the day of 
judgment, Matt. 3:12. 

THRONE, an established emblem of 
kingly dignity and power, used by sove- 
reigns on all state occasions. That of 
Solomon was of ivory, overlaid with 
gold ; having six broad steps, every one 
guarded by a golden lion at each end, 
1 Kin. 10:18-20. Heaven is called God's 
throne, and the earth his footstool, Isa. 
G6 : 1 . His thi'one is also sublimely de- 
scribed as everlasting, and as built upon 
justice and equity, Psa. 45:6; 97:2. See 
also Isa. 6 : 2-4 ; Ezek. 1. Christ is on 
the throne for ever, as the King of heav- 
en, Psa. 110:1 ; Heb. 1:8; llev. 3 : 21 ; 
and his faithful disciples will partake of 
his kingly glory, Luke 22:30 ; Eev. 4:4; 
5 : 10. lie forbade men lightly to swear by 
heaven or its throne, as they were thus 
irreverent to God, Matt. 5:34 ; 23:22. 

THUM'MIM. See Urim. 

THUN'DER and lightning are signifi- 
cant manifestations of the power of God, 
and emblems of his presence, Ex. 19:1G ; 
1 Sam. 2:10; 12:17; Psa. 18:13. Thun- 
der is poetically called "the voice of the 
Lord" in the sublime description of a 
thunder-storm in Psalm 29 : 



" The voice of the Lord is upon the waters : 
The God of glory thundereth ; 
Ihe Lord is upon many waters. 
The voice of the Lord is powerful ; 
The voice of the Lord is lull of majesty. 
The voice of the Lord breaketh the cedars ; 
Yea, the Lord breaketh the cedars of Leba- 
non," etc. 

See also Job 37:1-5 ; 40 : 9 ; Jer. 10:13. 
In illustration of Psa. 29:9, Moffat, while 
describmg the thunder-storms of South 
Africa, says that the antelopes flee in 
consternation ; and that he has observed 
the Bechuanas starting off' early on the 
morning following such a storm in quest 
of young antelopes prematurely born . In 
Psa. 78 : 48, " hot thunderbolts ' ' means 
lightning. 

THYATI'PtA, a city of Lydia, in Asia 
Minor, a Macedonian colony, anciently 
called Pelopia and Euhippia, now Ak-his- 
sar. It was situated on the confines of 
Lydia and Mysia, near the river Lycus, 
between Sardis and Pergamos- It was 
the seat of one of "the seven churches," 
Eev. 1:11; 2 : 18, 24. The art of dye- 
ing purple was particularly cultivated at 
Thyatira, as appears from an inscription 
recently found there ; and it still sends 
to Smyrna, sixty miles south-west, large 
quantities of scarlet cloth. Acts IG : 14. 
Ak-hissar is a poor town, with six thou- 
sand inhabitants, chiefly Turks. 

THY'INE-W^OOD, Rev. 18:12, the 
wood of the Thyia or Thuja Articulata 
of Linnteus, an aromatic evergreen tree, 
resembling the cedar, and found in Lib- 
ya, near mount Atlas. The wood was 
used in burning incense, and under the 
name of citron-wood was highly prized 
by the Romans for ornamental wood- 
work. It yields the sanderach resin of 
commerce. 

TIBE'RIAS, a city of Galilee, founded 
by Herod Antipas, and named by him in 
honor of the emperor Tiberius. A more 
ancient and greater city, perhaps Chin- 
neroth, seems previously to have flour- 
ished and gone to ruin near the same 
site, on the south. Tiberias was situated 
on the western shore of the lake of Gen- 
nesareth, about two hours' ride from the 
place where the Jordan issues from the 
lake. In the vicinity of the city were 
hot springs, which were much celebrat- 
ed. The lake is also sometimes called, 
from the city, the sea of Tiberias, John 
6:1, 23 ; 21:1. See Sea IV. After the 
destruction of Jerusalem, Tiberias was 
celebrated as the seat of a flourishing 
461 



TIB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TIM 



school of Jewish learning. The cru- 
saders held it for a time, and erected a 
church, in which the Arabs have since 
housed their cattle. Modern Tubariyeh 
lies on a narrow undulating plain be- 
tween the high table-land and the sea. 
It was half destroyed by an earthquake 
in 1837, and has a population of only 
twenty-five hundred souls, nearly one- 
third of whom are Jews. The walls are 
little more than heaps of ruins, the cas- 
tle is much shattered, and the place has 
an aspect of extreme wretchedness and 
tilth. As the Arabs say, "llie king of 
the fleas holds his court at Tubariyeh." 
South of the town are numerous remains 
of the ancient city or cities, extending 
for a mile and a half, nearly to the hot 
springs. The waters of these springs are 
nauseous and salt, and too hot for im- 
mediate use, 136" to 144° ; but the baths 
are much resorted to for the cure of rheu- 
matic diseases, etc. 

TIBE'EIUS, C'LAU'Dirs Dru'sus Ne'ro, 
the second emperor of Eome, was the 
son of Livia, and stepson of Augustus ; 
and being adopted by that emperor, he 
succeeded to his throne, a. d. 14. He 
was at first moderate and just, but soon 
became infamous for his vices and crimes, 
and died a. d. 37, after a cruel reign of 
twenty-two and a half years. It was in 
the fifteenth year of his reign that John 
the Baptist commenced his ministry; 
and the crucifixion of Jesus took place 
in the third or fourth year after, Luke 
8:1. This emperor is several times cas- 
uallv mentioned under the title of Cae- 
sar, " Luke 20 : 22-25 ; 23:2; John 19:12. 
His subjects were commanded to pay 
divine worship to his images. 

TIB'XI, an unsuccessful competitor 
with Omri the general, for the throne of 
Israel, durinac three vears after the death 
of Elah, IKin. 16:18-23. 

TT'DAL, apparently the chief of sev- 
eral allied tribes, Avith whom he joined 
Chedorlaomer in the invasion of the vale 
of Siddim, moimt Seir, etc., and was de- 
feated bv Abraham. Gen. 14:1-16. 

TIG'LATH-PILE'SER. king of Ass}Tia. 
■was in\-ited by Ahaz king of Judah to 
aid him against the kings of Syria and 
Israel, 2 Kin. 16 : 7-10. This he did, but 
exacted also a heavy tribute from Ahaz, 
so as to distress him without helping 
him, 2 Chr. 28:20, 21. From the king- 
dom of Israel, also, he carried off the 
inhabitants of manv cities captive, and 

4f;2 



{ placed them in various parts of his king- 
dom, B. c. 740, 1 Chr. 5 : 26 ; 2 Kin. 
! 15 : 29, thus fulfilling unconsciously the 
I predictions of Isaiah, 7:17 ; 8:4. He is 
supposed to be meant by Jareb, the plead- 
er, in Hos. 5:13; 10 : 6. He reigned nine- 
teen years at Nineveh, and was succeeded 
by his son Shalmaneser. 

TILE, a broad and thin brick, usually 
made of fine clay, and hardened in the 
fire. Such tiles were very common in 
the region of the Euphrates and Tigris, 
(see Babylon.) and ofiered to the exiled 
prophet Ezekiel the most natural and 
obvious means of depicting the siege 
of Jerusalem, Ezek. 4:1. Great num- 
bers of similar rude sketches of places, 
as well as of animals and men, are found 
on the tiles recently exhumed from the 
ancient mounds of Assyria, interspersed 
among the wedge-shaped inscriptions 
with which one side of the tile is usually 
crowded. At Nineveh Layard found a 
large chamber stored full of such in- 
scribed tiles, like a collection of histor- 
ical archives, Ezra 6:1. They are usually 
about a foot square, and three inches 
thick. 

TIM'BPiEL, an instrument of music, 
j early and often mentioned in Scripture, 
I Gen. 31 : 27 ; Job 21 : 12. The Hebrews 
I called it toph, under which name they 
I comprehended all kinds of drums, ta- 
bors, and tambourines. We do not find 
! that the Hebrews used it in their wars, 
I but only at their public rejoicings, Ex. 
; 15:20; Isa. 24:8; and it was commonly 
I employed by the women, Psa. 68:25. It 
I consisted, and still consists, of a small 
circular rim or hoop, over which a skin 
is di-awn. The rim is also hung with 
small bells The timbrel is used as an 
accompaniment to lively music, being 
shaken and beaten with the knuckles in 
time. After the passage of the Picd sea, 
Miriam, sister of Moses, took« a timbrel, 
and began to play and dance with the 
women. Exod. 15 : 20. The daughter of 
Jephthah came to meet her father with 
timbrels and other musical instruments, 
Judg. 11:34. See Music. 

TIME. Besides the ordinary uses of 
this word, the Bible sometimes employs 
it to denote a year, as in Dan. 4 : 16 ; or 
a prophetic year, consisting of three hun- 
dred and sixty natural years, a day be- 
ing taken for a year. Tlius in Dan. 7 :25; 
12:7, the phrase "a time, times, and the 
dividing of a time ' ' is supposed to mean 



TIM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TIR 



three and a half prophetic years, or 1,260 
natural years. This period is elsewhere 
paralleled hy the expression, "forty-two 
months," each month including thirty 
years, Rev. 11:2, 3; 12:6, 11; 18:5. 

TIM'XA. a secondary wife of Eliphaz 
the son of Esau, a name which recurs in 
the records of the Idumiean tribes, Gen. 
36:12, 22, 40; 1 Chr. 1:36, 51. 

TIM'XAH, TIM'XATH, and THIM'- 
XATHAH, an ancient city of the Ca- 
naanites, Gen. 38:12-14; on the borders 
of Judah and Dan after the conquest, 
Josh. 15 : 10 ; 19:43. It was for a long 
time subject to the Philistmes, and Sam- 
son's wife was a Timnite, Judg. 14:1-5 ; 
2 Chr. 28 : 18. Its deserted site, now 
called Tibneh, lies three miles south- 
west of Zorah. 

TIM'XATH-SE'EAH, or TiM'xAxn-nE'- 
RES, Judg. 2: 9, a town in Ephraim, which 
yielded to Joshua a home, an income, 
and a burial-place, Josh. 19:50 ; 24:30. 
The site the Jewish leader is supposed 
to have chosen, now called Tibneh, lies 
in a rough and mountainous region on 
the road from Gophna to Antipatris. 

TIM'OTHY, a disciple of Paul. He 
was of Derbe or Lystra, both cities of 
Lycaonia, Acts 16:1 ; 14 : 6. His father 
was a Greek, but his mother a Jewess, 

2 Tim. 1:5 ; 3: 15. The instructions and 
prayers of his pious mother and grand- 
mother, and the preaching of Paul dur- 
ing his first visit to Lystxa, a. d. 48, re- 
sulted in the conversion of Timothy and 
his introduction to the ministry which 
he so adorned. He had witnessed the 
sufferings of Paul, and loved him as his 
father in Christ, 1 Tim. 1 : 2 ; 2 Tim. 

3 : 10, 11. When the apostle returned 
to Lystra, about a. d. 51, the brethren 
spoke highly of the merit and good dis- 
position of Timothy ; and the apostle 
determined to take him along with him, 
for Avhich purpose he circumcised him at 
Lystra, Acts 16 : 3. 'Timothy applied him- 
self to labor in the gospel, and did Paul 
very important services through the 
whole course of his preaching. Paul 
calls him not only his dearly beloved 
son, but also his brother, the companion 
of his labors, and a man of God ; observ- 
ing that none was more united with him 
in heart and mind than Timothv, Rom. 
16:21; 1 Cor. 4:17; 2 Cor. 1:1;' 1 Tim. 
1 : 2, 18. Indeed, he was selected by 
Paul as his chosen companion in his 
journeys, shared for a time his impris- , 



I onment at Rome, Heb. 13 : 23, and was 
afterwards left by him at Ephesus, to 
continue and perfect the work which 
Paul had begun in that city, 1 1 im. 1:3; 
3 : 14. He appears to have possessed iii' 
a veiy high degree the confidence and 
affection of Paul, and is therefore often 
mentioned by him in terms of warm 
commendation, Acts 16 : 1 ; 17 : 14, 15 ; 
18:5; 19:22; 20:4; 2 Tim. 3:10; 4:5. 

Epistles to Timothy. The first of 
these Paul seems to have written sub- 
sequently to his first imprisonment at 
Rome, and while he was in Macedonia, 
having left Timothy at Epliesus, 1 Tim. 
1:2, A. D. 64. The second appears to 
have been addressed to Timothy in 
i north-western Asia Minor, during Paul's 
second imprisonment and in anticipation 
I of martyrdom, a. d. 67. This dying 
{ charge of the faithful apostle to his be- 
loved son in the gospel, the latest fruit 
of his love for him and for the chiarch, 
we study with deep emotions. Both epis- 
i ties are most valuable and instructive 
j documents for the direction and admo- 
I nition of every Christian, and more es- 
\ pecially of ministers of the gospel. With 
I the epistle to Titus, they form the three 
" pastoral epistles," as they are called. 

TIX, a metal known and used at an 
early period, Xum. 31 : 22, and brought 
by the Tyrians from Tarshish, Ezek. 
27: 12. In Isa. 1 : 25 it means the alloy 
of lead, tin, and other base admixtures 
[ in silver ore, separated from the pure 
silver bv smelting. 

TIPH'SAH, the ancient Thapsacus, an 
important city on the western bank of 
the Euphrates, which constituted the 
north-eastern extremity of Solomon's 
dominions, 1 Kin. 4 : 24. The ford at 
this place iDcing the last one on the Eu- 
phrates towards the south, its possession 
was important to Solomon in his design 
to attract the trade of the East to Pales- 
tine. Hence the building of Tiidmor on 
the desert route. Perhaps the same city 
is meant in 2 Kin. 15 : 16, though some 
understand here a city of the same name 
near Samaria. 

TI'RAS, a son of Japheth, supposed to 
have been the forefather of the ancient 
Thracians, Gen. 10:2. 

TIRES, or ' ' little moons, ' ' are thought 
to have been ornaments for the neck, 
worn not by women only, Isa. 3 : 18, but 
by men, and even on the necks of cam- 
els, Judg. 8 : 21, 26. Some suppose the 
4G3 



TIR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY 



TIT 



tire, in Ezek. 24:17, was an ornamented 
headdress. 







TIEHA'KAH, king of Ethiopia, or 
Cush, and of Ej^ypt. This prince, at the 
head of a powerful army, attempted to 
relieve Hezekiah, when attacked by Sen- 
nacherib, 2 Kin. 19 : 9, but the Assyrian 
army was routed before he came up, Isa. 
37:19, B. c. 712. He is undoubtedly the 
Taracus of Manetho, and the Tearcho of 
Strabo, the tliird and last king of the 
twenty-fifth or Ethiopian dynasty. It is 
supposed that he is the Pharaoh intend- 
ed in Isa. 30:2 ; and that Isa. 19 depicts 
the anarchy which succeeded his reign. 
He was a powerful monarch, ruling both 
Upper and Lower Egypt, and extending 
his conquests far into Asia and towards 
the ' ' pillars of Hercules ' ' in the west. 
His name and victories are recorded on 
an ancient temple at Medinet Abou, in 
Upper Egypt ; whence also the repre- 
sentation above given of his head was 
copied by Rosselini. 

TIRSHA'THA, perhaps meaning se- 
vere or august, a title of honor borne 
by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah as Persian 
governors of Judea, Ezra 2 : 63 ; Neh. 
7:65. 

464 



TIR'ZAH, pleasant, Song 6 : 4, a city of 
the Canaanites, Josh. 12 : 24, and after- 
wards of the tribe of Manasseh or Ephra- 
im ; and the royal seat of the kings of 
Israel from the time of Jeroboam to the 
reign of Omri, who built the city of Sa- 
maria, which then became the capital of 
this kingdom, 1 Kin. 15 : 21, 33 ; 16 : 6, 
23 ; 2 Kin. 15: 14, 16. Its exact location 
is unkno^vn. 
, TISH'BITE, from Tishhe in the tribe 
of Naphtali, where Elijah was born, 
1 Kin. 17 : 1. It is mentioned in one of 
the apocrvphal books. 

TISH'RI, or Tis'Ri, the first month of 
the Jewish civil year, and the seventh 
of the ecclesiastical ; called, in ] Kin. 
8:2, Ethanim, which see ; and answer- 
ing nearly to our October. On the first 
day of Tishri the feast of Trumpets oc- 
curred ; on the tenth, the great clay of 
Expiation ; and on the fifteenth, the feast 
of Tabernacles commenced. 

TITHE, a tenth, the proportion of a 
man's income devoted to sacred purposes 
from time immemorial. Gen. 14 : 20 ; 
28 : 22. This was prescribed in the Mo- 
saic law. Num. 31 : 31. A twofold tithe 
was required of each Jewish citizen. The 
first consisted of one-tenth of the prod- 
uce of his fields, trees, flocks, and herds, 
to be given to God as the sovereign Pro- 
prietor of all things and as the King of 
the Jews, Lev. 27 : 30-32 ; 1 Sam. 8 : 15, 
17. The proceeds of this tax were de- 
voted to the maintenance of the Levites 
in their respective cities, Num. 18 : 21- 
24. A person might pay this tax in 
money, adding one-fifth to its estimated 
value. The Levites paid a tenth part of 
what they received to the priests. Num. 
18:26-28. The second tithe required of 
each landholder was one-tenth of the 
nine parts of his produce remaining after 
the first tithe, to be expended at the 
tabernacle or temple in entertaining the 
Levites, his own family, etc., changing it 
first into money, if on account of his re- 
moteness he chose to do so, Deut. 12:17- 
19, 22-29 ; 14:22-27. Every third year a 
special provision was made for the poor, 
either out of this second tithe or in addi- 
tion to it, Deut. 14:28, 29. These tithes 
were not burdensome ; but the pious Is- 
raelite found himself the richer for their 
payment, though it does not seem to 
have been enforced by any legal penal- 
ties. The system of tithes was renewed 
both before and after the captivity, 



TIT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TOL 



2Chr. 31:5, 6, 12; Neli. 10:37; 12:44; 
13 : 5 ; but they were not always regu- 
larly paid, and hence the divine blessing 
was withheld, Mai. 3 : 8-12. The Phar- 
isees were scrupulously exemplary in 
paying their tithes, but neglected the 
more important duties of love to God 
and man. Matt. 23:23. 

The principle of the ancient tithes, 
namely, that ministers of the gospel and 
objects of benevolence should be pro- 
vided for by the whole people of God, 
according to their means, is fully recog- 
nized in Scripture as applicable to the 
followers of Christ. He sent his servants 
forth, two and two, without provisions 
or purses, to receive their support from 
the people, since "the laborer is worthy 
of his hire," Matt. 10:9-14; Luke 10:4- 
8, 16. Paul also reasons in the same 
way, 1 Cor. 9 : 13, 14 ; Gal. 6 : 6. For 
purposes of piety and beneficence, he 
directed the Corinthians, and virtually 
all Christians, to lay aside from their 
income, on the first day of the week, as 
the Lord had prospered them, 1 Cor. 
16 : 2. There is no reason to doubt that 
the early Christians gave more freely of 
their substance than did the ancient 
Jews, Acts 4:34-36 ; 2 Cor. 8:1-4. 

TIT'TLE, a very small particle ; liter- 
ally, a small horn ; the minute tip at 
the extremity of some Hebrew letters, 
Matt. 5:18. In transcribing the Hebrew 
Scriptures, the Jews exacted the utmost 
accuracy. Every page and every line 
must contain just so much ; and the 
most trivial defect vitiated the whole 
roll, and compelled the scribe to begin 
his task anew. Yet the extreme care 
thus expressed for the perfect integrity 
of the letter of God's word is but a feeble 
illustration of the Saviour's care for the 
same word — every truth, every threaten- 
ing, and every promise has the most per- 
fect guarantee possible : " It is easier for 
heaven and earth to pass, than one tittle 
of the law to fail," Luke 16:17. 

TI'TUS, a distinguished Christian min- 
ister of Greek origin. Gal. 2 : 3 ; con- 
verted under the preaching of Paul, Tit. 
1 : 4, whose companion and fellow-laborer 
he became, 2 Cor. 8:23. He joined Paul 
and Barnabas in the mission from Anti- 
och to Jerusalem, Acts 15:2 ; Gal. 2:1; 
and subsequently was sent to Corinth 
and labored with success, 2 Cor. 8:6; 
12:18. He did not rejoin the apostle at j 
Troas. as was expected, but at Philippi, • 
20* 



2 Cor. 2:12, 13 ; 7:6; and soon after re- 
sumed his labors at Corinth in connec- 
tion with a general effort for the relief 
of poor Christians in Judea, taking with 
him Paul's second epistle, 2 Cor. 8 : 6, 
16, 17. Some eight or ten years later, 
we find him left by the apostle at Crete, 
to establish and regulate the churches of 
that island. Tit. 1 : 5. Here he received 
the EPISTLE TO Titus from Paul, then at 
Ephesus, inviting him to Nicopolis, Tit. 

3 : 12 ; whence he went into the neigh- 
boring Dalmatia, before Paul was finally 
imprisoned at Rome, 2 Tim. 4:10. Tra- 
dition makes him labor for many years 
in Crete, and die there at an advanced 
age. His character seems to have been 
marked by integrity, discretion, and a 
glowing zeal. He was trusted and be- 
loved by Paul, whose epistle to him is 
similar in its contents to the first epistle 
to Timothy, and was probably written 
not long after it, a. d. 65. 

TOB, a district beyond Jordan, where 
Jephthah took refuge when expelled 
from Gilead, Judg. 11:3, 5. Its location 
is not known. 

TOBIAH, an Ammonite prince, in 
league with Sanballat and the Samari- 
tans against the pious Jews, who were 
rebuilding the ruined temple, Neh. 2: 10; 
4:3. His threats and treacheiy were 
employed in vain. During Nehemiah's 
absence, Tobiah was unlawfully estab- 
lished by some of the chief men of Ju- 
dah, his relatives, in a fine apartment of 
the new temple ; but was ignominiously 
expelled on the governor's return, Neh. 
6:17-19; 13:1-9. 

TOGAR'MAH, a descendant of Ja- 
pheth. Gen. 10 : 3, supposed to have 
given his name to the region of Asia 
afterwards called Armenia, Ezek. 38:15, 
16. It was celebrated for its horses and 
mules ; and the men of Togarmah, like 
the modern Armenians, were an indus- 
trious, peaceable, and trafficking people, 
Ezek. 27:14. 

TOI, king of Hamath in Syria, sent 
his son to rejoice with David on his vic- 
tories over Hadadezer king of Zobah, 
2 Sam. 8:9-11; 1 Chr. 18:9. 

TO'LA, I., the eldest son of Issachar, 
and head of a family, Gen. 46:13 ; Num. 
26:23. 

II. Of the tribe of Issachar, judge of 
Israel, at Shamir in mount Ephraim, for 
twentv-three years after the death of 
Abimelech. Judg. 10:1, 2. 



TOM 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TRA 



TOMB. See Sepulchre. 

TO'PAZ, a precious stone of wine-yel- 
low color, with occasional pale tinges of 
green or red. It was one of the twelve 
gems in the high -priest's hreastplate, 
Exod. 28 : 17 ; 39 : 10, and was a highly 
prized product of Gush, or Southern Ara- 
bia, Job 28:19; Ezek. 28:13. 

TO'PHET. See Hinnom. 

TORMENT'ORS. The Greek word 
usually denotes men who had charge of 
instruments of torture, by Avhich unwill- 
ing witnesses were compelled to testify, 
and the agonies of execution in some 
cases were protracted. The same men, 
however, were keepers of prisons and 
jails ; and it is probably with reference 
only to their office as jailers that the 
word is used in Matt. 18:34. 

TOR'TOISE, Lev. 11:29. The Hebrew 
word rather denotes a species of lizard, 
so named in. the original for its slowness 
of motion. 




TOWERS were erected not only in the 
outer walls and on the heights within 
cities, Judg. 9 : 47-49, Psa. 48:12, Luke 
13 : 4, but along the frontiers of a coun- 
try, at points where the approach of an 
enemy could be descried at a distance, 
Judg. 9:17; Isa. 21:6-9; Ezek. 33:2-6. 
A tower afforded a refuge to the sur- 
rounding inhabitants, in case of inva- 
sion ; and often, when most of a city 
was subdued, the tower or citadel re- 
mained impregnable. So God is a strong 
and safe protector of his people, Psa. 
18 : 2 ; 61 : 8 ; Prov. 18 : 10. A slight 
tower or look-out was often erected for 
the keeper of a vineyard or flock, 2 Chr. 
26:10; Isa. 5:2; Mic. 4:8; Matt. 21:33; 
466 



and travellers in Palestine see them in 
use at this day. 

TRACHONPTIS, in the time of Christ, 
was, as its name imports, a rugged prov- 
ince, lying on the north-east border of 
Palestine, south of Damascus, between 
the mountains of Arabia Deserta on the 
east, and Iturea, Auranitis, and Batanea 
on the west and south, Luke 3:1. Herod 
the Great subdued the robbers that in- 
fested it ; and after his death it was gov- 
erned by Philip his son, and then by 
Herod Agrippa. 

TRADI'TION, Col. 2:8, Tit. 1 : 14, a 
doctrine, sentiment, or oust 5m not found 
in the Bible, but transmitted orally from 
generation to generation from some pre- 
sumed inspired authority. In patriar- 
chal times, much that was valuable and 
obligatory was thus preserved. But tra- 
dition has long been superseded by the 
successive and completed revelations of 
God's will which form the inspired Scrip- 
tures, the only perfect and sufficient rule 
of belief and practice. With this, even 
before the time of the Saviour, Isa. 8 : 20, 
all traditions were to be compared, as 
being of no value if they conflicted with 
it, added to it, or took from it. Rev. 
22 : 19. The Jews had numerous unwrit- 
ten traditions, which they affirmed to 
have been delivered to Moses on mount 
Sinai, and by him transmitted to Joshua, 
the judges, and the prophets. After their 
wars with the Romans under Adrian and 
Severus, in view of their increasing dis- 
persion over the earth, the Jews desired 
to secure their traditions by committing 
them to writing. Accordingly Rabbi 
Judah "the Holy," composed the Mish- 
na, or second law, the most ancient col- 
lection of the Hebrew traditions, about 
A. D. 190-220. To this text two com- 
mentaries were afterwards added : the 
Gemara of Jerusalem, probably about 
A. D. 370 ; and the Gemara of Babylon, 
A. D. 500 ; forming, with the Mishna, 
the Talmud of Jerusalem and that of 
Babylon. The contents of these volu- 
minous works poorly remunerate the 
student for the laborious task of reading 
them. Our Saviour severely censured 
the adherents of such legendary follies 
in his own day, and reproached them 
with preferring the traditions of the 
elders to the law of God itself, and su- 
perstitiously adhering to vain obser- 
vances while they neglected the most 
important duties, Matt. 15 : 1-20 ; Mark 



TRA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TRE 



7 : 1-13, The traditions of the Romish 
church, with less apology tlian tiie an- 
cient Jews had hefore the New Testament 
was written, are still more in conflict 
with the word of God, and still more 
deserving of the Saviour's condemna- 
tion. 

In 2 Thess. 2 : 15 ; 3 : 6, "tradition" 
means inspired instructions from the lips 
of those who received them from God, 
and were authorized to dispense them in 
his name. These apostolic sayings were 
obligatory only on those who received 
them as inspired directly from the apos- 
tles. Had any of them come down to 
our times, the only means of endorsing 
them must be by showing their agree- 
ment with the word of God, since inspi- 
ration and miracles have ceased. 

TRAXCE, a state of the human sys- 
tem distinguished from dreaming and 
revery ; it is one in which the bodily 
senses are locked up and almost discon- 
nected from the spirit, which is occupied 
either with phantasms, as in trances pro- 
duced by disease, or, as in ancient times, 
with revelations from God. Numerous 
instances are mentioned in Scripture : as 
that of Balaam, Num. 24:4, 16 ; those of 
Peter and Paul, Acts 10: 10; 22:17: 2 Cor. 
12 : 1-4. Compare also Gen. 2 : 21-24 ; 
15:12-21; Job 4:13-21. 

TRANSFIGURA'TION, Matt. 17:1-9; 
2 Pet. 1:16-18. This remarkable event 
in the life of Christ probably took place 
on Hermon or some other mountain not 
far from C;esarea Philippi ; the tradition 
which assigns it to Tabor not being sus- 
tained. See Tabor. The whole form and 
raiment of the Saviour appeared in super- 
natural glory. The Law and the Prophets, 
in the persons of Moses and Elijah, did 
homage to the Gospel. By communing 
with Christ on the theme most moment- 
ous to mankind, his atoning death, they 
evinced the harmony that exists between 
the old and new dispensations, and the 
sympathy between heaven and earth ; 
while the voice from heaven in their 
hearing gave him honor and authority 
over all. Besides its great purpose, the 
attestation of Christ's Messiahship and 
divinity, this scene demonstrated the 
continued existence of departed spirits 
in an unseen world, furnished in the 
Saviour's person an emblem of human- 
ity glorified, and aided in preparing both 
him and his disciples for their future 
trials. 



TREAS'URES. Kings were wont to 
store their possessions and guard what 
they most valued in well-fortified cities, 
hence called treasure-cities, Ex. 1 : 11 ; 
1 Chr. 27 : 25 ; Ezra 5 : 17. "Treasures 
in the field," Jer. 41:8, were provisions, 
etc., buried, as is the custom in many 
parts of the world, in subterranean pits. 
Numerous ruined granaries of this kind 
are still found in the vicinity of Beth- 
shean. The "pilgrim fathers" in like 
manner found heaps of corn buried in 
the ground by the Indians. In conse- 
quence also of the great insecurity of 
property in the East, it seems to have 
been usual from the earliest times to 
hide in the ground gold and jewels ; 
and the owners being killed or driven 
away, or forgetting the place of depos- 
it, these hidden treasures remain till 
chance or search brings them to light. 
They are much sought for by the Arabs 
at this day, and are believed by them to 
be the object travellers from the West 
have in view in exploring ancient ruins, 
Job 3:21; Prov. 2:4; Matt. 13:44. But 
a few years since, some workmen dig- 
ging in a garden at Sidon, discovered 
several copper pots, filled with gold coin 
from the mint of Philip of Macedon and 
his son Alexander, unmixed with any of 
later date. This lost treasure, worth 
many thousands of dollars, had remain- 
ed apparently undisturbed over two 
thousand years. 

TREES were frequently used as types 
of kings, or men of wealth and power, 
Psa. 37: 35 ; Isa. 2 : 13 ; Dan. 4 : 10-26 ; 
Zech. 11:1, 2. The "tree of knowledge 
of good and evil ' ' bore the forbidden 
fruit, by eating of which Adam fatally 
increased his knowledge — of good by its 
loss, of sin an 1 woe by actual experi- 
ence. Gen. 2:0, 17. The "tree of life" 
may have been both an assurance and a 
means of imparting life, a seal of eternal 
holiness and bliss, if man had not sin- 
ned. Compare Rev. 22:2. 

TRENCH, a passage of approach to 
the walls of a besieged city, like a deep 
ditch ; the earth thrown uj) constituting 
a Avail. Tlie Redeemer, weeping over 
Jerusalem a few days before he was cru- 
cified under its walls, said, "The days 
shall come upon thee, that thine ene- 
mies shall cast a trench about thee, and 
compass thee round, and keep thee in on 
every side," Luke 19 : 43. The Romans 
fulfilled this prediction by enclosing the 
467 



TRE 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TRO 



entire city of Jerusalem by a wall, that 
the Jews might neither escape nor be 
relieved from without. In 1 Sam. 26:5, 
"trench" appears to mean the circle 
formed by camp equipage. See Camp. 

TRES'PASS, an injury done to an- 
other, with more or less culpability. 
The Mosaic law required a trespasser not 
only to make satisfaction to the person 
injured, but by an offering at the altar 
to reconcile himself to the divine Gov- 
ernor, Lev. 5 ; 6 : 1-7 ; Psa. 51 : 4. Christ 
repeatedly declares, that in order to be 
forgiven of God, we must be forgiving 
to men, Matt. 6 : 14, 15, and that no 
brother must have aught against us, 
Matt. 5:23, 24. 

TRIBE. Jacob having twelve sons, 
who were heads of so many families, 
which together formed a great nation, 
each of these families was called a tribe. 
But this patriarch on his death -bed 
adopted Ephraim and Manasseh, the two 
sons of Joseph, and would have them 
also to constitute two tribes in Israel, 
Gen. 48 : 5. Instead of twelve tribes, 
there were now thirteen, that of Joseph 
being two. HoAvever, in the distribu- 
tion of lands by Joshua under the order 
of God, they reckoned but twelve tribes 
and made but twelve lots ; for the tribe 
of Levi, being appointed to the sacred 
service, had no share in the distribution 
of the land, but received certain cities to 
dwell in, with the first-fruits, tithes, and 
oblations of the people. Each tribe had 
its own leaders and tribunals ; and the 
whole twelve, in their early history, 
constituted a republic somewhat resem- 
bling the United States. In the division 
made by Joshua of the land of Canaan, 
Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh had 
their lot beyond Jordan, east ; all the 
other tribes, and the remaining half of 
Manasseh had their distribution on this 
side the river, west. 

The twelve tribes continued united as 
one state, one people, and one mon- 
archy, till after the death of Solomon, 
when ten of the tribes revolted from the 
house of David, and formed the kingdom 
of Israel. See Hebrews. 

TRIB'UTE. Every Jew throughout 
the world was required to pay an annual 
tribiite or capitation-tax of half a shekel, 
about twenty-tive cents, in acknowledg- 
ment of God's sovereignty and for the 
maintenance of the temple service, Ex. 
30:12-15. It was with reference to this 
468 



that Christ says, in effect. Matt. 17 : 25, 
26, "If this tribute be levied in the 
name of the Father, then I, the Son, 
am free." In other New Testament pas- 
sages, tribute means the tax levied by 
the Romans. 0\\ the question of paying 
tribute to foreigners and idolaters, Matt. 
22:16-22, Christ gave a reply which nei- 
ther party could stigmatize as rebellious, 
or as unpatriotic and irreligious. By 
themselves using Ca?sar's cinrency, both 
parties acknowledged the fact of his su- 
premacy. Christ warns them to render 
to all men their dues ; and above all, to 
regard the claims of Him whose super- 
scription is on every thing, 1 Cor. 10:31; 
IPet. 2:9, 13. 

TRO' AS, a maritime city of Mysia, in 
the north-west part of Asia Minor, situ- 
ated on the J^gean coast, at some dis- 
tance south of the supposed site of an- 
cient Troy. The adjacent region, includ- 
ing all the coast south of the Hellespont, 
is also called Troas, or the Troad. The 
city was a Macedonian and Roman colo- 
ny of much promise, and was called Al- 
exandria Troas. The Turks call its ruins 
Eski Stamboul, the old Constantinople. 
Its remains, in the centre of a forest of 
oaks, are still grand and imposing. The 
apostle Paul was ih-st at Troas for a short 
time in a. d. 52, and sailed tbence into 
Macedonia, Acts 16 : 8-11. At his sec- 
ond visit, in a. d. 57, he labored with 
success, 2 Cor. 2 : 12, 13. At his third 
recorded visit he tarried but a week ; at 
the close of which the miraculous rais- 
ing of Eutychus to life took place. Acts 
20:5-14, A. D. 58. See also 2 Tim. 4:13. 

TROGYL'LIUM, the name of a town 
and promontory of Ionia, in Asia Minor, 
between Ephesus and the mouth of the 
Meander, opposite to Samos. The prom- 
ontory is a spur of mount Mycale, Acts 
20:15. 

TROOP, Isa. 65:11. See Gad III. 

TROPH'IMUS, a disciple of Paul, a 
Gentile and an Ephesian by birth, came 
to Corinth with the apostle, and accom- 
panied him in his whole journey to Je- 
rusalem, A. D. 58, Acts 20:4. When the 
apostle was in the temple there, the Jews 
laid hold of him, crying out, "He hath 
brought Greeks into the temple, and 
hath polluted this holy place ;" because, 
having seen him in the city accompa- 
nied by Trophimus, they imagined that 
he had introduced him into the temple. 
Some years afterwards, Paul writes that 



TRO 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TYP 



he had left him sick at Miletus, 2 Tim. 
4 : 20. This did not occur at Paid's for- 
mer visit to Miletus, since Trophimus 
went with him to Jerusalem ; nor on 
the voyage to Rome, for they did not go 
near ]\iiletus. It is therefore one of the 
circumstances which prove that Paul was 
released, and revisited Asia Minor, Crete, 
Macedonia, and perhaps Spain, before his 
second imprisonment and death. Of 
Trophimus nothing farther is known. 

TROW, an old word for think, Luke 
17 ;9. 

TRUM'PET. The Lord commanded 
Moses to make two trumpets of beaten 
silver, for the purpose of calling the 
people together when they were to de- 
camp, Num. 10 : 2. They used these 
trumpets to proclaim the beginning of 
the civil year, of the sabbatical year, 
Lev. 23 : 24, Num. 29 : 1, and of the 
jubilee, Lev. 25:9, 10. See Music. 

The feast of Trumpets Avas kept on 
the first day of the seventh month of the 
sacred year, wliich was the first of the 
civil year, called Tishri. The beginning. 
of the year was proclaimed by sound of 
trumpet, Lev. 23 : 24 ; Num. 29:1 ; and 
the day was kept solemn, all servile 
business bsing forbidden. In addition 
to the daily and the monthly sacrifices. 
Num. 28:11-15, a solemn holocaust Avas 
offered in the name of the whole nation, 
of a bullock, a ram, a kid, and seven 
lambs of the same year, Avith offerings 
of flour and wine, as usual with these 
sacrifices. Scripture does not mention 
the occasion of appointing this feast. 

TRYPHE'NA, and TRYPHO'SA, fe- 
male disciples at Rome, apparently sis- 
ters, and very useful in the work of 
evangelization, Rom. 16:12. 

TU'BAL, a son of Japheth, Gen. 10:2 ; 
supposed to have been tlie originator of 
the Tybareni, who occupied the north- 
eastern part of Asia Minor. They were 
a warlike people, and brought slaves and 
copper vessels to the market of Tvre, 
Isa. 66:19; Ezek. 27:13; 32:26; 38:2; 
39:1. 

TU'BAL -CAIN, son of Lamech and 
Zillah, inventor of the art of forging 
metals, Gen. 4:22. 

TUR'TLE-DOVE, or Turtlk, the Co- 
lumba Turtur ; a distinct bird from the 
common dove or pigeon, smaller and 
differently marked, and having a soft 
and plaintive note, Isa. 59:11; Ezek. 
7: 16. It is a bird of passage, Jer. 8 : 7, 




I leaving Palestine for a short trip to the 
south, and returning early in spring, 
j Song 2 : 12. It is timid and fond of se- 
j elusion, and pines in captivity, Psa. 11:1. 
j The law allowed it as a burnt or sin- 
; offering by the poor, Lev. 1 : 14 ; 5:7; 
I Matt. 21 : 22, and in several cases of pu- 
I rification. etc., Lev. 12 : 6-8 ; 14 : 22 ; 
Num. 6:10 ; Luke 2:24. Before the giv- 
ing of the law, Abraham offered birds, 
Avliich were a turtle and a pigeon ; and 
when he divided the other victims he 
left the birds entire, Gen. 15:9. 

TYCH'ICUS, a disciple employed by 
the apostle Paul to carry his letters to 
several churches. He Avas of the prov- 
ince of Asia, and accompanied Paul in 
his journey from Corinth to Jerusalem, 
Acts 20:4. He carried the epistle to the 
Colossians, that to the Ephesians, and the 
first to Timothy. The apostle calls him 
his dear brother, a faithful minister of 
the Lord, and his companion in the ser- 
vice of God, Eph. 6:21, 22 ; Col. 4:7, 8 ; 
2 Tim. 4:12, and had intentions of send- 
ing him into Crete, in the absence of 
Titus, Tit. 3:12. 

TYPE, in Greek tupos, a word denot- 
ing some resemblance, and translated 
"figure" in Rom. 4:15, "ensample" in 
Phil. 3 : 17, "manner" in Acts 23 : 25, 
and "form" in Rom. 6:17. So also 
Moses Avas to make the tabernacle ac- 
cording to the type or model he had 
seen in the mount, Acts 7 : 44. In the 
more general use of the Avord, a scrip- 
tural type is a prophetic symbol, "a 
shadow of good things to come," Heb. 
4(>9 



TYR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



TYR 



10:1, "but the body is Christ," Col. 
2 : 17. The typical character of the old 
dispensation is its most distinguishing 
feature. For example, the paschal lamb 
and all the victims sacrificed under the 
law were types of the Lamb of God, and 
illustrated his great atonement ; show- 
ing that guilt deserved death, and could 
only be atoned for by the blood of an 
acceptable sacrifice. But they were also 
intended to foretell the coming of their 
great Antitype. 

The Old I'estament types include per- 
sons, officers, objects, events, rites, and 
places. Thus Adam and Melchizedek, 
the prophetic and the priestly office, 
manna and the brazen serpent, the smit- 
ten rock and the passage over Jordan, 
the Passover and the Day of Atonement, 
Canaan and the cities of refuge are scrip- 
tural types of Christ. 

However striking the points of resem- 
blance which an Old Testament event or 
object may present to something in the 
New Testament, it is not properly a type 
unless it was so appointed by God, and 
thus has something of a prophetic char- 
acter. Due care should therefore be 
taken to distinguish between an illus- 
tration and a type. 

TYPiAN'NUH, the name of a person at 
Ephesus, in whose school Paul publicly 
proposed and defended the doctrines of 
the gospel. Acts 19 : 9. By some he is 
thought to have been a Greek sophist, a 
teacher of rhetoric or philosophy, con- 
verted to Christianity; while others sup- 
pose him to have been a Jewish doctor 
or rabbi, who had a public school. 

TYPiE, or Ty'rus, a rock, the celebrated 
emporium of Phoenicia, the seat of im- 
mense wealth and power, situated on the 
coast of the Mediterranean, within the 
limits of the tribe of Asher, as assigned 
by Joshua, Josh. 19:29, though never re- 
duced to subjection. Tyre was a ' ' daugh- 
ter of Zidon," but rapidly gained an 
ascendency over this and all the other 
cities of Phoenicia, which it retained with 
few exceptions to the last. It is men- 
tioned by neither Moses nor Homer ; but 
from the time of David onward, reference 
is frequently made to it in the books of 
the Old Testament. There was a close 
alliance between David and Hiram king 
of Tyre, Avliich was afterwards continued 
in the reign of Solomon ; and it was from 
the assistance afforded by the Tyrians, 
both in artificers and materials, that the 
470 



house of David, and afterwards the tem- 
ple, were principally built, 2 Sam. 5:11; 
1 Kin. 6 ; 1 Chr. 14 ; 2 Chr. 2:3; 9 : 10. 
The marriage of Ahab king of Israel with 
Jezebel, a royal princess of Phoenicia, 
brought great guilt and endless misfor> 
tunes on the ten tribes ; for the Tyrians 
were gross idolaters, worshippers of Baal 
and Ashtoreth, and addicted to all the 
vices of heathenism. Secular history in- 
forms us that Tyre possessed the empire 
of the seas, and drew wealth and power 
from numerous colonies on the shores of 
the Mediterranean and Atlantic. The in- 
habitants of Tyre are represented in the 
Old Testament as filled with pride and 
luxury, and all the sins attendant on 
prosperity and immense wealth ; judg- 
ments are denounced against them in 
consequence of their idolatry and wick- 
edness ; and the destruction of their city 
by Nebuchadnezzar is foretold, which is 
also described as accomplished, Isa. 23:13; 
Ezek. 26:7; 27; 28:1-19; 29:18. After 
this destruction, as it would seem, the 
great body of the inhabitants withdrew 
to "insular Tyre," on an island opposite 
the former city, about thirty stadia from 
the main land. This had been a sort of 
port or suburb of the main city, but was 
soon enlarged into a new Tyre, and be- 
came opulent and powerful ; it was for- 
tified with such strength, and possessed 
resources so abundant, as to be able to 
withstand the ucmost eflbrts of Alexan- 
der the Great for the space of seven 
months. It was at length taken by him 
in 332 B. c, having been first united to 
the mainland by an immense causeway, 
made of the ruins of the old city, the 
site of which was thus laid bare, in re- 
markable fulfilment of prophecy : "And 
they shall lay thy stones and thy timber 
and thy dust in the midst of the water ;" 
' ' and thou shalt be no more ; though 
thou be sought for, yet shalt thou never 
be found again," Ezek. 26:12, 21. The 
ships of Tyre returned from long voyages 
to find it not only taken but ' ' devoured 
Avith fire," Isa. 23 : 1, 14; Zech. 9 : 4. 
After many subsequent reverses of for- 
tune, and various changes of masters. 
Tyre at last fell under the dominion of 
the Eomans, and continued to enjoy a 
degree of commercial prosperity, though 
the deterioration of its harbor, and the 
rise of Alexandria and other maritime 
cities, have made it decline more and 
more. Our Saviour once journeyed into 



ULA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



UNI 



the region of Tyre and Sidon, Matt. 
15:21 ; and a Christian chinch was here 
established before a. b. 58, Acts 21:3-7. 
Compare Matt. 11 : 21, 22. The church 
prospered for several centuries, and coun- 
cils were held here ; and during this pe- 
riod Tyre was still a strong fortress, as 
it was also in the age of the crusaders, 
by Avhom it was only taken twenty-five 
years after they had gained Jerusalem. 
Since its reconquest by the Turks, it has 
been in a ruinous condition, and often 
almost without inhabitants. At present 
it is a poor town, called Sur, slightly 
defended by its walls, and having a pop- 
ulation of less than three thousand. It 
occupies the east side of what was for- 
merly the island, one mile long and half 
a mile from the shore, thus enclosing 
two so-called harbors separated by Alex- 
ander's causeway, Avhich is now a broad 
isthmus. The only real harbor is on the 
north ; but even this is too shallow to 
admit any but the smallest class of ves- 
sels. It is lilled and the north coast of 
the island lined Avith stone columns, 
whose size and countless number evince 
the former magnilicence of this famous 
city. But its old glory is gone for ever, 
and a few fishermen spread their nets 
amid its ruins, in the place of the mer- 
chant princes of old. 



U. 



U'LAI, or EuL.E'us, a river which ran 
by the city Shushan, in Persia, on the 
bank of which Daniel had a famous vis- 
ion, Dan. 8 : 2, 16. It was the Choaspes of 
the Greeks, and is now called the Kerk- 
hah ; but appears to have had in ancient 
times a second channel, still traceable, 
nine hundred feet wide and twenty feet 
deep, and flowing along the east side of 
Shushan. The two channels emptied 
their waters through the river now call- 
ed the Karun into the Shat-el-Arab, the 
united stream of the Euphrates and Ti- 
gris, twenty miles below their junction 
at Korna. 

UN'BELIEF of the testimony of God 
makes him a liar, and is a sin of the 
greatest enormity. It is the work of a 
depraved and guilty heart; for no one 
without this bias could reject the abim- 
dant -Nvitness God furnishes of the truth 
of his word, Psa. 14 : 1. Especially is 



unbelief towards an offered Saviour an 
unspeakable crime, justly sealing the 
condemnation of him who thus refuses 
to be saved, John 5:18 ; 1 John 5:10. 

UNCLEAN'. See Clean. 

UNCTION, anointing, 1 John 2:20, 27, 
the special communication of the influ- 
ence of the Holy Spirit by Christ to be- 
lievers, leading them into all truth and 
holiness. 

UNDERGIPiD', passing a cable sev- 
eral times under and around a ship and 
tightening it on deck, to prevent the 
working and parting of the timbers and 
planks in a gale. Acts 27 : 17. The pro- 
cess is called frapping, and has been re- 
sorted to in various instances in modern 
times. 

U'NICORN, one-horned, corresponding 
to the word Monoceros, by which the 
original Hebrew Pieem is translated by 
the Seventy. The Hebrew word means 
erect, and has no reference to the number 
of horns. Most interpreters now under- 
stand it of the wild buffalo of the East- 
ern continents, the Bos Bubalus of Lin- 
naeus, resembling the American buffalo, 
but having larger horns and no dewlap. 
This animal has the appearance of un- 
common strength. The bulk of his 
body, and his prodigious muscular limbs, 
denote his force at the first view. Num. 
23:22. His aspect is ferocious and ma- 
lignant, and at the same time stupid. 
His head is of a ponderous size ; his eyes 
diminutive; and what serves to render 
his visage still more savage, are the tufts 
of frizzled hair which hang down from 
his cheeks and the lower part of his 
moiith. Job 39 : 9-12 ; Psa. 22:21. 

Wild buffaloes occur in many parts of 
Africa and India, Avhere they live in 
great troops in the forests, and are re- 
garded as excessively fierce and danger- 
ous animals. The hunters never venture 
in any numbers to oppose these ferocious 
animals face to face ; but conceal them- 
selves in the thickets or in the branches 
of the trees, whence they attack the 
buffaloes as they pass along. 

In Egypt, as also in Southern Europe, 
the buffalo has been partially domesti- 
cated in comparatively modern times. 
Travellers also find it in parts of Syria, 
Persia, and India. It is less docile than 
the ox, retaining a remnant of ferocity 
and untractability, together with a wild 
and lowering aspect. It is commonly 
driven and guided by means of a ring in 
471 



UPH 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



UZ 



the nose. To the ancient Hebrews, how- 
ever, it seems to have been known only 
in its wild state, savage, ferocious, and 
often immensely large. 

UPHAR'SIN, and they are dividing, a 
Chaldee word, an active plural form 
with the conjunction prefixed : while 
PERES or PHARES, from the same root, is 
a passive participle, and means divided, 
Dan. 5:25, 28. 

U'PHAZ, a region producing fine gold, 
Jer. 10:9; Dan. 10:5. In Hebrew it dif- 
fers from Ophir by only one letter ; and 
it is thought to denote the same region. 

UR, the country of Terah, and the 
birthplace of Abraham, Gen. 11:28, 31 ; 
15: 7. It is usually called "Ur of the 
Chaldecs," Neh. 9:7; Acts 7:4 ; and is 
located, with strong probability, in the 
north-west part of Mesopotamia. The 
city of Orfah, to which the Jews make 
pilgrimages as the birthplace of Abra- 
ham, is a flourishing town of 30,000 
inhabitants, seventy-eight miles south- 
west of Diarbekir. Some, however, place 
Ur in Lower Chaldea, at extensive ruins 
now called Warka, in latitude 31° 19' N., 
longitude 45° 40' E. 

UR'BAN, a Roman disciple, Paul's 
companion in Christian labors, Rom. 
16:9. 

URI'AH, a Hittite in David's army, 
renowned for his valor. To save Bath- 
sheba Uriah's wife from death for adul- 
tery, and -secure her for himself, David 
caused Uriah to be exposed to death, 
2 Sam. 11; 12:9; 23:29; 1 Kin. 15:5. 

URTJAH, I., a high-priest in the time 
of king Ahaz. He is called a faithful 
witness by Isaiah, 8:2 ; but erred in con- 
structing and using at the king's request 
an altar unlike that prescribed in the 
law, Ex. 27:1-8; 38:1-7; 2 Kin. 16:9- 
12. 

II. A faithful prophet, from Kirjath- 
jearim in Judah, in the time of Jehoia- 
kim. He confirmed the predictions of 
Jeremiah against Judah ; and having 
fled to Egypt for refuge from the en- 
raged king, and been sent back by Pha- 
raoh-necho on demand, he was wicked- 
ly slain and dishonorably buried, Jer. 
26 : 20-23. Compare 2 Kin. 24 : 4. 

U'RIM AND THUM'MIM, lights and 
perfections, or light and truth ; a divinely 
appointed means of "inquiring of the 
Lord," its name being expressive per- 
haps of the truth of his revelations. It 
would appear, though not certainlv. to 
•172 



have been made known to the Jews at 
some time prior to its first mention in 
Scripture, Ex. 28:30. It had some con- 
nection with the high-priest's breast- 
plate. Lev. 8 : 8, and perhaps is to be 
understood as present when the ephod 
is mentioned, being worn on the outside 
of it, Num. 27 : 21 ; 1 Sam. 23 : 9, 11 ; 
2 Sam. 2:1. It is spoken of in the fol- 
lowing additional passages, Deut. 33 : 8 ; 
Josh. 7:6, l5 ; 1 Sam. 28:6 ; and last of 
all in Ezra 2 : 03 ; Neh. 7 : 65. Some think 
it was the precious stones on the sacred 
breastplate, which made known the di- 
vine will by casting an extraordinary 
lustre. Compare Ex. 39:8-14 ; Lev. 8:8. 
Others assert that they were the words 
Manifestation and Truth, written upon 
two precious stones, or upon a plate of 
gold. Various in fact are the conjec- 
tures upon this subject, and Moses has 
nowhere spoken of the Urim and Thum- 
mim in such terms as to remove the 
obscurity. When this oracle was to be 
used in inquiring of the Lord, if at Jeru- 
salem, the high-priest put on his robes, 
and going into the Holy Place, stood 
before the curtain that separated the 
Holy Place from the Most Holy Place ; 
then, turning his face directly towards 
the ark and the mercy-seat, upon which 
the divine presence rested, he proposed 
the subject respecting which he desired 
" light and truth." See Breastplate. 

US'URY, as employed in our version 
of the Bible, means only interest. When 
our translation was made, the word usury 
had not assumed the bad sense which it 
now has. The Jews might require inter- 
est of foreigners, Deut. 23 : 19, 20, but 
were forbidden to receive it from each 
other, Ex. 22 : 25, Psa. 15 : 5 ; being in- 
structed to lend money, etc., in a spirit 
of brotherly kindness, "hoping for noth- 
ing again," Deut. 15:7-11 ; Luke 6:33- 
35. The exacting of usury is often re- 
buked, Neh. 5:7, 10; Prov. 28:8; Ezek. 
22 : 12-14. The Mosaic code was adapted 
to a non-commercial people, but its prin- 
ciples of equity and charity are of per- 
petual and universal obligation. 

UZ, the land in which Job dwelt. Job 
1:1 ; Jer. 25:20 ; Lam. 4:21. The Sev- 
enty call it Ausitis. It appears to have 
been a region in Arabia Deserta, between 
Palestine, Iduma^a, and the Euphrates, 
and most probably not far from the bor- 
ders of Idum;ea. It is uncertain whether 
its inhabitants were descendants of Uz 



UZA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



YEl 



the son of Aram, Hiiz the son of Nahor, 
or Uz the Horite, Gen. 10 : 23 ; 22 : 21 ; 
36:28. They appear to have had much 
knowledge of the true God and the prin- 
ciples of virtue and religion. 

U'ZAL. a son of Joktan, located in 
Arabia Felix, Gen. 10:27. 

UZ'ZAH, a son of Abinadab, who fell 
dead while conducting the ark from Kir- 
jath-jearim towards Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 6 ; 
1 Chr. 13. In his person God chastised 
the prevalent irreverence, which w^as in- 
timated in the rude jolting along of the 
ark by oxen, exposed both to sight and 
to touch, while the law required it to 
be carefully covered by the priests, and 
then borne by staves on the shoulders of 
the Levites, who were not to look upon 
or touch the ark itself on pain of death, 
Ex. 25: 14 ; Num. 4 : 5, 15, 19, 20. Per- 
haps Uzzah was not even a Levite. Com- 
pare 1 Chr. 15:2, 13. 

UZZI'AH, or AzARiAH, king of Judah. 
See AzARiAii. 



V. 



God into a lie," liom. 1:25.. "In vain," 
in the second commandment, Ex. 20 : 7, 
is unnecessarily and irreverently. ' ' Vain 
men," 2 Sam. 6 : 20 ; 2 Chr. 13 : 7, are 
dissolute and worthless fellows. 

VASH'TI, the queen of Persia, di- 
vorced by Ahasuerus or Xerxes her hus- 
band for refusing to appear unveiled be- 
fore his revelling company, Esth. 1. 



VAL'LEY. With respect to the gen- 
eral features of the Holy Land, see Ca- 
naan ; and for descriptions of some of its 
numerous valleys, see Jerusalem, Jez- 
REEL, Jordan, Repiiaim, Shechem, and 
Sodom. "The valley of the shadow of 
death," is an expression denoting an 
extremely perilous and cheerless condi- 
tion of tlie soul, Psa. 23 : 4, and may 
have been suggested by the psalmist's 
experience with his tiock in some of tlie 
deep, narrow, and dark ravines of Syria. 
Thus the entrance to Petra is by a long 
winding defile, between rugged preci- 
pices in some spots not more than twelve j 
or fourteen feet apart and two or three j 
hundred feet high, and almost excluding ! 
the light of day. See view in Sela. A j 
similar pass south of mount Carmel is ' 
now known as the "Valley of Death- i 
shade." i 

VANTTY does not usually denote, in j 
Scripture, self-conceit or personal pride, 
2 Pet. 2 : 18, but sometimes emptiness j 
and fruitlessness. Job 7 : 3 ; Psa. 144 : 4 ; : 
Eccl. 1. It often denotes -wickedness, ; 
particularly fiilsehood. Dent. 32:21 ; Psa. ! 
4:2; 24:4; 119:37, and sometimes idols ! 
and idol-worship, 2 Kin. 17 : 15 ; Jer. j 
2:5; 18 : 15 ; Jonah 2 : 8. Compare Paul's 
expression, "they turned the truth of i 




VEIL, an indispensable part of the 
outdoor dress of Eastern ladies, who 
live secluded from the sight of all men 
except their own husbands and their 
nearest relatives. If an Egyptian lady is 
surprised uncovered, she quickly draws 
her veil over her face, with some excla- 
mation like, "0 my misfortune." To 
lift or remove one's veil was to insult 
and degrade her. Gen. 24:65; Song 5:7; 
1 Cor. 11:5, 10. The custom of w^earing 
veils, however, has not been prevalent 
at all times. Sarah the wife of Abra- 
ham, and Rcbekah and her companions 
at the well do not appear to have worn 
them, Gen. 12:14, 15 ; 24:16. Compare 
also Gen. 38 : 14, 15 ; Prov. 7 : 13. See 
Abimelecii. 

Veils were of different kin Is. Those 
now worn in Syria and Egypt may be 
divided into two classes, the one large 
and sometimes thick, the other small 
and of lighter materials. The usual 
indoor veil is of thin muslin, attached 
to the headdress, and falling over the 
back, somet-imes to the feet. A similar 
veil is added to the front of the head- 
dress on going abroad, partially cover- 
ing the fiice and hanging low. The 
other veil, to be worn in the street, is a 
47.^ 



VEX 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



VIN 



large mantle or sheet, of black silk, lin- 
en, or some coarse material, so ample as 
to envelope the whole person and dress, 
leaving but one of the eyes exposed, 
Song 4:9. Such was the veil worn by 
Ruth, 3:15, translated " mantle " in Isa. 
3:22. Many women wear no other veil 
than this. The Greek word translated 
"power" in 1 Cor. 11 : 10, probably 
means a veil, as a token of her hus- 
band's rightful authority and her own 
subordination. This was to be worn in 
their Christian assemblies ' ' because of 
the angels ;" that is, because of the pres- 
ence either of true angels, or of the offi- 
cers of the church, who being unaccus- 
tomed to see the mi veiled faces of wom- 
en, might be distracted by them in the 
discharge of their public duties. 



For the * * veil of the temple, ' ' see Tab- 
ernacle and Temple. 

VEN'GEANCE, in Deut. 32 : 35, Rom. 
12 : 19, Heb. 10 : 30, Jude 7, means re- 
tributive justice — a prerogative of God, 
with which those interfere who seek to 
avenge themselves. So also in Acts 
28 : 4 ; though many suppose that the 
islanders meant the goddess of justice. 
Dike, whom the Greeks and Romans 
regarded as a daughter of Jupiter, and 
feared as an independent, just, and un- 
appeasable deity. 

VERMIL'ION, a brilliant red color, 
resembling scarlet, Jer. 22 : 14 ; Ezek. 
23 : 14. The vermilion now used is a sui- 
phuret of mercury. 

VETCH'ES. See Fitches. 

VTALS. See Censer. 




VINE. Of this valuable and familiar 
plant there are several varieties, the nat- 
ural products of warm climates, where 
also it has been cultivated from the ear- 
liest times. Hence the early and fre- 
quent mention of its products in Sciip- 
ture, Gen. 9 : 20 ; 14 : 18 ; 19 : 22 ; Job 
1 : 18. The grape-vine grew plentifully 
in Palestine. Deut. 8 : 8, and was partic- 
ularly excellent in some of the districts. 
The Scriptures celebrate the vines of Sib- 
mah and Eshcol ; and profane authors 
mention the excellent wines of Gaza, Sa- 
repta, Lebanon, Sharon, Ascalon, and 
Tyre. See Sorek. The grapes of Egypt, 
Gen. 40 : 11, being small, we may eas- 
ily conceive of the surprise w^hicli was 
occasioned to the Israelites by witness- 
ing the bunch of grapes brought by the 
spies to the camp, from the valley of 
Eshcol, Num. 13 : 23. The account of 
Moses, however, is confirmed by the tes- 
timony of several travellers ; and even 
474 



in England a bunch of Syrian grapes has 
been produced which weighed nineteen 
pounds, was twenty -three inches in 
length, and nineteen and a half in its 
greatest diameter. At the present day, 
although the Mohammedan religion does 
not favor the cultivation of the vine, 
there is no Avant of vineyards in Pales- 
tine. Besides the large quantities of 
grapes and raisins which are daily sent 
to the markets of Jerusalem and other 
neighboring places, Hebron alone, in the 
first half of the eighteenth century, an- 
nually sent three hundred camel loads, 
or nearly three hundred thousand pounds 
weight of grape juice, or honey of raisins, 
to Egypt. 

In the East, grapes enter very largely 
into the provisions at an entertainment, 
and in various forms contribute largely 
to the sustenance of the people. See 
Grapes. To show the abundance of 
vines which should fall to the lot of 



VIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



VIN 



Judali in the partition of the promised 
land, Jacob, in his prophetic benedic- 
tion, says of this tribe, he shall be found 

Binding his colt to the vine, 

And to the choice vine the foal of his ass ; 

Washing his garments in wine, 

His clothes in the blood of the grape. 

Gen. 49:11. 

In many places the vines spread over the 
ground and rocks unsupported. Often, 
however, they are trained upon trellis- 
work, over walls, trees, arbors, the 
porches and walls of houses, and at 
times Avithin the house on the sides of 
the central court. Thus growing, the 
vine became a beautiful emblem of do- 
mestic love, peace, and plenty, Psa. 
128:3; Mic. 4:4. 

The law enjoined that he who planted 
a vine should not eat of the produce of 
it before the fifth year, Lev. 19 : 23-25. 
Nor did they gather their grapes on the 
sabbatical year ; the fruit was then left 
for the poor, the orphan, and the stran- 
ger, Ex. 23 : 11 ; Lev. 25 : 4, 5, 11. See 
also Lev. 19 :*10 ; Dent. 24 : 21. At any 
time a traveller was permitted to gather 
and eat grapes in a vineyard, as he pass- 
ed along, but was not permitted to carry 
any away, Deut. 23 : 24. Another gen- 
erous provision of the Mosaic code ex- 
empted from liability to serve in war a 
man who, after four years of labor and 
of patience, was about to gather the first 
returns from his vineyard, Deut. 20:6. 

Josephus describes a magnificent and 
costly vine of pure gold, with precious 
stones for grapes, which adorned the 
lofty eastern gate of the Holy Place. It 
was perhaps in view of this that our Sav- 
iour said, "I am the true Vine;" and 
illustrated the precious truth of his one- 
ness with his people, John 15:1-8. 

In the expression, "The vine of Sod- 
om," Deut. 32 : 32, thei-e does not seem 
to be an allusion to any then existing 
degenerate species of vine. The writer 
means rather to say that their vine, that 
is figuratively their corrupt character, 
instead of yielding good grapes, bears 
only poisonous fruit, like that for which 
the shores of the Dead sea have always 
l)een famed — such as " the apples of Sod- 
om," for example, said to be beautiful 
without, but nothing but shreds or ashes 
within. 

For the "wild grapes" in Isa. 5:2, 4, 
see under Grapks. 

The Jews planted their vineyards 



most commonly on the side of a hill or 
mountain, Jer. 31 : 5, (see Mountain.) 
the stones being gathered out, and the 
space hedged round with thorns, or wall- 
ed, Isa. 5 : 1-G ; Psa. 80 ; Matt. 21 : 33. 
Vineyards were sometimes rented for a 
share of their produce, Matt. 21 : 33, 34 ; 
and from other passages we may perhaps 
infer that a good vineyard consisted of a 
thousand vines, and produced a rent of 
a thousand silverlings, or shekels of sil- 
ver, Isa. 7 : 23, and that it required two 
hundred more to pay the dressers. Song 
8 : 11, 12. In these vineyards the keep- 
ers and vine-dressers labored, digging, 
planting, propping, and pruning or purg- 
ing the vines, John 15 : 2, gathering tlie 
grapes, and making wine. They formed 
a distinct class among cultivators of the 
groimd, and their task was sometimes 
laborious and regarded as menial, 2 Kin. 
25 : 12 ; 2 Chr. 26 : 10 ; Song 1:6; Isa. 
61:5. Scripture alludes to the fragrance 
of the "vines with the tender grapes," 
Song 2:13, and draws from the vineyard 
many illustrations and parables, Judg. 
9:12; Matt. 20 : 1 ; 21 : 28. The vineyard 
of Naboth, 1 Kin. 21, has become a per- 
petual emblem of whatever is violently 
taken from the poor by the rich or the 
powerful. The deserted hut or tower, 
in which a watchman kept guard during 
the season of ripe grapes, Psa. 80:12, 13, 
Song 2 : 15, becomes, when all are gath- 
ered, an apt image of desolation, Isa. 
1:8. A beautiful allegory in Psalm 80 
represents the church as a vineyard, 
planted, defended, cultivated, and wa- 
tered by God. 

The VINTAGE followed the wheat har- 
vest and the threshing. Lev. 26 : 5 ; Amos 
9:13. The ' ' first ripe grapes ' ' were gath- 
ered in June, or later on elevated ground. 
Num. 13 : 20 ; and grapes continued to 
be gathered for four months afterwards. 
The general vintage, however, was in 
September, when the clustei's of grapes 
were gathered with a sickle, and put 
into baskets, Jer. 6:9, carried and thrown 
into the wine-vat or wine-press, where 
they were probably first trodden by men, 
and then pressed, Eev. 14: 18-20. It was 
a laborious task, lightened with songs, 
jests, and shouts of mirth, Jer. 25 : 30; 
48:33. It is mentioned as a mark of 
the great work and power of the Messi- 
ah, that he had trodden the figurative 
wine-press alone, and of the people there 
was none with him, Isa. 63 : 1-3 ; Rev. 
475 



VIN 



BIDLE DICTIONARY. 



VUL 



19 : 15. The vintage was a season of 
great mirth, Isa. IG : 9, 10, and often of 
excesses and idokxtry, Judg. 9:27 ; while 
the mourning and languishing of the 
vine was a symbol of general distress, 
Isa. 24 : 7 ; Hab. 3 : 17 ; Mai. 3 : 11. Of 
the juice of the squeezed gi'apes were 
formed wine and vinegar. See Press. 

Grapes were also dried into raisins. A 
part of Abigail's present to David was 
one hundred clusters of raisins, 1 Sam. 
25 : 18 ; and Avhen Zibah met David, his 
present contained the same quantity, 
2 Sam. It) : 1 ; 1 Sam. 30 : 12 ; 1 Chron. 
12 : 40. Respecting other uses of the 
fruits of the vine, see Gkapks, Hon^y, ' 
Vi>'EGAR, and Wine. 

VIN'EGAR, poor or sour icine, the prod- 
uce of the second or acetous fermenta- 
tion of vinous liquors. The term some- 
times designates a thin, sour wine, much 
used by laborers and bv the Roman sol- 
diers, Num. 6:3 ; Ruth 2: 14 ; 2Chr. 2: 10 ; 
John 19:29. See Gall. In other places 
it denotes the common sharp vinegar, 
which furnished the wise man with two 
significant illustrations, Prov. 10 : 26 ; 
25 : 20. 

VINE'YARD. See Vine. 

VrOL, Isa. 5:12, Amos 6:5, a string- 
ed instrument of music, resembling the 
psaltery. See Music. 




VI' PER, a genus of serpents noted for 
the virulence of their poison, which is 
said to be one of the most dangerous in 
the animal kingdom. Hence the viper 
is a symbol of whatever is most evil and 
destructive, Job 20 : 16 ; Isa. 30 : 6. As 
such the term was applied by Christ and 
by John to certain classes of the Jews, 
476 



Matt. 3:7; 12 : 34 ; 23 : 33 ; Luke 3 : 7. 
Paul's escape from the bite of a viper in 
Malta led the people to believe that he 
was a god in human form, Acts 28 : 3. 
A species of viper in Northern Africa, 
tliough little more than a foot long, is 
called the most formidable serpent there; 
and Hasselciuist speaks of a viper in Cy- 
prus, whose bite produces a universal 
gangrene, and occasions death within a 
few hours. See Serpents. 

VIS'ION, a supernatural presentation 
of certain scenery or circumstances to 
the mind of a person either while awake 
or asleep, Isa. 6 ; Ezek. 1 ; Dan. 8 ; Acts 
26:13. See Dream. 

VOW, a promise made to God of do- 
ing some good thing or abstaining from 
some lawful enjoyment, under the influ- 
ence of gratitude for divine goodness, of 
imminent danger, the apprehension of 
futiu-e evils, or the desire of future bless- 
ings. To fulfil a vow binding one to sin, 
was to add sin to sin ; but no considera- 
tions of inconvenience or loss could ab- 
solve one from a vow, Psa. 15 : 4 ; Mai. 
1 : 14. Jacob, going into Mesopotamia, 
vowed the tenth of liis estate, and prom- 
ised to offer it at Beth-el, to the honor 
of God, Gen. 28 : 20-22. Moses enacted 
several laws for the regulation and exe- 
cution of vows. ' ' If thou shalt forbear 
to vow, it shall be no sin in thee ; that 
which is gone out of thv lips thou shalt 
keep and perform," Deut. 23:21,23; 
Eccl. 5:4, 5. The vows of minors, etc., 
were not binding without the consent of 
the head of the family, Num. 30. A 
man might devote himself or his chil- 
dren to the Lord, Num. 6:2. Jephthah 
devoted his daughter, Judg. 11 : 30-40; 
and Samuel was vowed and consecrated 
to the service of the Lord, 1 Sam. 1 : 11, 
27, 28. If men or women vowed them- 
selves to the Lord, they were obliged to 
adhere strictly to his service, according 
to the conditions of the vow ; but in 
some cases they might be redeemed, 
Lev. 27. These self-imposed services 
were more in keeping with the ancient 
dispensation, in which outward sacrifices 
and observances had so large a share, 
than with enlightened Clii'istianity. See 
CoRBAN, and Nazarites. 

VUL'GATE is the name of the Latin 
version of the Scriptures used by the 
church of Rome. The Old Testament 
was a very close translation of the Greek 
Septuagint, not of the Hebrew. It was 



VUL 



BIBLE D1CTI0^"AK\^ 



WAL 



made at a very early period by an un- 
known author. A part of this version 
was afterwards revised by Jerome, and 
some of the books retranslated from the 
Ilelirew. 




VTJL'TUKE, a large bird of prey, be- 
longing to the genus hawks, and includ- 
ing a great many species. It is pro- 
nounced unclean by Moses, Lev. 11 : 14 ; 
Deut. U:13. See' Birds. The vulture 
has a naked or downy head, a bare neck 
and long wings, and is disgusting to 
every sense, especially to the smell. It 
is a carrion bird, though not exclusive- 
ly, and has extraordinary powers of vis- 
ion. Scarcely can an exhausted camel 
fall on its route and die, before numbers 
of these filthy scavengers show them- 
selves in the distance, hastening to the 
spot, Job 28:7. 



W. 



"WA'FEE, a thin cake made of fine 
flour, Exod. 16 : 31, and used in various 
offerings, anointed with sweet oil, Exod. 
29:2, 23; Lev. 2:4; 7:12; Num. 6:15. 

WA'GES. The law and the gospel 
both require the full and prompt pay- 
ment of a just equivalent for all services 
rendered according to agreement, Lev. 
19 : 13 ; Jer. 22 : 13 ; Jas. 5 : 4. Eternal 
death is the wages or just recompense of 
sin ; while eternal life is not a recom- 
pense earned by obedience, but a sove- 
reign gift of God, Rom. 6:22, 28. 

WAG'ONS were sent by Joseph to con- 



vey his father's family into Egypt. The 
same vehicle, translated ' ' cart " in 1 Sam. 
6:7, was employed to transport some of 
the sacred utensils. Num. 7:3, 6, and in 
one instance the ark itself. In these lat- 
ter cases it was drawn by oxen. It was 
probably of simple structure, with two 
solid wheels. Such carts are sometimes 
used in Syria in removing agricultural 
produce, Amos 2:3 ; but vehicles of any 
kind are little used, and travellers and 
merchandise aie borne on the backs of 
camels, horses, and mules. See Cakt. 

WALK is often figuratively used to 
denote a man's mode of life, or his spir- 
itual character, course, and relations, 
Ezek. 11:20. He may walk as a carnal, 
or as a spiritual man,- Rom. 8:1; with 
God, or in ignorance and sin. Gen. 5:24 ; 
1 John 1 : 6, 7 ; in the fire of affliction, 
Isa. 43:2, or in the light, purity, and joy 
of Christ's favor here and in heaven, Psa. 
89:15; Rev. 3:4. 




WALLS. The walls of dwellings in 
the East were of very dift'erent mate- 
rials, from mere clay, or clay and peb- 
bles, to durable hewn stone. See the 
latter part of the article House. As to 
city walls, see Babylon, City, and Jeru- 
477 



WAN 



BIBLE DICTIONARr. 



WAN 



SAXKM. The accompanying cut shows a 
portion of tlie western wall of the sacred 
area, Harain-es-Sherif, at Jerusalem. 
The huge stones in its lower part are 
believed by the Jews, and with good 
reason, to have formed a part of the 
substructions of their ancient temple, 
and to be near the site of the Holy of 
Holies. Hence they assemble here every 
Friday, and more or less on other days, 
to weep and wail with every token of 
the sorest grief, and to pray for the com- 
ing of the Messiah. In former years they 
had to pay a large price for this melan- 
choly privilege. A little beyond this 
spot, towards the south, is the fragment 



of an immense arch of forty-one feet 
span, one of five or six which supported 
a lofty causeway, from mount Zion to 
the temple area at its southern porti- 
co, 1 Kin. 10:5 ; 1 Chr. 26:10, 18. Some 
of the stones in this part of the wall are 
twenty to twenty-five feet long. 

WAN'DERINGS of tui: Israelites. 
See Exodus. The following tabular view 
of their various encampments, so far as 
they are recorded in Exodus, Numbers, 
and Deuteronomy, is from Dr. Robin- 
son's Biblical Researches. The "great 
and terrible wilderness " between mount 
Sinai and Piilestine is still known by the 
Arabs as Et-Tyh, or the Wanderings. 



I. FROM EGYPT TO SINAI. 



EXODUS XII. -XIX. 



NUMBERS XXXIII. 



From Rameses, 12 : 37. 
Succoth, 12:37. 
Etham, 13 : 20. 
Pi liahiroth,14:2. 
Passage through the Red sea, 14 :22 ; and 

three days' march into the desert of 

Shur, 15:22. 
Marah, 15:23. 
Elim, 15:27. 



8. Desertof Sin, 16:1. 
9. 
10. 

11. Rephidim,17:l. 

12. Desert of Sinai, 19: 



From Rameses, verse 3. 
Succoth, ver. 5. 
Etham, ver. 6. 
Pi-hahiroth, ver. 7. 

Passage through the Red sea, and three days' 
march in the desert of Etham, ver. 8. 

3Iarah, ver. 8. 
Elim, ver. 9. 
By the Red sea, ver. 10. 
Desert of Sin, ver. 11. 
Dophka, ver. 12. 
Alush, ver. 13. 
Rephidim, ver. 14. 
Desert of Sinai, ver. 15. 



II. FROM SINAI TO KADESH THE SECOND TIME 



NUMBERS X.-XX. 



NUMBERS XXXni. 



From the desert of Sinai, 10 : 12 

13. Taberah, 11 : 3 ; Deut. 9 : T2. 

14. Kibroth-hattaavah, 11 :34. 

15. Hazeroth, 11 : 35. 

16. Ivadesh, in the desert of Paran, 12:16; 

13 : 26 ; Deut. 1 : 2, 19. Hence they turn 
back and wander for thirty-eight years, 
Num. 14 : 26-36. 

17. 

18. 

19. 

20. 

21. 

22. 

23.' 

24. 

25. 



29. 
LO. 
31. 

33. 
3i. 
35. Return to Kadesh, Num. 20 :t. 

478 



From the desert of Sinai, ver. 16. 

Kibroth-hattaavah, ver. 16. 
Hazeroth, ver. 17. 



Rithma, ver. 18. 
Rimmon parez, ver. 19. 
Libnah, ver. 20. 
Rissah, ver. 21. 
Ivehelathah, ver. 22. 
Mount Shapher, ver. 23. 
Haradah, ver. 24. 
Makheloth, ver. 25. 
Tahath, ver. 26. 
Tar ah, ver. 27. 
Mithcah, ver. 28. 
Hashmonah, ver. 29. " 
Moseroth, ver. 30. 
Bene-jaakan, ver. 31. 
Hor hagidgad, ver. 32. 
Jotbathah, ver. 33: 
Ebronah, ver. 34. 
Ezion gaber, ver. 35, 
Ivadesh, ver. 36. 



WAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WAR 



III. FROM KADESH TO THE JORDAN. 



NUMBERS XX. , XXI ; DeUT. 1. , II. , X. 

From Kadesh, Num. 20 :22. 

36. Beeroth Beene-jaakan, Deut. 10 :6. 

37. Mount Hor, Num. 20:22; or Mosera, 

Deut. 10 : 6 ; where Aaron died. 

38. Gudgodah, Deut. 10 : 7. 
Jotbath, Deut. 10:7. 
Way of the Red sea, Num. 21 :4 ; by Elath 

and Ezion gaber, Deut. 2 :8. 



Oboth, Num. 21 :10. 

Ije abarim, Num. 21 :11. 

The brook Zered, Num. 21:12; Deut. 

2 : 13, 14. 
The brook Arnon, Num. 21:13; Deut. 

2:24. 



Beer (well) in the desert, Num. 21 :16, 18. 

Mattanah, 21:18. 

Nahaliel, 21:19. 

Bamoth, 21:19. 

Pisgah, put for the range of Abarim, of 

which Pisgah was part, 21 : 20. 
By the way of Bashan to the plains of 

Moab by Jordan, near Jericho, Num. 

21:33; 22:1. 



NUMBERS XXXIII. 

From Kadesh, ver. 37. 
Mount Hor, ver. 37. 



Zalmonah, ver. 41. 
Punon, ver. 42. 
Oboth, ver. 43. 
Ije-abarim, or lira, ver. 44, 45. 



Dibon-gad, ver. 45 ;• now Dhiban. 
Almon-diblathaim, ver. 46. 



3Iountain3 of Abarim, near to Nebo, ver. 47. 

Plains of Moab by Jordan, near Jericho, 
ver. 48. 




SIEGE OF A CITY : FROM THE MMROUD PALACE, NINEVEH. 



WAR, one of the evil fruits of the 
fall, and an appalling manifestation of 
the depravity of mankind, Gen. 6 : 11- 
13 ; Isa. 9:5; Jas. 4:1, 2, often rendered 
apparently inevitable by the assaults of 
enemies, or commanded by God for their 
punishment. See Amalekites and Ca- 
naan. By this scourge, subsequently to 
the conquest of Canaan, God chastised 
both his own rebellious people and the 
corrupt and oppressive idolaters -around 
them. In many cases, moreover, the 
issue was distinctly made between the 
true God and idols ; as with the Philis- 
tines, 1 Sam. 17 : 43-47 ; the Syrians, 
1 Kin. 20 : 23-30 ; the Assynans, 2 Kin. 
19:10-19, 35 ; and the Ammonites, 2 (.'hr. 



20 : 1-30. Hence God often raised up 
champions for his people, gave them, 
counsel in war by Urim and by proph- 
ets, and miraculously aided them in 
battle. 

Before the period of the kings, there 
seems to have been scarcely any regular 
army among the Jews ; but all who 
were able to bear arms ^vere liable to be 
summoned to the held, 1 Sam. 11 : 7. 
The vast armies of the kings of Judah 
and Israel usually fought on foot, armed 
with spears, swords, and shields ; having 
large bodies of archers and slingers, and 
comparatively few chariots and horse- 
men. See Arms. The forces Avere ar- 
ranged in suitable divisions, with ofiicera 
479 



WAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARr. 



WAR 



of tens, hundreds, thousands, etc. , Judg. 
20 : 10 ; 1 Chr. 13:1; 2 Chr. 25 : 6. The 
Jews were fully equal to the nations 
around them in bravery and the arts of 
war ; but were restrained from wars of 
conquest, and when invaders had been 
repelled the people dispersed to their 
homes. A campaign usually commenced 
in spring, and was terminated before win- 
ter, 2 Sam. 11:1 ; 1 Kin. 20:22. As the 
Jewish host approached a hostile army, 
the priests cheered them by addresses, 
Deut. 20 : 2 ; 1 Sam. 7 : 9, 13, and by in- 
spiring songs, 2 Chr. 20:21. The sacred 
trumpets gave the signal for battle, Num. 



10 : 9, 10 ; 2 Chr. 13 : 12-15 ; the archers 
and slingers advanced first, but at length 
made way for the charge of the heavy- 
armed spearmen, etc. , who sought to ter^ 
rify the enemy, ere tbey reached them, 
by their aspect and war-cries, Judg. 7 :18- 
20; 1 Sam. 17:52; Job 39: 25 ; Isa. 17:12, 
13. The combatants were soon engaged 
hand to hand ; the battle became a series 
of duels ; and the victory was gained by 
the obstinate bravery, the skill, strength, 
and swiftness of individual warriors, 
1 Chr. 12:8 ; Psa. 18:32-37. See Paul's 
exhortations to Christian firmness, under 
the assaults of spiritual foes, ICor. 16:13; 




THE CATAPULT, A MACHINE FOR THROWING HEAVY DART3. 



Eph. 6 : 11-14 ; 1 Thess. 3:8. The bat- 
tles of the ancients Avere exceedingly san- 
guinary, 2 Chr. 28 : 6 ; few were spared 
except those reserved to grace the tri- 
umph or be sold as slaves. A victorious 
army of Jews on returning was welcom- 
ed by the whole population with every 
demonstration of joy, 1 Sam. 18 : 6, 7. 
The spoils were divided after reserving 
an oblation for the Lord, Num. 31 : 50 ; 
Judg. 5 : 30 ; trophies were suspended in 
public places ; eulogies were pronounced 
in honor of the most distinguished war- 
riors, and lamentations over the dead. 

In besieging a walled city, numerous 
towers were usually erected around it 
for throwing missiles ; catapults were 
prepared for hurling large darts and 
stones. Large towers were also con- 
structed and mounds near to the city 
walls, and raised if possible to an equal 
or greater height, that by casting a mov- 
able bridge across access to the city might 
480 



'— 7," :"--i2r^'T!^'iij'i|gi 




be gained. The battering-ram was also 
employed to effect a breach in the wall ; 
and the crow, a long spar with iron claws 



WAR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WAT 



at one end and ropes at the other, to pull 
down stones or men from the top of the 
wall. These and similar modes of as- 
sault the besieged resisted by throwing 
down darts, stones, heavy rocks, and 
sometimes boiling oil ; by hanging sacks 
of chaff between the battering-ram and 
the wall; by strong and sudden sallies, 
capturing and burning the towers and 
enginery of the assailants, and quickly 
retreating into the city, 2 Chr. 26:14, 15. 
The modern inventions of gunpowder, 
rifles, bombs, and heavy artillery have 
changed all this. See Batterixg-ram. 

As the influence of Christianity dif- 
fuses itself in the world, war is becom- 
ing less excusable and less practicable ; 
and a great advance may be observed 
from the customs and spirit of ancient 
barbarism towards the promised univer- 
sal supremacv of the Prince of peace, 
Psa. 46:9; Isa. 2:4; Mic. 4:3. 

' ' Wars of the Lord ' ' was probably the 
name of an uninspired book, long since 
lost, containing details of the events 
alluded to in Num. 21:14, 15. 

WARD, or Guard. To put ' ' in ward ' ' 
■was to place under guard, or in confine- 
ment. Gen. 40 : 3 ; Lev. 24 : 12. Ward 
also seems to mean a guard-room, Neh. 
12 : 25, Isa. 21:8, and the guards them- 
selves. Acts 12 : 10, or any small band, 

I Chr.' 25:8; 26:16. 

WASHING. Various ceremonial -wash- 
ings were enjoined in the Mosaic law, 
both upon priests, Exod. 30 : 19-21, and 
upon others, Lev. 12-15 ; Heb. 9 : 10. 
These were significant of spiritual purifi- 
cation through the Saviour's blood. Tit. 
3 : 5, Rev. 1 : 5, as well as of that holi- 
ness without which none can see God. 
To these the Jews added other tradi- 
tional ablutions, Jlark 7 : 2-4 ; and re- 
garded it as an act of impiety to neglect 
them, as Christ frequently did, Luke 

II : 38. The washing of the hands be- 
fore and after meals, Matt. 15 : 2, called 
for by their custom of feeding themselves 
with their fingers, is still practised in 
Syria. See cut in Bed. Where there is 
a servant in attendance, he pours water 
from a pitcher over his master's hands, 
holding also a broad vessel underneath 
them, 2 Kin. 3:11 ; Psa. 60:8. See Foot 
and Sandals. "Washing the hands" 
was a protestation of innocence, Deut. 
21:6; Matt. 27 : 24 ; and has given rise 
to the proverbial saying common among 
us, "I wash my hands of that." 

21 



WATCH, a division of the night. See 
Hours. 

WATCH'ER, Dan. 4:13, 17, 23, a figu- 
rative designation of heavenly beings, 
apparently angels, as seen by Nebuchad- 
nezzar in his dream. 

WATCH'MEN are of as early a date as 
cities, robbers, and wars, Exod. 14 : 24 ; 
Judg. 7 : 19. Jerusalem and other cities 
had regular guards night and day, Song 
3:1-3 ; 5:7, to whose hourly cries Isaiah 
refers in illustration of the vigilance re- 
quired by God in his ministers, Isa. 21:8, 
11, 12 ; 62 : 6. At this day the watch- 
men of Jerusalem "keep not silence," 
nor do they ' ' hold their peace day nor 
night;" especially at night and when 
danger is apprehended, they are requir- 
ed to call to each other every few min- 
utes, and the cry passes from one to 
another entirely around the city walls. 
Those of Sidon also do the same. Watch- 
men always had a station at the gate of 
a city and in the adjacent tower, 2 Sam. 
18:24-27 ; 2 Kin. 9:27 ; also on hill-tops 
overlooking a large circuit of terraced 
vineyards, whence they could " see eye 
to eye, ' ' and ' ' lift up the voice ' ' of warn- 
ing or of cheer, Isa. 52 : 7, 8 ; and their 
responsible oftice, requiring so much vig- 
ilance and fidelity, illustrates that of 
prophets and ministers, Jer. 6:17; Ezek. 
33:1-9; Heb. 13:17. 

WATER. Sec Cisterns, and Wells. 
In Isaiah 35 : 7, the Hebrew word for 
"parched ground" that shall become a 
pool of water, is the same wuth the Ara- 
bic term for the mirage, a peculiar opti- 
cal illusion by which travellers in hot 
and dry deserts think they see broad 
lakes and flowing waters ; they seem to 
discern the very ripple of the waves, and 
the swaying of tall trees on the mar- 
gin in the cool breeze ; green hills and 
houses and city ramparts rise before the 
astonished sight, recede as the traveller 
advances, and at length melt away in 
the hot haze. Not so the blessings of 
the gospel ; they are no alluring mock- 
ery, but real waters of everlasting life, 
Isa. 55:1 ; John 4:14 ; Rev. 22:1. Com- 
pare Isa. 29:8; Jer. 15:18. 

WATER-SPOUTS are well-known phe- 
nomena in the Levant, and are supposed 
to be produced by whirlwinds. A dense, 
black, funnel-shaped cloud is seen de- 
pending from the sky, and sometimes 
moving rapidly over the sea, from which 
at times a similar cone ascen Is to meet 
481 



WAX 



BIBLE DlCTiUXAR.y. 



WEL 



the upper one. Where they unite, the 
column may be three or four feet thick ; 
and when they break, torrents of water 
descend. The word occurs in Psa. 42:7, 
where, however, the psalmist probably 
alludes to cataracts of water. 
• WAX, to grow or become, Ex. 22:24 ; 
Isa. 50:9; Luke 13:19. 

WEASEL, one of the imclean ani- 
mals, Lev. 11 : 29. Several varieties of 
weasels are found in and around Pales- 
tine ; but in the verse above probably 
the common mole is intended. 

WEAVING, an art very early prac- 
tised by all nations, and exhibited on 
the ancient monuments of Egypt, Gen. 
41 : 42. See Flax. It is usually per- 
formed by women, 2 Kin. 23 : 7 ; Prov. 
81:13, 19. The distaff, the shuttle, and 
the weaver's beam and pin are men- 
tioned, Judg. 16 : 14 ; 1 Sam. 17:7 ; Job 
7:6; Prov.'si : 19. The Jews say that 
the high-priest's tunic was made with- i 
out a needle, being "woven from the 
top throughout ;" thus also "the High- 
priest of our profession" w^as clothed, 
John 19:23. 

WED'DIXG. Sec Makriage. 

WED'DING-GAPt'MENT. See Gar- 
ments. 

WEEKS, or successive periods of seven 
days each, were known from the earliest 
times among nations remote from each 
other in Europe, Asia, and Africa, Gen. 
29:27. See Sabbath. The Hebrews had 
only numeral names for the days of the 
week, excepting the Sabbath ; the names 
now current among us being borrowed 
from Saxon mythology. The Jews called 
Sunday "one of the Sabbath," that is, 
the first day of the week. Monday was 
"two of the Sabbath." A prophetic 
week and a week of years were each 
seven years ; and a week of sabbatical 
years, or forty-nine years, brought round 
the year of jubilee. In John 20:26, the 
disciples are said to have met again after 
' ' eight days, ' ' that is, evidently after a 
week, on the eighth day after our Lord's 
resurrection. See Three. 

For the "Feast of Weeks," see Pente- 
cost. 

WEEPING. See Funeral. 

AVEIGHTS. The Hebrews weighed all 
the gold and silver they used in trade. 
The shekel, the half shekel, the maneh, 
the talent, are not only denominations 
of money, of certain values in gold and 
silver, but also of certain weights. The 
482 



weight "of the sanctuary," or weight 
of the temple, Ex. 30:18,^24; Lev. 5:5; 
Num. 3 : 50 ; 7 : 19 ; 18 : 16, was perhaps 
the standard weight, preserved in some 
apartment of the temple, and not a dif- 
ferent weight from the common shekel ; 
for though Moses appointed that, all 
things valued by their price in silver 
should be rated by the weight of the 



sanctuarv. Lev 



25, he makes no dif- 



ference between this shekel of twenty 
gerahs and the common shekel. Eze- 
kiel, 45 : 12, sjDcaking of the ordinary 
weights and measures used in traflic 
among the Jews, says that the shekel 
weighed twenty gerahs: it was there- 
fore equal to the weight of the sanctu- 
ary. See the Tables of Weights and 
Measures at the end of the volume. 

WELLS and SPRINGS. By those liv- 
ing in a temperate climate, where the 
well or the aqueduct furnishes to every 
house a supply of water practically inex- 
haustible, no idea can be formed of the 
extreme distress caused by thirst, and of 
the luxury of relieving it by drinking 
pure water — a luxury Avhich is said to 
excel all other pleasures of sense. One 
must reside or travel in a Syrian climate 
to realize the beauty and force of the 
allusions of Scripture to "water out of 
the wells of salvation," "cold water to 
a thirsty soul," " the fountain of living 
watei-s," and many others. The digging 
of a permanent well or the discovery of 
a spring Avas a public benefaction, and 
its possession was a matter of great im- 
portance. Its existence at a given spot 
decided the nightly i-esting-place of car- 
avans, the encampment of armies, and 
the location of towns, 1 Sam. 29 : 1 ; 
2 Sam. 2 : 13. Hence Beer, the Hebrew 
name for a well or spring, forms a part 
of many names of places, as Beeroth, 
Beer-sheba. See also En. So valuable 
was a supply of water, that a field con- 
taining a spring was a princely dowry, 
Judg. 1 : 13-15, and a well was a matter 
of strife and negotiation between differ- 
ent tribes. Thus we read that Abraham, 
in making a treaty with king Abimelech, 
' ' reproved him because of a well of wa- 
ter which Abimelech' s servants had vio- 
lently taken away," and the ownership 
of the well was sealed to Abraham by a 
special oath and covenant. Gen. 21 : 25- 
31. A similar transaction occurred dur- 
ing the life of Isaac, Gen. 26:14-33. In 
negotiating with the king of Edom for a 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WEL 




THE WELL OR FOUNTAIN AT NAZARETH. 



passage througli his territory, the Israel- 
ites said, "We will go by the highway ; 
and if I and my cattle drink of thy wa- 
ter, tlien I will pay for it," Num. 20:17- 
19. Still stronger is the expression in 
Lam. 5:4: "'We have drunk our own 
water for money ;" that is, we bought it 
of our foreign rulers, though we are the 
natural proprietors of the wells that fur- 
nished it. The custom of demanding 
pay for water of the traveller is still 
found in some parts of the East ; while 
in many other towns a place is provided 
vv'here cold water and sometimes bread 
are offered gratuitously to the stranger, 
at the expense of the village, or as an 
act of charity by the benevolent, Mark 
9 : 41. In case of a hostile invasion, 
nothing could more effectually harass 
an advancing army or the besiegers of a 
city, than to fill with stones the wells on 
which they relied, 2 Kin. 3 : 25 ; 2 Chr. 
32:3. 

Wells are sometimes found in Pales- 
tine furnished with a well-sweep and 
bucket, or a windlass ; and in some cases 
there were steps leading down to the 
water. Gen. 24:15. IG; but usually the 
water is drawn with pitchers and ropes ; 
and the stone curbs of ancient wells bear 
the marks of long use. They were often 
covered with a large flat stone, to ex- 



clude the flying sand and secure the wa- 
ter to its owners, and also for the secu- 
rity of strangers, who were liable to fall 
into them unawares^a mischance which 
very often occurs in modern Syria, and 
against which the beneficent law of Mo- 
ses made provision, Ex. 21:33, 34. This 
stone w^as removed about sunset, when 
the females of the vicinity drew their 
supply of water for domestic use, and 
the flocks and herds drank from the 
stone troughs wdiicli are still found be- 
side almost every well. At this hour, 
the well was a favorite place of resort, 
and presented a scene of life and gayety 
greatly in contrast with its ordinary 
loneliness, Gen. 24:11-28; 29:1-10; Ex. 
2 : 16-19 ; 1 Sam. 9 : 11. Wells, howev- 
er, were sometimes infested by robbers, 
Judg. 5 : 11 ; and Dr. Shaw mentions a 
beautiful spring in Barbary, the Arabic 
name of which means, "Drink, and 
aw^ay !" a motto which may well be in- 
scribed over even the best springs of 
earthly delight. See Cistern. 

The cut above given presents a view of 
"The Eountain of the Virgin " at Naza- 
reth, so called from the strong probabil- 
ity that the mother of our Lord was 
wont to draw water from it, as the wom- 
en of Nazareth do at this day. It is a 
copious spring, just out of the village ; 
483 



WHA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WHE 



and the path that leads to it is well 
worn, as by the feet of many genera- 
tions. All travellers in Palestine men- 
tion the throngs of females that resort 
to it, with their pitchers or goat-skins 
on the shoulder or head, and loitering 
to gossip or gaily returning in compa- 
nies of two or three. Every day wit- 
nesses there what might almost be de- 
scribed in the very words of Gen. 24:11 : 
' ' And he made his camels to kneel down 
without the city, by a Avell of water, at 
the time of the evening, even the time 
that women go out to draw water. And 
behold, Rebekah came out, with her 
pitcher upon her shoulder ; and she 
went down to the well, and filled her 
pitcher, and came up." It is an un- 
common sight to see "a man bearing a 
pitcher of water," Mark 14:13. 

Jacob's well, at the eastern entrance 
of the charming valley of Shechem, is 
still in existence, though now little used 
and often nearly dry. It is covered by 
a vaulted roof, with a narrow entrance 
closed by a heavy rock. Around it is a 
platform, and the remains of a church 
built over the spot by the empress Hele- 
na. Close at hand is mount Gerizim, 
which the woman of Sychar no doubt 
glanced at as she said, "Our fathers 
worshipped in this mountain." On the 
west is the broad and fertile plain of 
Mukhna, where the fields were "white 
already to the harvest." The woman 
intimated that the well was "deep," 
and had no steps. Actual measurement 
shows it to be seventy-five feet deep, and 
about nine feet in diameter. Dr. Wil- 
son, in 1842, sent down with ropes a Jew 
named Jacob, to explore the well and 
recover a Bible dropped into it by Rev. 
Mr. Bonar three years before. This was 
found, almost destroyed by lying in wa- 
ter. As the traveller stands by this ven- 
erated well and thinks of the long series 
of men of a hundred nations and gen- 
erations who have drunk of its waters, 
thirsted again, and died, he is most for- 
cibly affected by the truth of Christ's 
words to the Samaritan woman, and 
made to feel his own perishing need of 
the water " springing up into everlast- 
ing life," John 4. 

WHALE, the largest known inhabit- 
ant of the sea. Job 7 : 12, put by our 
translators for a Hebrew word including 
all the huge marine monsters, as in Gen. 
1 : 21. In Ezek. 32 : 2, referring to Egypt 
484 



and the Nile, it doubtless means the 
crocodile ; as also in Psa. 74 : 13 ; Isa. 
27 : 1 ; 51 : 9 ; Ezek. 29 : 3, where it is 
translated ' ' dragon. ' ' The ' ' great fish ' ' 
that swallowed Jonah cannot be named 
with certainty. The Greek word in 
Matt. 12 : 40 being also indeterminate. 
Whales, how^ever, were anciently found 
in the Mediterranean, and sharks of the 
largest size. 




TRITICfM COMPOSITUM. 

WHEAT is the principal and most 
valuable kind of grain for the service of 
man, and is produced in almost every 
part of the world. Gen. 30 : 14 ; Deut. 
8:8; Judg. 6:11; Matt. 13 : 25 ; 1 Cor. 
15 : 37. It is often intended where the 
word corn is used. See Corn. The 
Egyptian wheat, Triticum Compositum, 
has six or seven ears on one head ; so 
that it presented its usual appearance in 
this respect in Pharaoh's dream, Gen. 
41 : 5-7. The " meat-offerings " of tlie 
Mosaic service. Lev. 2, were all made of 
wheaten flour. 

WHEEL, Psa. 83:13, translated "roll- 
ing thing" in Isa. 17 : 13. Mr. Thom- 
son, for many years a missionary in 
Syria, thinks the wild artichoke may 
here be referred to. This plant sends out 
numerous stalks or branches of equal 



WHI 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WIN 



length ill all directions, forming a globe 
a foot in diameter. Tliese globes become 
rigid and light as a featlicr in autumn, 
and thousands of them lly rolHng and 
bounding over the plains, the sj^ort of 
every wind. This "rolling thing" fur- 
nishes the modern Arabs with a current 
proverb and a curse. 

WPIIRL' WINDS were verv frequent in 
the deserts of Arabia, Job 37:9; 38 : 1 ; 
Nah. 1:3, and travellers in the East have 
encountered many. Most of them are j 
not formidable, Isa. 17:13 ; but one now 
and then occurs, sudden, swift, and aw- 
ful in its devastating course ; houses and 
trees are no obstruction in its way, and 
the traveller is buried alive under the 
pillar of sand it raises and bears along, 
like a water-spout at sea. Job 1:19; Isa. 
21 : 1. The sudden and resistless judg- 
ments of God are well compared to 
whirlwinds, Psa. 58:9; Prov. 1:27; Isa. 
GO : 15. One of the Hebrew words thus 
translated sometimes denotes only a pow- 
erful and tempestuous gust of wind, Jer. 
23:19; 30:23; Zech. 9:14. See Winds. 

WID'OW. A custom was prevalent 
in patriarchal times, Gen. 38, and was 
afterwards confirmed by the IMosaic law, 
Deut. 25 : 5-10, that a widow without 
children, in order to preserve the family 
name and inheritance, should marry the 
brother of her deceased husband ; or, he 
failing, his nearest kinsman, lluth 3:12, 
13 ; 4:1-11 ; Matt. 22:2:3-30. The high- 
priest was forbidden to marry a widow. 
Lev. 21 : 14. The humanity and justice 
of true religion are shown in the Bible, 
as might be expected, by numerous indi- 
cations that God and the friends of God 
sympathize with the sorrows, supply 
the w^ants, and defend the rights of the 
widow. Exod. 22 : 22-24 ; Deut. 16 : 11 ; 
24:17, 19; Psa. 68:5; Isa. 1:17; 10:2; 
Jer. 22 : 3 ; Matt. 23 : 14. The apostolic 
church was not negligent in providing 
for widows, Acts 6:1-3; I Tim. 5 : 16 ; 
and James makes this duty an essential 
part of true piety, Jas. 1 : 27. Heathen- 
ism, on the contrary, makes those who 
have been slaves to a husband's caprices 
during his life, either victims upon the 
funeral pile at his death, or forlorn and 
hopeless sufferers under destitution and 
contempt. The duties of Christian wid- 
ows are specified in 1 Tim. 5:3-16. 

WILDEPtNESS. See Desert. 

WILLOW, a very common tree, which 
grows in marshy places, Job 40 : 22, Isa, 



44 : 4, with a leaf much like that of the 
olive. God commanded the Hebrews to 
take branches of the handsomest trees, 
particularly of the willows of the brook, 
and to bear them in their hands before 
the Lord, as a token of rejoicing, at the 
feast of Tabernacles, Lev. 23 : 40. The 
"w^eeping willow," memorable in con- 
nection with the mourning Hebrew cap- 
tives, Psa. 137 : 2, is a native of Babylo- 
nia, and hence is named Salix Babyloni- 
ca. The "brook of the willows," Isa. 
15 : 7, on the southern border of Moab, 
flows into the south-east extremity of 
the Dead sea. 

WIM'PLE, a veil or hood; but the 
Hebrew signifies, properly, a broad and 
large mantle or shawl. See Veil. Thus, 
in lluth 3:15, Boaz gives Ruth six meas- 
ures of barley, which she carries away 
in her mantle, rather than veil, as in the 
English translation. So in Isa. 3:22. 

WINDS, Matt. 24 : 31. The winds 
which most commonly prevail in Pales- 
tine are from the western quarter, more 
usually perhaps from the south-west, 
Luke 12:54. Not unfrequently a north 
wind arises. Job 37 : 9, which, as in an- 
cient days, is still the sure harbinger of 
fair weather ; illustrating the truth of 
the observation in Prov. 25:23, "The 
north wind driveth away rain." For the 
tempestuous wind called Euiioclydon, 
see that article. 

But the wind most frequently men- 
tioned in the Bible is the "east wind," 
which is represented as blasting and 
drying up the fruits. Gen. 41 : 6 ; Ezek. 
17:10 ; 19 : 12, and also as blowing with 
great violence, Psa. 48:7 ; Ezek. 27:26; 
Jonah 4:8. It is also the "horrible tem- 
pest," literally the glow-wind, of Psa. 
II : 6. This is a sultry and oppressive 
wind blowing from the south-east, and 
prevailing only in the hot and dry 
months of summer. Coming thus from 
the vast Arabian desert, it seems to in- 
crease the heat and drought of the sea- 
son, and produces universal languor 
and debility. Rev. Dr. Eli Smith, who 
experienced its effects during the sum- 
{ mer, at Beyrout, describes it as possess- 
ing the same qualities and characteris- 
tics as the Sirocco, which he had felt at 
Malta, and which also prevails in Sicily 
and Italy ; except that the Sirocco, in 
passing over the sea, acquires great damp- 
ness. This wind is called by the Arabs 
the Simoom, by the Turks the Samiel, 
485 



WIN 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WIN 



and by the Egyptians the Camsin ; and 
has long been regarded as a pestilen- 
tial Avind, suddeiily overtaking travellers 
and caravans in the deserts, and almost 
instantly destroying the in by its poison- 
ous and sufiocating breath. But late 
and judicious travellers find no evidence 
that this wind is laden -with any poison- 
ous influence. It is indeed oppressively 
hot and dry, rapidly evaporating the 
water in the ordinary skin bottles, stoji- 
ping the ])erspiration of travellers, dry- 
ing up the palate and the air passages, 
and producing great restlessness and ex- 
haustion. As it often blows with a ter- 
rible roaring and violence, it carries dust 
and line sand high up into the air, so 
that the whole atmosphere is lurid, and 
seems in a state of combustion, and the 
sun is shorn of his beams, and looks like 
a globe of dull smouldering fire. Both 
men and animals are greatly annoyed by 
the dust, and seek any practicable shel- 
ter or covering. The camels turn their 
backs, and hide their heads from it in 
the ground. ' It is often accompanied by 
local whirlwinds, wliich form pillars of 
sand and dust, rising high above the 
ground and moving with swiftness over 
the plain. Such a tempest may have 
suggested some features in the prophetic 
descriptions of the day of God's power: 
' ' wonders in the heavens and in the earth, 
blood and fire and pillars of smoke : the 
sun shall be turned into darkness, and 
the moon into blood," Joel 2:30, 31; 
Acts 2:19, 20. 

Dr. Thomson describes another vari- 
ety of hot winds or siroccos, often more 
overwhelming than those just mention- 
ed. The sky is covered with clouds, and 
pale lightnings play through the air ; but 
there is no rain, tlumder, or wind. The 
heat, however, is intolerable ; every trav- 
eller seeks a refuge, the birds hide them- 
selves in the thickest shades, the fowls 
pant under the walls with open mouths, 
and no living thing is in motion. 

WINE. The vine being natinal to 
the soil of Canaan and its vicinity, wine 
was much used as a beverage, especially 
at festivals, Esth. 1:7 ; 5:6; Dan. 5 : 1- 
4 ; John 2:3. As one of the staple prod- 
iicts of the Holy Land, it was employed 
for drink-oilerings in the temple service, 
Ex. 29 : 40; Num. 15 : 4-10 ; it was in- 
cluded among the "first-fruits," Deut. 
18 : 4, and was used in the celebration of 
the Passover, and subsequently of the 
486 



Lord's supper. Matt. 26:27-29. Togeth- 
er with corn and oil it denoted all tem- 
poral supplies, Psa. 4:7; IIos. 2:8; Joel 
2:19. 

The word ' ' wine ' ' in our Bible is the 
translation of as many as ten different 
Hebrew words and two Greek words, 
most of which occur in but a few in- 
stances. The two most frequently used, 
Yayin and its Greek equivalent Oinos, 
are general terms for all sorts of wine. 



Neh. 



18. Without minute details 



this subject, we may observe that ' ' wine ' ' 
in Scripture denotes, 

1. The pure juice of the grape, fer- 
mented, and therefore more or less in- 
toxicating, but free from drugs of any 
kind, and not strengthened by distilled 
liquors. 

2. Must, the fresh juice of the grape, 
unfermented or in process of ^rmenta- 
tion. For this the Hebrew employs the 
word iirosh, English version, neiv wine. 
Wine, as a product of agriculture, is com-, 
monly mentioned by this name along 
with corn and oil. Gen. 40 : 11 ; Exod. 
22:29; Deut. 32:14; Luke 5:37, 38. 

3. Honey of wine, made by boiling 
down must to one-fourth of its bulk. 
This commonly goes, in the Old Testa- 
ment, by the name debhash, hone?/; and 
only the context can enable us to deter- 
mine Avhether honey of grapes or of bees 
is to be understood, Num. 18:12; Prov. 
9:2, 5. 

4. Spiced wine, made stronger and 
more inviting to the taste by the ad- 
mixture of spices and other drugs, Song 
8:2. 

5. Strong drink, Hebrew shechar. This 
word sometimes denotes pure strong 
wine, as Num. 28 : 7 ; or drugged wine, 
as Isa. 5 : 22 ; but more commonly wine 
made from dates, honey, etc., and gen- 
erally made more inebriating by being 
mingled with drugs. 

See also, in connection with this arti- 
cle. Flagon, Myrrh, and Vinegar. 

The "wine of Helbon" was made in 
the vicinity of Damascus, and sent from 
that city to Tyre, Ezek. 27 : 19. It re- 
sembled the "wane of Lebanon," famous 
for its excellence and fragrance, Hosea 
14:7. See Helbon. 

Great efforts have been made to dis- 
tinguish the harmless from the intoxi- 
cating wines of Scripture, and to show 
that inspiration has in all cases approved 
the former alone, and condemned the 



AVIN 



BI13LE DICTIONARY. 



WIT 



latter, directly or indirectly. It is not 
necessary, however, to do this in order 
to demonstrate that so flir as the use of 
wine leads to inebriation it is pointedly 
condemned by tlie Avord of God. Sin 
and shame are connected with the first 
mention of wine in the Bible, and with 
many subsequent cases, Gen. 9 : 20; 
19 : 31-36 ; 1 Sam. 25 : 3G, 37 ; 2 Sam. 
13:28; 1 Kin. 20:12-21; Esth. 1:10,11; 
Dan. 5:23 ; Rev. 17: 2. It is character- 
ized as a deceitful mocker, Pro v. 21 : 1 ; 
as fruitful in miseries. Pro v. 23 : 29-35 ; 
in woes, Isa. 5:22 ; in errors, Isa. 28:1- 

7 ; and in impious folly, Isa. 5 : 11, 12 ; 
56 : 12 ; Hos. 4 : 11. The use of it is in 
some cases expressly forbidden. Lev. 
10:9; Num. 6:3; and in other cases is 
alluded to as characteristic of the wick- 
ed, Joel 3:3; Amos 6:0. Numerous 
cautions to beware of it are given, 1 Sam. 
1:11; Prov. 23:31; 31:4,5; 1 Tim. 3:3; 
and to tempt others to use it is in one 
passage made the occasion of a bitter 
curse, Hab. 2 : 15. On the other hand, 
whatever approval was given in Pales- 
tine to the moderate use of wine, can 
hardly apply to a country w^here wine 
is an imported or manufactured article, 
often containing not a drop of the juice 
of the grape ; or if genuine and not com- 
pounded with di'ugs, still enforced with 
distilled spirits. The whole state of the 
case, moreover, is greatly modified by 
the discovery of the process of distilling 
alcohol, and by the prevalence of appall- 
ing evils now inseparable from the gen- 
feral use of any intoxicating drinks. Dan- 
iel and the llechabites saw good reason 
for total abstinence from Avine, Jer. 
35:14 ; Dan. 1:8; and the sentiment of 
Paul, on a* matter involving the same 
principles, is divinely commended to 
universal adoption, Pvom. 14 : 21 ; 1 Cor. 

8 : 13. 

For "wine -press," see Press, and 

YlXE. 

WIN'NOW. See Fax, and Tiiresii- 

IXG. 

WIN'TEPt. See Caxaax. 

WISE MEX FROM THE EaST. ScC MaGI, 

and Star. 

WIST, knew ; the past tense, from an 
obsolete present wis, Ex. 16 : 15. Wot 
and wotteth, meaning know and know- 
eth, Gen. 21 : 26 ; 39 : 8, and to wit, 
meaning to know. Gen. 24 : 21, are also 
from the same Saxon root. ' ' Do you 
to wit," 2 Cor. 8:1, means, make von 



to know, or inform you. "To wit," in 
2 Cor. 5:19. means, that is to say. 
WIT. See Wlst. 

WITCH and WIZ'ARD. Our best ex- 
position of these terms as found in the 
Bible is in the narrative of the witch of 
[ Endor. She was widely known as "one 
that had a familiar spirit " or an attend- 
I ant demon, and was thereby professedly 
! able to summon departed souls from the 
! spirit world and converse with them. 
I From this it appears that the essential 
I character of witchcraft was a pretended 
1 commerce icith demons and the spirits of the 
I departed. In this respect it is identical 
j with modern Avitchcraft and with spirit- 
ualism ; and all the condemnation pro- 
; nounced against Avitchcraft in the Bible 
! falls equally on these and every similar 
j system of professed commerce A\dth ghosts 
I and demons. 

I To this practice the ancient witches 
j and Avizards joined the arts of fortune- 
telling and divining, and a professed 
knoAvlcdge and control of the secret 
powers of the elements, heavenly bodies, 
etc. In order to give color and conceal- 
ment to their pretended commerce with 
spirits, they made use of drugs, fumiga- 
tions, chemical arts, incantations, and 
every mysterious device to awe and im- 
pose upon a superstitious people. Their 
unlawful arts Avere near akin to the oth- 
j ers forbidden in Dcut. 18:10, 11: "There 
shall not be found among you any one 
that makoth his son or his daughter to 
j pass through the fire, or that useth di\d- 
I nation, or an observer of times, or an 
' enchanter, or a Avitch, or a charmer, or 
' a consulter Avith familiar spirits, or a 
; Avizard, or a necromancer." It would 
appear from this catalogue that all forms 
i of superstition were as prevalent in the 
: East in the days of Moses as they now 
i are. Those familiar Avith the Syria and 

■ Arabia of our days inform us that old 
I and young of all sects universally be- 
1 lieve in the potency of "the evil eye," 

of incantations, charms, amulets, ser- 
pent-charming, and exorcism ; and that 
these superstitions exert a prodigious 
infiuence on oriental life. Even modern 
; mesmerism has its counterpart among 
I the pretended magic arts of the East, 
: practised, like many other existing su- 
j perstitions, from time immemorial. 

■ Such follies and knaveries are all 
; strictly forbidden in the Bible, and many 
! of them in the Jewish dispensation Avere 

4.^7 



WIT 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WOM 



punishable with death. They are all 
idolatrous — ignoring the only true God, 
and seeking help from foreign sources. 
They are sure to prevail in proportion as 
men lose a calm trust in the Almighty, 
and an intelligent loving obedience to 
his will. He that fears God needs fear 
nothing else ; while he that, like king 
Baul, departs from God, finds help and 
comfort nowhere. Sec Endor, and Sor- 
cerer. 

WITHE, Judg. 1G:7, a band made by 
plaiting together willow or some other 
pliable twigs or stalks. 

WIT'NESS, one who testifies to any 
fact from his own personal knowledge. 
Under the Mosaic law, two witnesses 
under oath Avere necessary to convict a 
person charged with a capital crime. 
Num. 35 : 30 ; and if the criminal was 
stoned, the witnesses were bound to cast 
the first stones, Deut. 18 : 6, 7 ; Acts 
7 : 58. The Greek word for witness is 
MARTYR, which scc. The apostles were 
witnesses, in proclaiming to the world 
the facts of the gospel. Acts 1:8, 22 ; 
2:32; 2 Pet. 1:12, 16-18; and Christ is 
a "faithful witness," in testifying to 
men of heavenly things, John 3 : 12 ; 
Ecv 1:5. The heroes of the ancient 
church are ' ' witnesses ' ' to the power of 
true faith, Heb. 12:1. 

WOE is sometimes used in our Bibles 
where a softer expression would be at 
least equally proper: "Woe to such a 
one !" is in our language a threat or im- 
precation of some calamity, natural or 
judicial, to befall a person ; but this is 
not always the meaning of the word in 
Scripture. We find the expression, " Woe 
is me !" that is, Alas for my sufferings ! 
and, " Woe to the women with child, and 
those who give suck !" that is, Alas for 
their redoubled sufferings in times of 
distress! If in the denunciatory lan- 
guage of Christ, we should read, "Alas 
for thee, Chorazin ! Alas for thee, Beth- 
saida!" we should do no injustice to the 
general sentiments of the passage. 

Yet in many cases the word woe is 
used in a fuller and more awful sense, 
expressing an inspired denunciation and 
foreshadowing of God's wrath upon sin- 
ners; as when we read, "Woe to those 
who build houses by unrighteousness, and 
cities by blood;" woe to those Avho are 
"rebellious against God," etc., in numer- 
ous passages, especially of the Old Testa- 
ment, Hab. 2:6, 9, 12. 15, 19 ; Zeph. 3:1. 
488 




WOLF, a ferocious Avild animal, the 
Canis Lupus of Linnteus, belonging to 
the dog genus. Indeed, it closely resem- 
bles the dog ; and it is only by a few 
slight differences of shape that they are 
distinguished. Wolves never bark, but 
only howl. They are cruel, but cow 
ardly animals ; they fly from man, ex- 
cept when impelled by hunger ; in which 
case they prowl by night in great droves 
through villages, and destroy any per- 
sons they meet, Jer. 5:6; Ezek. 22:27 ; 
Hab. 1:8. They are swift of foot, strong 
enough to carry off a sheep at full speed, 
and an overmatch for ordinary dogs. In 
severe winters, wolves assemble in large 
troops, join in dreadful bowlings, and 
make terrible devastations. They are 
the peculiar object of terror to shep- 
herds, as the defencelessness and timid- 
ity of the sheep render it an easv prey 
to wolves, Luke 10 : 3 ; John 10 : 12. 
So persecutors and false teachers have 
been "grievous wolves" to the flock of 
Christ, Matt. 10 : 16 ; Acts 20 : 29. The 
I wolf mhabits the continents of Europe, 
I Asia, Africa, and America. Driven in 
general from the populous parts of the 
country, he is yet everywhere found in 
large forests and mountainous regions. 

WOMAN is spoken of in Scripture 
as the beloved and honored companion 
and helpmeet, not the servant, of man, 
Gen. 2 : 23, 24, created as the neces- 
sary completion of man, Gen. 2 : 18 ; 
and though subordinate in sphere. Gen. 
3 : 16 ; f Cor. 11 : 3, 8, 9 ; 14 : 34, 35 ; 
1 Tim. 2 : 11-14, yet specially qualified 
for that sphere, and as necessary in it as 
man in his. Man and woman are indeed 
essentially one, the natural qualities of 
each so responding to those of the other 
as to lay the foundation of the most ten- 
der and abiding unity. The Bible thus 



WOR 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



WOR 



raised the Jewish woman high above the 
women of heathenism ; and the Old Tes- 
tament contains some of the finest por- 
traitures of female character. But still 
greater is the contrast between the wom- 
en of heathenism and those of Christian- 
ity : the former with mind and soul un- 
developed, secluded, degraded, the mere 
toys and slaves of their husbands ; the 
latter educated, refined, ennobled, cheer- 
ing and blessing the world. Christianity 
forbids a man to have more than one 
wife, or to divorce her for any cause but 
one. Matt. 5 : 32 ; 19:3-9 ; declares that 
bond and free, male and female, are all 
one in Christ, Gal. 3 : 28 ; and that in 
heaven they are no more given in mar- 
riage, but are as the angels of God, Matt. 
22 : 33. If woman was first in the Fall, 
she was honored in the exclusive par- 
entage of the Saviour of mankind ; and 
women were the truest friends of Christ 
while on earth. The primal curse falls 
■with heaviest weight on woman ; but 
the larger proportion of women in our 
chiirches may indicate that it was the 
purpose of God to make his grace to 
man "yet more abound" to her who 
was the first in sinning and suffering. 

In the East, women have always lived 
in comparative seclusion, not appearing 
in public unless closely veiled, not min- 
gling in general society, nor seeing the 
men who visit their husbands and broth- 
ers, nor even taking their meals with the 
men of their own family. Their seclu- 
sion was less in the rural districts than 
in towns, and among the Jews than 
among most other nations. They were 
chiefly engaged in domestic duties, Prov. 
31 ; among which were grinding flour, 
baking bread, making cloth, needlework, 
etc. The poor gleaned the remnants of 
the harvest ; the daughters of the patri- 
archs joined in tending tbeir fathers' 
flocks. Gen. 29 : 9 ; Ex. 2 : 16 ; and fe- 
males of all classes were accustomed to 
draw water for family use, bearing it in 
earthen pitchers on their shoulders often 
for a considerable distance, Gen. 24 : 15- 
20; John 7:28. 

WORD, one of the titles of the second 
person of the Trinity, indicating perhaps 
that by liis acts and teachings God is re- 
vealed, somewhat as tliought is bv \n ords, 
1 John 1:1; 5:7; Bev. 19 : 13." "The 
word of the Lord ' ' was a common phrase 
in the Old Testament, always denoting 
some revelation of Jehovah. Long be- 
21* 



fore the coming of Christ, the Jewish par- 
aphrasts of the Bible used "the Woiid" 
in the passages where Jehovah occurred 
in the original ; and the term was famil- 
iar to Jewish writers as the name of a 
divine being, the Son of God. To show 
its true meaning and its application to 
our Saviour, was of great importance to 
John, the last of the inspired writers, in 
whose later years certain errors as to the 
person of Christ, borrowed from Eastern 
philosophy, had begun to creep into the 
Christian church. He describes "the 
Word " as a personal and divine Being, 
self-existent, and coexistent from eter- 
nity with the Father, yet distinguished 
from him as the Son, the creator of all 
created things, the source of all life and 
light to men, and in the fulness of time 
incarnate among men, John 1 : 1-3, 14. 
John's gospel is full and clear respecting 
the divinity of Christ, John 20 : 31. 

WORLD, the earth on which we dwell, 
1 Sam. 2:8; its inhabitants, John 3:16, 
or a large number of them, John 12 : 19. 
In several places it is equivalent to 
"land,'' meaning the Eoman empire, or 
Judea and its vicinity, Luke 2:1; 4:3; 
Acts 11 : 28. It also denotes the objects 
and interests of time and sense, Gal. 6 : 14 ; 
1 John 2:15. 

WOEM'WOOD, Lam. 3:15, an intense- 
ly bitter and poisonous plant, a symbol 
for whatever is nauseous and destructive, 
Deut. 29 : 18 ; Jer. 9 : 15. The fruits of 
vicious indulgence are "bitter as worm- 
wood," Prov. 5:3; and injustice and 
oppression are like wormwood and gall, 
Amos 5:7; 6 : 12. The Chaldee para- 
phrase calls it ' ' the wormwood of death.' ' 
In Rev. 8 : 10, 11, the star called Worm- 
wood seems to denote a mighty prince, 
or power of the air, the instrument, in 
its fall, of sore judgments on large num- 
bers of the wicked. Compare Dan. 10:20, 
21; Isa. 14:12. 

WOR'SHIP OF God, both spiritual and 
visible, private and public, by individ- 
uals, families, and communities, is not 
only a self-evident duty for all who be- 
lieve in God, but is abundantly com- 
manded in his word. See Prayer. The 
stated assembling of all people for united 
worship on the Siibbath, in continuance 
of the temple and synagogue services 
enjoined by God and practised by Christ, 
is a most manifest duty. Tlie very name 
church, meaning assembly, implies it; 
and the preaching of the gospel, tho 
489 



YEA 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZAA 



great means for promoting Christianity, 
requires it. The directions of Paul, not 
to forsake the "assembling of ourselves 
together," to read his epistles "in all 
the churches," and to join in "psalms 
and hymns and spiritual songs," and his 
rules for securing the highest spiritual 
ediftcation of all when they came to- 
gether in the church, all indicate the 
established law of Christianity. 

' ' Worship ' ' is sometimes used of the 
form of homage paid by subjects to 
kings, or of honor to one held entitled 
to it, Dan. 2 : 4(5 ; Luke U : 10. In the 
East, this is still often rendered by pros- 
trating the body and touching the fore- 
head to the ground, Gen. 33 : 3 ; Matt. 
18:26. 

" Will- worship," Col. 2 : 23, is a term 
descriptive of such forms of adoration 
and service as are not prescribed in God"s 
Avord, but are offensive in his sight. 
Such are the masses and penances of 
Popery. 

WiUT'ING. See Book. 



Y. 



YEAB. The Hebrews always had 
years of twelve months. But at the 
beginning, as some suppose, they were 
solar years of twelve months, each 
month having tliirty days, excepting 
the twelfth, which had thirty-five days. 
We see, by the enumeration of the days 
of the deluge. Gen. 7 and 8, that the 
original year consisted of three hundred 
and sixty-five days. It is supposed that 
they had an intercalaiy month at the 
end of one hundred and twenty years, 
at which time the beginning of their 
year would be out of its place full thir- 
ty days. Subsequently, however, and 
throughout the history of the Jews, the 
year was Avholly lunar, having alter- 
nately a full month of thirty days, and 
a defective montli of twenty-nine days, 
thus completing tlieir year in three hun- 
dred and fifty-four days. To accommo- 
date this lunar year to the solar year, 
(305 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 47.7 
seconds,) or the period of the revolution 
of the earth around the sun, and to the 
return of the seasons, they added a whole 
month after Adar, usually once in three 
years. This intercalary month they call 
Ve-adar. See Month. 
400 



The ancient Hebrews appear to have 
had no formal and established era, but 
to have dated from the most memorable 
events in their history ; as from the ex- 
odus out of Egypt, Exod. 1'.) : 1 ; Num. 
33:38; 1 Kin. 0:1 ; from the erection of 
vSolomon's temple, 1 Kin. 8:1; 9 : 10 ; 
and from the Babylonish captivity, Ezek. 
33:21 ; 40:1. See Sabbatical year, and 
Jubilee. 

The phrase, "from two years old and 
under," Matt. 2: Ki, that is, "from a 
child of two years and under," is thought 
by some to include all the male children 
who had not entered tlieir second year ; 
and by others, all who wxre near the 
beginning of their second year, within a 
few months before or after. The cardi- 
nal and ordinal numbers are often used 
indiscriminately. Thus in Gen. 7:6, 11, 
Noah is six hundred years old, and soon 
after in his six hundredth year ; Christ 
rose from the dead "three da^'s after," 
Matt. 27 : 03, and "on the third day," 
Matt. 16 : 21 ; circumcision took place 
when the child was "eight days old," 
Gen. 17 : 11, and "on the eighth day," 
Lev. 12:3. Compare Luke 1 : 59 ; 2:21. 
Many slight discrepances in chronology 
in;iy be thus accounted for. 

YESTERDAY and TO-DAY, in Heb. 
13 : 8, are used in a general sense for 
; time past and present. Christ is eter- 
i nally the same. The life and knowledge 
of man are comparatively only ' ' of yes- 
terday," Job 8:9. 

YOKE, a symbol of subjection and 
servitude, 1 Kin. 12:4; an iron yoke, 
of severe oppression. Dent. 28:48. The 
ceremonial law was a yoke, a burden- 
some restriction. Acts 15 : 10 ; Gal. 5 : 1. 
The withdrawing or breaking of a 3-oke 
denoted a temporary or an unlimited 
emancipation from bondage, Isa. 58 : 0, 
Jer. 2:20, and sometimes the disowning 
of rightful authority, Jer. 5 : 5. The 
iron yoke imposed by our sins, none but 
God can remove. Lam. 1 : 14 ; but the 
yoke of Christ's service is easy and light, 
Matt. 11:29, 30. 



Z. 



ZAANAN, Mic. 1 : 11, supposed to be 
the same as Zenan, Josh. 15 : 37, a town 
in the plain country of Judah. 

ZAANAN'NIM, Josh. 19 : 33, a town 
in the north of Naphtali, near Kedesh 



ZAB 



BIBLE DICTIONAilY. 



ZAU 



and the foot of Anti - Lebanon, Judg. 
4:11. 

ZA'BAD, the name of four persons, 
IChr. 2:36; 7:21; 2 Chr. 24:20; Ezra 
10 : 27. 

ZA'BUD, a son of Nathan the prophet, 
tho confidential friend and adviser of 
king t?olomon, probably having shared 
■with him the instructions of the vener- 
able prophet, 1 Kin. 4:5. 

ZACCHE'US, just, from the Hebrew 
Zaccai, Neh. 7:14, a worthy tax-gatherer 
at Jericho, who in order to see Christ 
took a position in a sycamore- tree, by 
which He was about to pass. The Sav- 
iour drawing near and knowing his 
heart, called him to come down, and 
proposed to become his guest. As he 
held office under the llomans, he was 
called "a sinner" by the Jews, Lidce 
19 : 1-10. He showed sincere penitence 
and faith in the Saviour, who in turn 
promised him salvation as a child of 
Abraham by faith, Gal. 3 : 7, as he also 
seems to have been by birth. The 
"house of Zaccheus" now shown on 
the plain of Jericho is probably the 
remnant of a fort built in the tenth cen- 
turv, or even more recentlv. 

ZACHARI'AH king of Israel succeeded 
his father Jeroboam II., 773 b. c, and 
reigned six months. He did evil in the 
sight of the Lord, and Shallum son of 
Jabesh conspired against him, killed him 
in public, and reigned in his stead. Thus 
was falfilled what the Lord had foretold 
to Jehu, that his children should sit on 
the throne of Israel to the fourth gen- 
eration, 2 Kin. 14:29; 15:8-11. 

ZACHAPiI'AS, I., a person mentioned 
in Matt. 23 : 35, Luke 11 : 51, and most 
probably designating the son of the high- 
priest Jehoida, or Barachias, Avho was 
stoned to death by order of king Joash 
for publicly rebuking the king, his court, 
and the people for their growing corrup- 
tions, 2 Chr. 24 : 20-22. Some suppose 
the prophet Zechariah to be intended ; 
but history gives no account of his death. 
Others refer it to a Zacharias the son of 
Baruch, who was put to death just be- 
fore the destruction of Jerusalem ; but 
it seems unnatural and unnecessary to 
suppose that Christ here spoke prophet- 
ically. 

II. A priest belonging to the eighth 
course or cla.ss, called that of Abia, 1 Chr. 
24, the husband of Elisabeth, and father 
of John the Baptist. His residence, when 



' not on duty, was in the hill -country 
j south of Jerusalem. He is known to us 
I by his pious and blameless life ; his vis- 
j ion of Gabriel in the temple, promising 

him a son in his old age ; his hesitancy 
■ in believing, for which he was visited by 
j a temporary dumbness ; his miraculous 

restoration at the circumcision of his 

son ; and his noble and prophetic song 
j of praise, Luke 1:5-25, 57-79. 
I ZA'DOK, the son of Ahitub, and father 
' of Ahimaaz. high-priest of the Jews in 

the reigns of Saul and David. See Abia- 

THAR. 

Others of this name are mentioned in 

2 Kin. 15 : 33 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 12 ; Ezra 7:2; 

Neh. 3:4; 13:13. 

! ZAL'MON, or Salmon, Hebrew Tzal- 

I mon, a height in Samaria near Shechem, 

Judg. 9 : 48, perhaps a part of mount 

Ebal ; apparently the same that in Psa. 

' 68:14 is spoken of as covered with new- 

j fallen snow. 

I ZALMUN'NA and ZE'BAH, Midianit- 
i ish kings, defeated and slain by Gideon, 
; Judg. 8:5. 

\ ZAMZUM'MDI, a race of giants east 
of the Jordan, defeated by Chedorlao- 
i mer, Gen. 14 : 5, and exterminated by 
, the Ammonites, who possessed their ter- 
ritory until themselves subdued by Mo- 
ses, beut. 2:20, 21. See Ammonites, and 
ZuziM. 
i ZAXOAH, the name of two towns in 
' Judah, Josh. 15 : 34, 56. The inhabit- 
, ants of one of them aided in rebuilding 

Jerusalem, Keh. 3:13: 11:30. 
, ZAPH'XATH-PAANEAH, saviour of 
! the xcorld, an Egyptian name given by 
! Pharaoh to Joseph, in commemoration 
i of the salvation Avrought through him, 
I Gen. 41:45. 
I ZA'RED. See Zered. 

ZAPt'EPHATH. Obad. 20, a Phoenician 

seaport on the Mediterranean between 

I Tyre and Zidon, usually subject to Tyre. 

During a fomine in Israel, the prophet 

j Elijah resided here, with a widow whose 

cruse of oil and barrel of flour were sup- 

! plied and whose child was restored to 

life by miracle. Iler noble faith in God 

is worthy of everlasting remembrance ; 

and lier generous self-forgetfulness, of 

universal imitation, 1 Kings 17 : 9-24. 

The place was afterwards called by the 

Greeks Sarepta, Luke 4 : 26, and is now 

known as Sarafend, a large village on 

the hills adjoining the seacoast. 

Z.\R'ETAN. called also Zartanah .and 
iOl 



ZEB 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZED 



Zaithan, 1 Kin. 4 : 12 ; 7: 46 ; a town on 
the west side of the Jordan, near Beth- 
shean and north of Succoth. The reflux 
of the Jordan at the crossing of the Is- 
raelites was marked as far nortli as Zare- 
tan, Josh. 3:16. See Zereda. 

ZEB'EDEE, the husband of Salome, 
and father of James and John the apos- 
tles. He was a fisherman in comfortable 
circumstances, on the west shore of the 
sea of Galilee, and readily spared his two 
sons at the call of the Saviour, Mark 
1 : 19, 20. His Avife also attended Christ, 
and ministered to him of her substance. 
See Salome. His son John Avas person- 
ally known to the high-priest, and was 
charged by the dying Saviour with the 
care of His mother, John 18 : 15, 16 ; 
19 : 26. 

ZEBOTM, I., one of the four royal cit- 
ies in the vale of Siddim, destroyed by 
fire from heaven. See Sodom. Eusebius 
and Jerome mention a town by this name 
in their day, on the western shore of the 
Dead sea. 

II. A valley and town of the Benja- 
mites, east of Michmash, 1 Sam. 13 : 18 ; 
Neh. 11:34. 

ZE'BUL, a governor of the city of 
Shechem, who labored adroitly to pre- 
serve the city for Abimelech his master, 
the son of Gideon, Judg. 9. 

ZEB'ULUN, I., or Zabulon, Rev. 7:8, 
the sixth son of Jacob and Leah, born in 
Mesopotamia, Gen. 30 : 20. Moses gives 
us few particulars respecting him. His 
tribe was respectable for numbers, Num. 
1 : 30 ; 26 : 26 ; and its portion in the 
Holy Land accorded with the prediction 
of Jacob, Gen. 49 : 13, extending from 
the Mediterranean sea at Carmel to the 
sea of Gennesaret, between Issachar on 
the south, and Naphtali and Asher on 
the north and north-west. Josh. 19 : 10. 
His posterity are often mentioned in con- 
nection with Issachar, his nearest broth- 
er, Deut. 33 : 18. They were entangled 
with the Phoenicians on the west, Judg. 
1:30, Isa. 8 : 23, and took part Avith Ba- 
rak and Gideon in the defence of the 
country against its oppressors, Judg. 
4 : 10 ; 5 : 18 ; 6 : 35. Elon, one of the 
judges of Israel, was a Zebulunite, Judg. 
12:11, 12. The inhabitants of this region 
in the time of Chiist were highly favored 
by his instructions — Nazareth and Cana, 
Capernaum, Magdala, and Tiberias being 
all in these limits. 

II. A city in the border of Asher, but 
492 



[ probably belonging to Zebulun, Josh. 
! 19:27. 

ZECHARIAH, I., son of Berechiah, 
and grandson of Iddo the priest ; called 
the son of Iddo in Ezra 5:1; 6 : 14, and 
his successor in the priesthood, Neh. 
12:4, 16, perhaps because Berechiah was 
then dead. Zechariah is the eleventh of 
the minor prophets. He returned from 
Babylon with Zerubbabel, and began to 
prophesy while yet young, Zech. 2:4, in 
the second year of Darius son of Hystas- 
pes, B. c. 520, in the eighth month of 
the holy year, and two months after 
Haggai. These two prophets, with unit- 
ed zeal, encouraged the people to resume 
the work of the temple, Avhich had been 
discontinued for some years, Ezra 5:1. 

Zechariah' s prophecies concerning the 
Messiah are more particular and ex- 
press than those of most other prophets, 
and many of them, like those of Dan- 
iel, are couched in symbols. The book 
opens with a brief introduction ; after 
which six chapters contain a series of 
visions, setting forth the fitness of that 
time for the promised restoration of Is- 
rael, the destruction of the enemies of 
God's people, the conversion of heathen 
nations, the advent of Messiah the 
Branch, the outpouring and blessed in- 
fluences of the Holy Spirit, and the im- 
portance and safety of faithfully adher- 
ing to the service of their covenant God. 
Chapter 7 relates to commemorative ob- 
servances. Chapters 9-11 predict tlie 
prosperity of Judah during the times of 
the Maccabees, together with the fate of 
Persia and other adjacent kingdoms. 
The remaining three chapters describe 
the future destiny of the Jews, the siege 
of Jerusalem, the triumphs of Messiah, 
and the glories of the latter day when 
"Holiness to the Lord " shall be inscrib- 
ed on all things. 

II. A wise and faithful prophetic coun- 
sellor of king Uzziah, whose death was 
the beginning of calamities to Judah, 
2 Chr. 26 : 5, 16, perhaps the same who 
was the father-in-law of Ahaz, 2 Chr. 
28:27; 29:1. 

HI. A son of Jeberechiah, associated 
with Urijah the high-priest by Isaiah as 
a "faithful witness," Isa. 8 : 1 ; 2 Chr. 
29:13. 

IV. A son of Jehoiada. See Zaciia- 
RIAS I. 

ZEDEKIAH, I., the twentieth and 
last king of Judah, son of Josiab and 



ZEL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZEP 



Hamutal, and uncle to Jeconiah his 
predecessor, 2 Kin. 24:17, 19 ; Jer. 52:1. 
When Nebucliadnezzar took Jerusalem, 
he carried Jeconiah to Babylon, with his 
wives, children, officers, and the best 
artificers in Judea, and put in his place 
his uncle Mattaniah, whose name he 
changed to Zedekiah, and made him 
promise with an oath that he would 
maintain fidelity to him. He was twen- 
ty-one years old when he began to reign 
at Jerusalem, and he reigned there elev- 
en years. He did evil in the sight of the 
Lord, committing the same crimes as 
Jehoiakim, 2 Kin. 24 : 18-20 ; 2 Chron. 
86 : 1 1-13. Compare Jer. 29 : 16-19 ; 34 ; 
38:5; Ezek. 17:12, 14, 18. In the ninth 
year of his reign, he revolted against 
Nebuchadnezzar, trusting to the support 
of Pharaoh-hophra king of Egypt, which 
proved ineffectual, and despising the 
faithful remonstrances of Jeremiah, Jer. 
37 : 2, 5, 7-10. In consequence of this 
the Assyrian marched his army into Ju- 
dea, and took all the fortified places. In 
the eleventh year of his reign, on tlie 
ninth day of the fourth month, (July,) 
Jerusalem was taken, 588 b. c. The king 
and his people endeavored to escape by 
favor of the night; but the Chaldean 
troops pursuing them, they were over- 
taken in the plain of Jericho. Zedekiah 
was taken and carried to Nebuchadnez- 
zar, then at Riblah, in Syria, who re- 
proached him with his perfidy, caused 
his children to be slain Ijefore his face, 
and his own eyes to be put out ; and 
then loading him with chains of brass, 
he ordered him to be sent to Babylon, 
2 Kin. 25 ; Jer. 39 ; 52 ; Ezek. 19. All 
these events remarkably fulfilled the 
predictions of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, in 
the chapters previously referred to. 
Compare also, with respect to Zedeki- 
ah's blindness, Jer. 34:3; Ezek. 12:13. 

II. A false prophet, exposed by Mica- 
iah when urging Ahab to fight with the 
Syrians, 1 Kin. 22 : 11-37. His fate is 
foreshadowed in ver. 25. 

III. Another false prophet, denounced 
by Jeremiah, Jer. 29:21, 22. 

ZELOPH'EHAD, a descendant of Jo- 
seph, whose death in the wilderness, 
leaving five daughters and no sons, led 
to the establishment of a law that in 
such cases daughters should inherit the 
patrimony of their father ; but they were 
not to marry out of their tribe, Num. 
26:83; 27:1-11; Josh. 17:8,4. 



ZELO'TES, a zealot; in general, one 
passionately and fanatically ardent in 
any cause. After the time of Clirist, 
the name Zelotoe was commonly applied 
to an association of private individuals 
who without authority or law sought to 
enforce their own views of tlie law. In 
their opinion it was a high crime to pay 
tribute to the Romans, and rebellion was 
the duty of every patriotic Jew. Begin- 
ning with moderation, they became more 
and more violent ; and during the Roman 
war and the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, 
their excesses and crimes under the pre- 
text of zeal for the Lord are described by 
Josephus as truly appalling ; so that they 
acquired the appropriate name of Sicarii, 
or assassins. As the germ of this body 
seems to have existed in our Lord's day, 
some suppose that the apostle Simon Ze- 
lotes was so called from his having once 
belonged to it. The name Canaanite, or 
more properly Cananite, from the He- 
brew kana, has the same meaning w^ith 
Zelotes, Matt. 10:4; Mark 3:18. Little 
more is known respecting Simon. 

ZE'NAS, a pious lawyer, and a friend 
of Paul, who, writing from Nicopolis 
during the last year of his life, com- 
mends him and Apbllos, then at Crete 
on a journey, to the kind offices of Titus, 
Tit. 3 : 13. His name is Greek, and his 
profession may have been Greek civil 
law, rather than Jewish law. 

ZEPHANIAH, L, a Kohathite, in the 
seventh generation from Levi, 1 Chron. 
6:36. 

II. A priest, high in the sacred order, 
during the troublous times of king Zed- 
ekiah, who often communicated with 
Jeremiah by his agency. He was among 
the captives slain by the king of Babvlon 
at Riblah, 2 Kin. 25 : 18-21 ; Jer. 21 : 1 ; 
29:25, 29; 37:3; 52:24-27. 

III. The ninth in order of the minor 
prophets, of the trilie of Simeon. He 
prophesied in the early part of king Jo- 
siah's reign, before the reforms of that 
good king were instituted, 2 Clir. 34 : 3 ; 
Zeph. 1 : 4, 5. This would fix his date 
about 630 b. c, and the destruction of 
Nineveh, foretold in Zeph. 2 : 13, occur- 
red in 625 B. c. His prophecy contains 
two oracles, in three chapters, directed 
against idolaters in Judah, against sur- 
rounding idolatrous nations, and against 
wicked rulers, priests, and prophets. It 
closes with cheering promises of gospel 
blessings. His style and manner are 

493 



ZEP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZIK 



like those of Jeremiah, during whose 
early 3'ears they were contemporary. His 
subsequent history is unknown. 

ZEPH'ATH, a Canaanitish city after- 
wards called Hormah, one of the ' ' utter- 
most cities of Judah southwards," after- 
wards assigned to Simeon, Josh. 12 : 14 ; 
15:£0 ; 19 : 4. The name is supposed to 
he traceable in Sufah, a long and rough 
pass leading from the south up into the 
mountains of Judah. It was at Zcphath 
that the Israelites were repulsed in at- 
tcmptina: to ascend from Kadesh. Num. 
14 : 40-45 ; 21 : 3 ; Deut. 1 : 44 ; Judg. 
1:17. 

ZEPHA'THAH, a valley near Mare- 
shah, south-west of Jerusalem, where 
Asa defeated Zerah the Cushite, 2 Chr. 
14 : 10. 

ZE'RAH, I., the son of Reucl, and 
grandson of Esau, Gen. 30:13, 17. 

II. Son of Judah and Tamar, Gen. 
38:C0 ; called Zara in Matt. 1:3. 

III. Son of Simeon, and founder of the 
Zarhites. Num. 2G : 13 ; called Zohar in 
Gen. 40:10. 

IV. A Cushite king who invaded Ju- 
dah with an immense armj- in the reign 
of Asa, 2 Chr. 14:9-13. It is not agreed 
by interpreters whether he came from 
Southern Arabia or from Egypt and 
Ethiopia. Many, however, follow Cham- 
pollion, who identifies him with Osor- 
chon and Osoroth of the Egyptian monu- 
ments and historv, the son and successor 
of Shishak. 

ZE'PiED, or Zapped, a brook, or the val- 
ley through which it flows into the south- 
east part of the Dead sea, probably by 
Kir Moab, now Kerak, Num. 21 : 12 ; 
Deut. 2:13, 14. 

ZEIIE'DA, or ZEUED'AxnAn, a city of 
Manasseh, near Beth-shean, 1 Kings 
11:26 ; 2 Chr. 4:17 ; supposed to be the 
same with Zere'rath, Judg. 7 : 22, and 
perhaps Zaretan. 

ZE'RESH, the wife of Haman, haughty 
and revengeful like him, and destined to 
see him and her ten sons hanging on the 
gallows she had designed for ]\Iordecai 
the servant of God, Esth. 5 : 10-14 ; C : 13 ; 
7:10; 9:13. 

ZERUB'BABEL, or Zorob'abel, son of 
Salathiel, of the royal race of David, 
called "Sheshbazzar the prince of Ju- 
dah" in Ezra 1 : 8. Zerubbabel, as his 
name imports, was born in Babylon, and 
was the leader of the first colony of Jews 
which returned from the Babvlonish cap- 
40* 



tivity, 536 b. c. Cyrus committed to his 
care the sacred vessels of the temple, 
with which he returned to Jerusalem, 
Ezra 1 : 11. He is always named first, 
as being chief of the Jews that returned 
to their own countrv, Ezra 2:2; 3:8; 
5:2; Hag. 1:1; 2:1-9, 21-23. He laid 
the foundations of the temple, Ezra 3:8, 
9, Zech. 4 : 9, and restored the worship 
of the Lord, and the usual sacrifices. 
AVhcn the Samaritans offered to assist in 
rebuilding the temple, Zerubbabel and 
the principal men of Judah refused them 
this honor, since Cyrus had granted his 
commission to the Jews only, Ezra 4 : 2, 
3. They procured from the Persian court 
an order that the work should cease ; 
and it was not resumed until the second 
year of Darius son of Hystaspes, 521 b. c. 
We know nothing further of his history, 
except that from him both Joseph and 
Mary descended. Matt. 1:13 ; Luke 3: 27. 

ZEPtUI'AH, sister of David, and moth- 
er of his famous generals, Joab, Abishai, 
and Asahel, 1 Chr. 2 : 16. Her husband 
is unknown. 

ZI'BA, a rich steward of Saul, whom 
David charged with similar duties tow- 
ards Mephibosheth, son of Jonathan, 
2 Sam. 9 : 2-10. By a false representa- 
tion David was induced to transfer to 
Ziba the lands he had giv-en to Mephib- 
osheth, but afterwards divided them be- 
tween the two, being convinced that he 
had acted hastily, and imable to decide 
with certainty for either, 2 Sam. 10: 1-4 ; 
19:24-30. 

ZICH'RI, a valiant Ephraimite prince, 
general of Pekah king of Israel in the 
war with Ahaz, 2 Chr. 28:7. He is per- 
haps the man called " Tabeal's son," Isa. 
8:6, whom Rezin and Pekah proposed to 
make king of Judah. 

ZI'DON. See Sido\. Tlie word Zido- 
nians often includes all the Phcinicians, 
as well as the inhabitants of Zidon. 

ZIF, the second month of the Hebrew 
year, also called lyar, and nearly corre- 
sponding to our May, 1 Kin. 6:1. 

ZIK'LAG, a city of Judah and Simeon, 
on the borders of the Philistines, Josh. 
15:31 ; 19:5, who held it until the time 
of Saul, when Achish king of Gath gave 
it to David. Hither many other refu- 
gees from Judah resorted, and David 
was thus enabled to aid Achish, and to 
chastise the Amalekites who had sacked 
Ziklag during his absence, 1 Sam. 27 : 1- 
6; 30; Neh. 11:28. 



ZIL 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZIO 



ZIL'LAH, Gen. 4:19. See Lamech. 

ZIL'PAII, the maid of Leah, who be- 
came the secondary wife of Jacob, and 
the mother of Gad and Asher, Gen. 
29:21; 30:9-13. 

ZIMRI, I., a prince of the tribe of 
Simeon, slain by Phinehas for his heav- 
en-daring crime on the plains of Moab, 
Num. 25:14. 

n. A general of half the cavalry of 
Elah king of Israel. He rebelled against 
his master, killed him, and usurped his 
kingdom. He cut off the whole fam- 
ily, not sparing any of his relations or 
friends ; Avhereby was fullilled the Avord 
of the Lord denounced to Baasha the fa- 
ther of Elah, by the prophet Jehu. Zim- 
ri reigned but seven days ; for the army 
of Israel, then besieging Gibbethon, a 



city of the Philistines, made their gen- 
eral, Omri, king, and came and besieged 
Zimri in the city of Tirzah. Zimri, see- 
ing the city on the point of being taken, 
burned himself in the palace with all its 
riches, 1 Kin. lG:l-20; 2 Kin. 9:31. 

III. Others of this name are mentioned 
in I Chr. 2:6 ; 8:33-36. 

ZIN, a desert on the south border of 
Canaan, and the west of Edom, Num. 
34: 1-4. It formed part of the great wil- 
derness of Paran, Num. 13 : 26 ; and in 
its north-east corner was Kadesh-barnea, 
memorable for the death of Miriam, the 
mission of the twelve spies into Canaan, 
the murmuring of the Israelites, the rock 
flowing with water, and the unholy pas- 
sion of Moses, Num. 13 : 21 ; 20 : 1-13 ; 
27:14. 




MOUNT ZION; with the mosque of DAVID, PART OF THE SOUTH WALL OF THE CITY, AND THK 

VALLEY OF HINNOM. 



ZI'ON, or SiON in the New Testament, 
the highest and southernmost mount of 
Jerusalem, rising about twenty-live hun- 
dred feet above the INIediterrancan, and 
from two to three hundred feet above 
the valleys at its base. It was separated 
from Akra on the north and ]\Ioriah on 
the north-west by the valley Tyropaon ; 
and had the vallev of Gihon on the west. 
495 



that of Hinnom on the south, and that 
of the Kidron on the south-east. It was 
a fortified town of the Jebusites till sub- 
dued by David, and, thenceforward was 
often called "the city of David," 2 Sam. 
5:7; 1 Kin. 8 : 1. He seems to have 
greatly delighted in its beauty and 
strength, and to have loved it as a type 
of the church of the Messiah : " Beauti- 



ZIP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZOH 



fill for situation, the joy of the whole 
earth, is mount Zion, on the sides of 
the north, the city of the great King." 
"Walk about Zion, and go round about 
her ; tell the towers thereof ; mark ye 
well her bulwarks ; consider her palaces, 
that ye may tell it to the generation fol- 
lowing : " " The kings were assembled, 
they passed by together ; they saw it, 
and so they marvelled ; they were troub- 
led, and hasted away," Psa. 48:2, 12, 13. 
A mosque near its southern brow now 
covers the * ' tomb of David ' ' so called, 
most jealously guarded by the Moham- 
medans, 1 Kin. 2 : 10 ; U : 43 ; 22 : 50. 
This mount, together with Moriah and 
Ophel, was enclosed by the first wall, 
and fortilied by citadels, 1 Chr. 11 : 5. 
Upon it were erected the magnificent 
palaces of Solomon and long afterwards 
of Herod. It was finely adapted for the 
purposes of military defence, and so 
strongly was it fortified at the time of 
its capture by the Eomans, that the em- 
peror exclaimed, " Surely we have had 
God for our aid in the war ; for what 
could human hands or machines do 
against these towers?" Great changes 
have occurred on its surface, and a con- 
siderable portion of it lies outside of the 
modern wall on the south, and is occu- 
pied by cemeteries, or "ploughed as a 
field," according to Jer. 26 : 18 ; Micah 
3 : 12. Two rabbis, we are told, ap- 
proaching Jerusalem, observed a fox 
running upon the hill of Zion, and Kab- 
bi Joshua wept, but Pabbi Eliezer laugh- 
ed. " Wherefore dost thou laugh ?" said 
he who wept. "Nay, wherefore dost 
thou weep?" demanded Eliezer. "I 
weep," replied the Rabbi Joshua, "be- 
cause I see what is written in the Lam- 
entations fulfilled ; because of the mount 
of Zion, which is desolate, the foxes walk 
upon it." "And therefore," said Pabbi 
Eliezer, " do I laugh ; for when I see 
with my own eyes that God has fulfilled 
his threatenings to the very letter, I have 
thereby a pledge that not one of his 
promises shall fail ; for He is ever more 
ready to show mercy than judgment." 

" Zion," and "the daughter of Zion," 
are sometimes used to denote the whole 
city, including especially IMoriah and the 
temple, Psa. 2:6; 9:11 ; 74:2; Isa. 1:8; 
Joel 2 : 23, and sometimes figuratively 
for the seat of the true church on earth 
and in heaven, Jer. 8:19; Heb. 12 : 22 ; 
Kev. 14:1. See Jerusalem. 
496 



ZIPH, a city of Judah, four miles 
south-east of Hebron ; near it were wild 
fastnesses in which David for a long time 
lav hid, 1 Sam. 23:14, 15. 

ZIPPOPAH, daughter of Jethro, wife 
of Moses, and mother of Eliezer and Ger- 
shom. When Moses fled from Egypt into 
Midian, and there stood up in defence of 
the daughters of Jethro, priest or prince 
of Midian, against shepherds who would 
have hindered them from watering their 
flocks, Jethro took him into his house, 
and gave him his daughter Zipporah in 
marriage, Ex. 2:15-22; 4:25; 18:2-4. 

ZIZ, THE CLIFF OF, the pass near Enge- 
di, by which the Moabites and Ammon- 
ites ascended from the shore of the Dead 
sea, having followed the southern and 
western coast to this point, 2 Chr. 20:16. 
The same route is still traversed by the 
Arabs. 

ZOAN, a very ancient city of Lower 
Egypt, Num. 13 : 22, on the east side of 
the Tanitic arm of the Nile, and called 
by the Greeks Tanis, now San. It was 
a royal city, Isa. 19 : 11, 13 ; 30 : 4, and 
gave its name to the level country 
around it, in which were wrought the 
first mighty works of God by Moses, Psa. 
78: 12, 43. Vast heaps of ruined temples, 
obelisks, sphinxes, etc., attest the an- 
cient grandeur of this city, and its ruin 
according to prophecy, Ezek. 30:14. 

ZOAR, a city on the south-east side 
of the Dead sea, w^as destined, with the 
other four cities, to be consumed by fire 
from heaven ; but at the intercession of 
Lot it was preserved, Gen. 14:2; 19:20- 
23, 30. It was originally called Bela ; 
but after Lot entreated the angel's per- 
mission to take refuge in it, and insisted 
on the smallness of this city, it had the 
name Zoar, which signifies small. 

ZO'BAH, a country of Syria, whose 
king carried on war with Saul and Da- 
vid, 1 Sam. 14 : 47 ; 2 Sam. 8:3; 10 : 6. 
It seems to have lain near Damascus, 
and to have included the city Hamath 
conquered by Solomon, 2 Chr. 8:3, but 
also to have extended towards the Eu- 
phrates, 2 Sam. 8:3. 

ZO'HAR, a Hittite, Gen. 23 : 8. Also 
a son of Simeon, Gen. 38 : 30, and a de- 
scendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 4:7. 

ZO'HELETH, a large rock near the 
well En-rogel, in the valley adjoining 
Jerusalem on the south-east, where the 
adherents of Adonijah assembled in re- 
bellion, 1 Kin. 1:9. 



ZOP 



BIBLE DICTIONARY. 



ZUZ 



ZO'PHATl, one of Job's three friends, 
a native of some unknown place called 
Naamah. He appears but twice in the 
dialogue, once less than his two associ- 
ates, whoso general sentiments he shares, 
with perhaps more severity of judgment 
against Job, Job 2: 11 ; 11 ; 20. 

ZO'RAH, a city of Danites within the 
limits of Judah, 2 Chr. 11 : 12, called also 
Zoreah, Josh. 15 : o3 ; 19 : 40. Samson 
was a Zorite, or Zorathite, Judg. 13 : 2, 
25 ; 1 Chr. 2:54 ; 4:2. It is now recog- 
nized in a secluded mountain village 
called Surah, on the edge of the hills 
north of Beth-shemesh. Tlie road fol- 
lowed by Samson in going to Timnath 
leads down through rocky gorges, very 
likely to be haunted by wild beasts. It 
was here that he slew the lion, without 
the help of any weapon, Judg. 14:5-7. 



ZOROBABEL. See Zerubbabel. 
ZUPH, plur. ZopiiiM, an Epluathitc, 
ancestor of Samuel, and the region in 
mount Ephraim which he inhabited, 
1 Sam. 1:1; 9:5; 1 Chr. 6 : 35. See 
un««ler Ramah II. 

ZUR, a Midianitish prince, whose 
daughter was slain by Phinehas, Num. 
25 : 15-18, and who was himself subse- 
quently slain in war with the Israelites, 
Josh. 13:21. 
j ZU'ZIM, taken by the Chaldce and 
I Septuagint version as an appellative for 
I stout and valiant men. Tliey dwelt east 
of the Jordan in the time of Abraham, 
j when they were subdued by Chedorlao- 
mer and his allies. Gen. 14 : 5, and are 
supposed to have been the same race of 
giants called Zamzummim in Deut. 
1 2 : 20. 

497 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



COMPILED BY JOSEPH ANGUS, D.D. 



PERIOD I 

FROM THE CREATION, B. C. 4004, TO THE DEATH OF XOAH, 
200G YEARS. 



DATE A.\D PLACE. 



B. C. 
4004. 



4004. 
Edeu. 

Eden. 

4003-2, 

Near Eden. 

3875. 

3875. 
3875-3504, 

Nod. 

3874, 
Near Eden. 

3769. 

3074. 
2468. 



2468. 

2348. 

2347, 
Armenia, or Ar- 
arat, Gen. 8:4. 
Togarmah, 
Ezek. 27:14. 
2247, A. M. 

1757. 
B. c. 2233. 

Shinar, or Irak 
Arabi. 
1998. 



EVENT OR XARRATITE. 



BIBLE REFEREXCE. 



The creation, 

Institution of tlie Sabbath, 

Creation of Adam and Eve, briefly described in 

chap. 1, recapitulated,-- -- 

The fall of man, - 

Connection of the first sin with man's subsequent j 

state,- I 

First promise of a Saviour ; expulsion from Eden, 
Birth of Cain and Abel, 



Sacrifice first mentioned ; Abel's accepted, - 

Cain's crime and curse,- - 

Cain builds Enoch ; his descendants ; Lamech's 

speech, etc. , 

Birth of Seth and of Enos ; world and church dis- 
tinguished, 

Genealogy from Adam to Noah ; the line of the 

Messiah, 

Adam dies, aged 930 years, - - 

Wickedness of the world ; God determines to de- 
stroy it after a respite of 120 years ; Noah 

preaches, (2 Pet. 2:5,) 

Covenant renewed with him ; be builds an ark as 

God commanded, 

Noah enters the ark ; the Deluge, a. m. 1656, 

The waters abate ; Noah leaves the ark, 

God's covenant renewed with Noah, — - - 

Noah and his sons ; his prediction concerning 
them, 



Gen. 1; 2:4-7. 
Gen. 2:1-3. 

Gen. 2:8-25. 
Gen. 3:1-13 
Rom. 5:14. 
1 Cor. 15. 
Gen. 3:14-24. 
Gen. 4:1, 2. 



Gen. 
Gen. 

Gen. 

Gen. 

Gen. 
Gen. 



:o-/. 
:8-15. 

: 16-24. 

:25, 26. 

:5. 



Gen. 6. 



Gen. 
Gen. 
Gen. 
Gen. 

Gen. 



:18. 

:1-17. 

: 18-27. 



Babel ; confusion of tongues ; dispersion, - - ; Gen. 11:1-9. 

Genealogies of Noah's sons; Nimrod founds the 

Babylonian or Assyrian empire, Gen. 10. 

Genealogy from Shem to Tcrah ; the line of the 

Messiah, - Gen. 11 :10-28. 

Death of Noah, - Gen. 9:28, 29. 

-_ . 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD II. 

FROM THE DEATH OF NOAII TO THE BIRTH OF MOSES 
417 YEARS. 



DAT]-: AXD PLACE. 



Uz, in Eastern 
Icluma3a. 



1996, 

TJr, Orfa 

1922, 

Ilaran, Charroe, 

Ilarran. 
1921, Canaan. 



1921. 

1920. 

1918. 

1917, Hebron. 

1913, Siddim, 

El Ghor. 

1912, Hebron. 
1910. 
1897. 



1896, Gerar. 
Land of Moab. 



Moriah, (site of 

the temple.) 

Machpelah,near 

Hebron. 

1856, 

Beersheba. 

1850. 

1836, 

Lahai-roi. 

1821, 
Beersheba. 



EVENT OR ^-AERA■^^^3. 



I. JOB. 

The exact date of Job is not known. There is 
good veason, however, for placing his history 
before tliat of Abraham. Chapters 19:25-27 ; 
32 : 23-28, are direct references to the work of 
tlie Messiah, — 



II. ABRAHAM. 

Birth of x\braham ; marries Sarai ; leaves LTr and 

his idolatrous kindred, (Josh. 24 :2,) 

Terah, Lot, and Sarai ; death of Terah, 



Leaves Ilaran at God's command with Sarai and 
Lot, 



Great blessings promised him. 



Visits Egypt ; dissimulates, -- 

Returns to Canaan ; Lot in Sodom, 

Promises renewed ; goes to Mamre, 

Chedorlaomcr ; Lot taken and rescued, - 



Melchizedek blesses Abram, - --- --- 

Covenant of God with Abram , 

Hagar ; Ishmael born, 

Covenant renewed; names changed; circumcis- 



Abraham entertains angels, one of whom is the i 
Angel of the covenant ; Sodom ; Lot's wife ; } 
Lot's incest, — ( 

Abraham leaves Hebron ; dissembles with Abime- 
lech, 

Moab and Ben-ammi born, 

Isaac born ; Ishmael sent away ; covenant with 
Abimelech, ~ 

Trial of Abraham's faith, 



Death and biu'ial of Sarah, 

Account of Nahor's family, - 

Abraham sends his servant to Haran ; Laban re- 
ceives him ; marriage of Isaac, 

Abraham marries Keturah ; children by her, 

Birth of Esau and Jacob ; their character, 



Abraham dies ; Isaac and Ishmael bury him in 
the cave of Machpelah, 



EIELE REFERENCE, 



Job 1-42. 



Gen. 11:27-32. 

See Acts 7:2-4. 



Gen. 12:1-9. 
Gen. 12:1-9. 
See Acts 3:25. 
Rom. 4. 
Gal. 3:16. 
Gen. 12:10-20. 
Gen. 13:1-13. 
Gen. 13:14-18. 
Gen. 14. 

Gen. 14. 
Gen. 15. 
Gen. 16. 
Gen. 17. 

Gen. 18; 19:1- 
86; 19:4-11 
30-36. 

Gen. 20. 

Gen. 19:37, 38. 

Gen. 21:1-34. 
Gen. 22:1-19 

Gen. 23. 

Gen. 22:20-24. 

Gen. 24. 
Gen. 25:1-6. 
Gen. 25:19-28. 



Gen. 25:7-11. 



500 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD II. — CONTINUED. 



DATE AXD PLACE. 



B. C. 

1804, 
Lahai-roi. 

1S04. 

1804, 
Beersheba. 

1706. 

1773. 

17G0, 
Beersheba. 

17G0, 
Padan-aiam. 
17C0, Arabia. 

1753. 

1752-1745, 

Padan-aram, 

Al Jezirah. 



1745. 

1739, Galeed. 

1739, 

Succoth. See 

Josh. 13:27. 

1736, Shechem. 

1732 



EVE>n' OR XARRATI\'E 



thel, Luz, 
Beit-in. 



1729, Hebron. 
1729. 



1728, Dotban. 

1726, Timnath. 

1719, Egypt. 

1718. 

1716. 
1715. 

1712, 1711. 
1708. 
1707. 



HI. ISAAC AND JACOB. 
Esau sells Jacob his birthright ; Isaac leaves Ca- 
naan, 

Covenant confirmed to Isaac at Gerar, 

Isaac dissembles ; covenant with Abimelech, 



Esau marries two Hittite women, 

Death of Ishmael ; descendants, - - 

Jacob obtains his father's blessing, and flees from 
Esau, - 

Jacob's vision at Luz ; the promises continued j 
to him ; stays with Laban his uncle, ( 

Esau marries a daughter of Ishmael, 

Jacob marries Leah and Eachel, - - 

Jacob's children: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and 
Judah, by Leah ; Dan and Naphtali, by Bil- 
hah, Rachel's maid ; Gad and Asher, by Zil- 
pah, Leah's maid; Issachar, Zebulun, and j 
Dinah, by Leah ; Joseph, by Rachel, J 

Jacob's bargain with Laban ; he becomes rich, - - 

Jacob, returning to Canaan, is pursued by Laban ; 
their covenant, 

Jacob' s vision at Mahanaim ; wrestles with an 
angel at Penuel ; reconciled to Esau ; settles 
at Succoth, 

Jacob removes to Shalem, Gen. 33 : 18-20 ; birth 
of sons of Judah, — 

Dinah defiled by Shechem ; slaughter of Shechem- 
ites by Simeon and Levi, 

Jacob removes ; purges his household of idols ; 
the promises renewed to him ; his name changed 
to Israel, -- 

Rachel dies on the birth of Benjamin, - - 

Sin of Reuben ; Jacob abides with Isaac, 

Esau's descendants, 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Gen. 25:29-35. 
Gen. 26:1-5. 
Gen. 26:6-33. 

Gen. 26:34, 5. 
Gen. 25:12-18. 

Gen. 27; 28:1-5. 
Gen. 28:10-22; 

29:1-14. 
Gen. 28:6-9. 
Gen. 29:15-30. 



Gen. 29:31-35; 
30:1-24. 

Gen. 30:25-43. 

Gen. 31. 

Gen. 32; 33:1- 
17. 

Gen. 38:1-5. 
Gen. 34. 



Gen. 35:1-15. 
Gen. 35:16-20. 
Gen. 35:21-27. 
Gen. 36. 



IV. JOSEPH, ETC. 

Joseph's two dreams ; envy of his brethren ; sold 
to the Ishmaelites and to Potiphar in Egypt, - - Gen. 

Er and Onan slain by God ; incest of Judah and 

Tamar ; Pharez, a progenitor of Messiah, born. Gen. 38:6-30. 

Joseph advanced, tempted, falsely accused, andj 

imprisoned, -- - -JGen. 39. 

Pharaoh's butler and baker imprisoned ; Joseph 
interprets their dreams, - Gen. 40. 

Death of Isaac at Mamre, Gen. 35:28, 29. 

Joseph interprets Pharaoh's dreams; his eleva- 
tion, Gen. 41: 

Birth of Joseph's twosons,Manasseh and Ephraim, Gen. 41: 

Commencement of the seven years' famine, Gen. 41 : 

Joseph's ten brethren come to buy corn ; Simeon 

a pledge, | Gen. 42. 

501 



1-49. 

50-52. 

53-57. 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD II. — continued: 



PATE AND PLACE. 



B C. 

1706. 

1706. 

1701-1701. 

1689, Egypt. 

1689. 

Machpelah. 

1689. 
1635, Egypt. 

1577, Egypt. 

1573. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



They come again to buy corn ; Joseph makes him 
self known to tliem ; sends for his father, 

Jacob and his family arrive ; settle in Goshen ; 
Jacob meets Pharaoh, 

Joseph, by giving corn to the Egyptians, in- 
creases the wealth of the king, 

Jacob blesses Ephraim and Manasseh, • 

Jacob's predictions concerning his sons and Ju- 

dah , his death, — 

Joseph and his brethren bury their father, - 

Joseph shows kindness to his brethren, 

Joseph predicts the return to Canaan ; charges 

them to carry up his bones there ; his death, - - 
The Israelites multiply ; a new king oppresses 

them, 

Pharaoh orders the male children to be cast into 

the river, -- 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Gen. 43-45. 
Gen. 46:8-25; 
47:1-12. 

Gen. 47:13-26. 
Gen. 47:27-31; 
48. 

Gen. 49. 
Gen. 50:1-13. 
Gen. 50:14-21. 

Gen. 50:22-26. 
Exod. 1:1-21; 
15-21. 

Exod. 1:22. 



PERIOD III. 

PROM THE BIRTH OF MOSES, B. C. 1571, TO HIS DEATH, 120 YEARS. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



1571-1532. 
1531, Midian. 

1531, Egypt. 

1491, Horeb, 
(Acts 7:30.) 

1491, Egypt, 
(Acts 7:31.) 



1491. 
1491. 

1491. 

1491. 

1491. 
1491. 
1491. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



I. TO THE EXODE. 

Birth, exposure, rescue, and early life of Moses, - 

Moses, having killed an Egyptian, llccs ; marries 

Zipporah, daughter of Jethro ; CJershom born, 

The Israelites groan for their bondage, - 

God appears to Moses in a burning bush ; ap- 
points him and Aaron to bring the Israelites 
out of Egypt. 

Moses leaves Midian ; meets Aaron ; they deliver 
their message, - -- 

Moses and Aaron demand the release of the Is- 
raelites ; Pharaoh refuses, - — 

God renews his ]u-omise by his name Jehovah, — 

Descendants of llcuben, Simeon, and of Levi, from 
Avhoni came ]\Ioses and Aaron, — 

Moses and Aaron again sent ; conlirm their mes- 
sage by a miracle ; magicians imitate them, - 

Pharaoh refuses to let Israel go ; eight plagues, -s 

The Passover instituted, - 

The ninth plague, three days darkness, 

Israelites bidden to ask gold of the Egyptians ; ( 
Pharaoh threatened with the death of the } 

firstborn, ( 

502 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Ex. 2:1-10. 

Ex. 2:11-22. 
Ex. 2:23 25; 
Psa. 88. 



Ex. 3; 4:1-17 

Ex. 4:18-31. 

Ex. 5. 

Ex. 0:1-13. 

Ex. 6:14-27. 
Ex. 0:28-30; 

7:1-13. 
Ex. 7: 14-25 ;e 

9; 10:1-20. 
Ex. 12:1-20. 
Ex. 10:21-27. 
Ex. 11:1-8; 

10:28, 29; 

11:9, 10. 



CHROXOLOUICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD III. — CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 

491. 



1491, Eameses. 



1491, Succoth, 
Eccl. year 1. 

1 mon., 1 day. 
Etham. 

1491, Pihahi- 

roth ; that is, 

mouth of pass. 

Marah. 



Elim, IVady 

Ghurundel. 

Red sea. 

2 mon. , 15 day. 

Desert of Sin. 

Dophkah. 

Alush. 
Repliidim. 



3 mon., 15 day. 

Sinai. 

1491. 
3 mon., 15 day. 

Sinai. 



Eccl. year 1. 
6 mon., Sinai. 



E^^l;^T or narrative. 



Tlie Passover eaten, the same day of the same 
month on which Christ our Passover was sacri- 
ficed for us ; the firstborn slain, 

The exodus of Israel from Egypt, a. m. 2513,-- i 



II. JOURNEYS OF THE ISRAELITES. 

First journey. Passover I'einforced. Firstborn 
commanded to be set apart. Joseph's bones 
removed, - 

Second journey. Israel guided by a pillar of 
cloud and lire,-- - - 

Third journey. Pharaoh pursues, 

Fourth journey. Passage of the Red sea. See 
I Cor. 10 : 1, 2. Destruction of Pharaoh's 
array. Song of Moses. The bitter waters 
sweetened, 

Fifth journey, -- - -- 



Sixth journej^ — 

Seventh journey. People murmur for bread. 
Quails and manna. Directions on manna. 
See John 6:C1, 49; Rev. 2:17, 

Eighth journey, — — 

Ninth journey, 

Tenth journey. Water given from the rock in 
Horeb, (1 Cor. 10:4.) Joshua defeats Ama- 
lek, while Moses prays, - - 

Eleventh journey. Preparation for giving of 
the law, ] 

Moral law given. Divers laws (chiefly judicial) 
enjoined. The angel promised as a guide to 
the Israelites, 

The people promise obedience ; the blood of the 
covenant sprinkled on them. Moses and others^ 
have a vision of God's glory. Moses remains 
forty days and forty nights in the mount, 

Ceremonial law given. The tabernacle and its 
furniture, the priests and their garments, etc. 
The Sabbath again enjoined. Daily sacrifice 
and incense, Rom. 8:3; Rev. 8:3, 4. Tables 
of the law given to Moses, 

Idolatry of the calf; the tables broken ; the peo- 
ple punished; the tabernacle removed out of 
the camp. Moses intercedes for the people, 
and asks to see God's glory, 

The tables renewed ; the name of the Lord pro- 
claimed ; God makes a covenant with Israel. 
Moses stays on the mount forty days and forty 
nights ; his face shines, - 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Ex. 12:21-30. 

Ex. 12:31-30, 

and 40-42. 

Ex. 12:37-39, 
43-51; 13:1- 
19; 

Num. 33:1-5. 

Ex. 13:20-22; 

Num. 33:6. 

Ex. 14:1-9; 

Num. 33:7. 

Ex. 14:10; 

15:26; 
Num. 33:8. 

Ex. 15:27; 
Num. 33:9. 

Num. 33:10. 

Ex. 16:1-30; 
Num. 33:11. 



Num. 
Num. 

Ex. 17:1- 

Num. 33: 



:12. 
;13. 

10; 
14. 



Ex. 19 

Num 



oo : 15. 



Ex. 20:23. 



Ex. 24. 



Ex. 



Ex. 



Ex. 34. 



503 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD III.— CONTINUED. 



DATE AXD PLAO:. 



B. C. 

1491. 



1490. 

Eccl. j^ear 2. 

1 mon., 1 day. 

1490. 
Eccl. year 2. 
1 mon., 1 day. 

1 mon., 8 day. 



1 mon., 14 day 



2 mon. , 1 day 



EVENT OR NARRATIAT;. 



BIBLE REFERENCE 



1491. 
2 mon., 20 day 

Wilderness of 
Paran, El Tyh. 



Ilazeroth. 

5mon. toTmon. 
Kadesh Barnea, 
or En Mishpat. 



Offerings of the people for the tabernacle. Beza- 
lecl and others prepare the tabernacle and its 
furniture, - - 

Moses commanded to rear the tabernacle and to 
anoint it, and to sanctify Aaron and his sons, 



The tabernacle set up. The glory of the Lord 
fills it. Tlie Israelites directed by the cloud, - - 

Laws on various sacrifices and offerings, 

Consecration of Aaron and his sons as priests, — 

The offerings of Aaron. Fire consumes the sacri- 
fice, 

The offerings of the princes accepted, - 

Destruction of Nadab and Abihu, - - - 

Of the great day of atonement, and of the scape- 
goat, 

The second Passover celebrated. Some allowed 
to observe it in the second month, 

Laws on meats and purifications, - 

Miscellaneous laws, moral, ceremonial, and judi- 
cial. Shelomith's son stoned for blasphemy,- - 

Laws concerning festivals, etc. , 

Prophetic promises and threatenings, - 

Laws of vows, devotions, and tithes, -- 

The tribes numbered ; their order, 

The Levites appointed to the service of the tab- 
ernacle instead of the firstborn ; their duties, - - 

Institution of various ceremonies. The law of 
the Nazarites. The form of blessing, 

Consecration of the Levites ; their age and period 
of service, 

Use of the silver trumpets, 

Manner in which tlie cloud guided the people. 

Arrival of Jethro with Moses' Avife and sons. He 
advises Moses to appoint judges to assist, 



Israel 



Twelfth journey. Order of the march, 

Moses entreats Hobab to accompany 
Jethro returns to Midian, 

Tlie form of blessing on the removal and resting 
of the ark, •-- 

The burning at Taberah. People murmur for 
flesh ; Moses complains of his charge ; seventy 
elders appointed as a council to assist him ; 
quails given in wrath, - 

Thirteenth journey. Miriam smitten with lep- 
rosy for sedition, — 

Fourteenth journey. Spies sent to search the | 
land ; ten of them bring an evil report ; Ca- >- 
leb and Joshua faithful, - ) 



Ex. 35-39. 
Ex. 40:1-16; 
(John 1:14; 

2:19-21 
Col. 2:9.) 

Ex. 40:17-38. 
Lev. 1-7. 
Lev. 8. 

Lev. 9. 
Num. 7. 
Lev. 10. 
Lev. 16 ; see 
Heb. 9; 5:1. 

Num. 9:1-14. 
Lev. 11-15. 

Lev. 17-22 ; 24. 
Lev. 23 ; 24. 
Lev. 26. 
Lev. 27. 
Num. 1 ; 2. 

Num. 3 ; 4. 

Num. 5 ; 6. 

Num. 8. 
Num. 10:1-10. 
Niun. 9:15-23. 

Ex. 18:1-26. 
Num. 10:11,12, 

(33:16,) 28. 
Num. 10:29-32; 
Ex. 18:27. 

Num. 10:33-36. 



Num. 11:1-34. 
Num. 11 : 35 ; 
(33:17,) 12:15. 

Num. 12 : 16 ; 
(33:18,) 13. 



504 



CHKOXOLOUICAL INDEX TO THE lilliLE. 

PERIOD III. — CONTINUED. 



DATE ANT) PLACE. 



B. C. 

1490. 

Eccl. year 2. 

7 mon.. 6 day, 



1490-1452. 
Eccl. year 2-40. 

1452. 

Eccl. year 40. 

1 mon. 

1490, Kadesh. 

Mount Hor. 

Zalmonah. 



Punon, Oboth, 

lini. 

Dibon-srad. 



Almon- 
diblathaim. 

Abarim. 



Plains of Moab 
by Jordan. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



Israel murmurs at the report of the spies ; God 
threatens ; Moses intercedes ; condemned to 
wander forty years, 

The people, going up against the will of God, arc 
discomfited, - 

Laws of offerings ; the sabbath-breaker stoned,- - 

The rebellion of Korah, etc. ; earthquake, lire, 
and plague inflicted ; Aaron approved as high- 
priest by the budding of his rod, 

The charge and portion of the priests and Le- 
vites, 

Water of purification; how to be made and 
used, 

The next seventeen journeys (loth to 31st) of tlie 
Israelites, being their wandering in the wilder- 
ness nearly thirty-eight years, - 

Thirty-second journey ; Death of Miriam', - - • 



1451. 
Eccl. year 40. 



The people murmur for water ; Moses and Aaron 
transgressing, not to enter Canaan, 

Edom refuses a passage to the Israelites, 

Thirty-third journey ; Aaron dies ; Arad attacks 
Israel, and is defeated, 

Tliirty-fourth journey ; the people murmur ; ( 
fiery serpents are sent ; the brazen serpent ^ 
set up, - ( 

Thirty-fifth, thirty-sixth, and thirty-seventh 
journeys, - 

Thirty-eighth journey, - 

The Israelites stop at Zared, Arnon, and Beer, — 

Sihon the Amorite opposes their passage ; de- 
feated, 

Og of Bashan attacks them ; defeated, 

Thirty-ninth journey, -- 



Fortieth journey, 



Forty-first journey 
Balak,- 



account of Balaam and 



Forty-second journey ; idolatry of Baal-Peor ; 
zeal of Phinehas, - 

Third numbering of the people, 

The daughters of Zelophehad ; laws of inherit- 
ance, - 

Laws of offerings, vows, etc., 

The slaughter of Midian ; Balaam slain, 

Territories given to Reuben, Gad, and part 

Manasseh, on the east of Jordan, - 

22 



of 



BIBLE KEFEP.EXCE. 



Num. 14:1-39 
Psa. 90. 

Num. 14:40-45 
Num. 15. 



Num. 16 ; 17. 
Num. 18. 
Num. 19. 



Num. 83:19-35. 
Num. 20:1 ; 
33:36. 

Num. 20:2-13. 
Num. 20: 14-21. 
Num. 20 : 22 to 
21:3: 33:37-40. 
(See John 3: 14;) 

Num. 21:4-9; 

(33:41.) 
Num. 21:10, 11; 

33:42-44. 
Num. 33:45. 
Num. 21:12-18. 

Num. 21:21-32. 
Num. 21: 83-35. 
Num. 33:46. 

Num. 21: 18-20; 

33:47. 
(Luke 1:78; 

Eev. 22:16; 

1 Cor. 15:25;) 

Num. 22 : 1- 

41 ; (33 : 48 ;) 

23; 24. 
Nmn. 25:1-18; 

(83:49.) 
Num. 26. 
Num. 27:1-11; 

36. 
Num. 28-30. 
Num. 81. 



Num. 22. 



505 



CHliONOLOGlCAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD III. — CONTINUED. 



DATE AXn PLACE. 



B. C. 

U51. 



Eccl. year 40. 



11 mon., 1 day. 



Plains of Moab 
by Jordan. 



Eccl. year 40. 
11 mon. 



1451. 



EVENT OR XARRATIA-E. 



Directions for tlie Israelites on tbeir entering "] 
Canaan ; borders of tlie land described ; forty- I 
eight cities for the Levites, of which six are j 
to be cities of refuge ; the laws on murder, - - J 

III. THE REVIEW AND CLOSING CHARGE 

OF MOSES. 
Moses reviews the history of the Israelites, intro- 
ducing some new particulars, 



The moral law repeated and enforced, 



The ceremonial law repeated, with injunctions 
against idolatry etc., | 

The judicial law repeated and explained. Christ ) 
foretold as the Prophet to whom they are to j- 
hearken, ) 

Moses directs Israel, after entering Canaan, to 
write the law on stones, and to recite its bless- 
ings and curses upon mount Gerizim and mount 
Ebal, 

Prophetic promises and curses, 

Concluding appeal to the Israelites, 

IV. JOSHUA'S APPOINTMENT- 
MOSES. 



-DEATH OF 



Joshua appointed to succeed Moses, 

Moses encourages the people and Joshua ; charges 
the priests to read tlie law publicly every sev- 
enth year, - 

God's charge to Joshua; Moses writes a song of 
witness ; completes the writing of the law, and 
delivers it to the Levites, with a prediction of 
the disobedience c f Israel, ■ 

Moses recites his song, and exhorts Israel to set j 
their hearts upon it, - ] 

Moses ascends mount Nebo to view the land of 
Canaan, and to die, 

Moses prophetically blesses the tribes, 

Moses views the promised land ; his death, burial 
and character, - 



50G 



BreUB REFEREXCE. 



Num. 33:50-66; 
34; 85. 



Deut. 

Deut. 
10: 
22; 

Deut. 
17: 

Deut. 

18- 



1:4. 
5:9; 
1-5, lo- 
ll. 

12-16 ; 
1. 

17:2-20; 

26. 



Deut. 
Deut. 
Deut. 



27. 
28. 
29; 30. 



Num. 27: 12-23. 
Deut. 31:1-13, 



Deut. 31:14-29. 
Deut. 31:30; 
32:1-47. 

Deut. 32:48-52. 
Deut. 33. 



Deut. 34. 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD lY. 

FROM THE ENTRANCE INTO CANAAN TO THE DEATH OF 
SOLOMON, 475 YEARS. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 

1451. 
Eccl. year 41. 
1 mon., 1 day. 



10 day. 
1451, Gilgal. 



Gilgal. 

1450-1445. 

1444, Ebal and 

Gerizim. 



1444. 



Hebron, Kir- 
jatla Arba, 
Josh. 21:11. 



1444, Shiloh. 



E^•E^T OR >-AKRATI^•E 



I. CONQUEST OF CANAAN, 7 YEARS. 
(TO THE JUDGES, 25 YEARS.) 



God's charge to Joshua, 

Spies sent to Jericho ; Rahab receives them, 

Joshua reminds Reuben, etc., of their engage- 
ment, (cf. Num. 22 ;) they promise obedi- 
ence. The Israelites directed concerning the ■ 
passage of the Jordan. God encourages I 
Josliua, [ 

Passage of tlie Jordan, (a. m. 2551 ;) a memo- j 
rial erected ; the Canaanites alarmed, ( 

Circumcision renewed ; the Passover ; manna 
ceases, - - 

The Captain of the Lord's host appears to 
Joshua ; miraculous capture of Jericho ; a 
curse on the rebuilder of it, — 

The Israelites d'£Comfited through Achan's sin ; 
he is destroyed, •■ 

Capture of Ai by stratagem, - 

The Gibeonites obtain a league with Joshua, 

Conquest of several kings in succession, 

The rest of the conquests, - 

The law written on a stone altar, (cf. Deut. 27,) 
and proclaimed to all the people, 

Reuben, etc. , return to their land on the eastern 
side of Jordan ; they erect an altar of memo- 
rial ; Israel offended, ask an explanation, 



II. GENERAL DIVISION OF THE lAND. 



Enumeration of conquests, - 

Land not yet conquered, 

Joshua divides the land ; the nine tribes and a ] 
half receive their portions by lot ; the Levites [• 
not to receive land, — - -- ) 

Inheritance of Reuben, etc., on the eastern side 
of Jordan, 



Inheritance of Caleb, 



Lot of Judah, ^^._...- 

Lots of Ephraim and half of Maaasseh, 

Tlie tabernacle set up, ^-. --...-.. _--._. 

Lots of the other tribes j Joshua's irih erft- 

ance, - — 

Cities of refuge appointed, - 

Levitical cities, — ..-.-^-.-..— -- _-..—-.. 



BIBLE KEFEREXCE. 



Josh. 1:1-9. 
Josh. 2. 

Josh. 1:10-18; 
3:1-13. 

Josh. 8:14-17; 
4; 5:1. 

Josh. 5:2-12. 
Josh. 6:1; 

5:13-15; 

6:2-27. 

Josh. 7. 
Josh. 8:1-29. 
Josh. 9. 
Josh. 10. 
Josh. 11. 

Josh. 8:30-35. 



Josh. 22. 



Josh. 
Josh. 

Josh. 
14: 



12. 
13:1-6. 

13:7-14: 



Josh. 
Josh. 



507 



13:15-33. 
14-6-15; 

15:13-19. 
Josh. 15:1-12. 

20-63. 
Josh. 16 ; 17. 
Josh. 18:1- 
Josh. 18:2-28; 

19. 
Josh. 20. 
Josh. 21. ^ 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD IV. — CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



1427, Shechem. 
Hychar N. T. 

1426, Shechem. 



1425, Bochim. 



1413. 



1406, Gibeah, 
Jeba. 



1402-1394. 
1354-1336. 

1316-1296. 

1256. 

Bethlehem. 
1249, Shechem. 



1235-1232. 
1232-1188. 
1206-1188. 

1187. 

182-1157. 

1156-1116. 

1156. 

1155, Shiloh. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



III. LAST ACTS OF JOSHUA, ETC. 

Joshua's charge to the elders of Israel, 

Joshua addresses the tribes and renews the cove- 
nant, - - 

Death and burial of Joshua, 

Burial of Joseph' s bones, etc. , 

IV. INTERREGNUM AND GOVERNMENT 
OF JUDGES, 330 YEARS. 

Conquests after Joshua's death, - 

Nations not subdued by Israel, - - 

The angel of the Lord rebukes the Israelites for 
not driving out the Canaanites, - 

Commencement of idolatry in Israel, 

Account of Micah and his image, 

A party of Danites, having robbed Micah of his 
image, establish themselves in Laish, (after- 
wards Dan.) and set up idolatry, 

History of the Levite and his concubine ; slaugh- 
ter of the Benjamites, etc., 

The captivities of Israel for idolatry, and their ( 
deliverances by judges, -- ] 

Captivity of the eastern Israelites for eight years 
to Mesopotamia ; Othniel judge, 

Captivity of the eastern Israelites for eighteen 
years to Moab ; Ehud judge, 

Captivity of the western Israelites to the Philis- 
tines ; Shamgar judge, - 

Captivity of the northern Israelites for twenty 
years to the Canaanites ; Deborah judge ; song 
of Deborah and Barak, - - 

Captivity of the eastern and northern Israelites 
for seven years to Midian, 

The history of Ruth, an ancestress of the Messiah, 

Gideon judge ; is visited by the Angel of the " 
covenant, and delivers Israel from Midian ; 
refuses to be made king, 

Usurpation of Abimelech ; Jotham's fable, 

Tola and Jair judges, -- 

The Philistines and Ammonites oppress Israel j 
for eighteen years ; Jephthah ; his vow, ( 

Slaughter of Ephraim by the Gileadites, 

Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon judges, - 

The Philistines oppress Israel forty years, 

Birth of Samson, ■ 



Birth of Samuel ; Hannah's song. 



The wickedness of Eli's sons,- 
1143. Call of Samuel, - 

508 



BIBU; REFERENCE. 



Josh. 23. 

Josh. 24:1-28. 
Josh. 24:29-31. 
Josh. 24:32.33. 



Judg. 
Judg. 



1:1- 
l:2i 



26. 
-36. 



Judg. 2:1-5. 
Judg. 2:6-13 
Judg. 17. 



Judg. 18. 

Judg. 19; 20; 2L 
Judg. 2:14-23; 
3:1-4. 

Judg. 3:5-11. 

Judg. 3:12-30. 

Judg. 3:31. 

Judg. 4 ; 5. 

Judg. 6:1-6. 
Ruth 1-4. 

Judg. 6:7-40; 
7; 8. 



Judg 
Judg 
Judg 
11. 
Judg 
Judg 
Judg 
Judg. 13 
1 Sam. 1 



9. 

10:1-5. 

10:6-18 



12:1-6. 

12:7-15. 

13:1. 

2-25. 

; 2:1- 



11. 
1 Sam. 2:12-21. 
1 Sam. 3. 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD lY. — CONTINUED. 



DATE AXD PLACE. 



B. C. 

1136-1117. 



1116, Gaza. 
1116, Ebenezer. 

Ashdod,Azotus, 

Acts 8 : 40 : 

Esdud. 

1112, Mizpeh. 

1095, Ramah, 
in Ephraiin. 



.1096, Ramah. 

Mizpeh. 

Gilgal, s. E. of 

Jericho. 

1094. 



1080. 



1064. 
Bethlehem. 



1063. 



1062, Gibeah, 
Naioth. 



1062. 

1061, Nob and 

Gath. 



EVENT OR NARRATn-E. 



Marriage of Samson ; his exploits. 
Judgment on Eli's house, 



Capture and death of Samson, 

Israel twice defeated by the Philistines ; ark 
taken and Eli's sons slain ; death of Eli, 

Tlie ark placed in the house of Dagon ; re- 
moved to Ekron, {Aldi\) then to Bethshe- 
mesh, {Ain Shems,) thence to Kirjath-jearim, 
where it remains till removed by David, 

Samuel judge ; he moves the Israelites to repent- 
ance ; the Philistines discomfited, - 

Samuel appoints his sons judges ; their corrupt 
government ; the Israelites ask for a king ; 
God bids Samuel hearken to them, 



V. THE EEIGN OF SAUL, 40 YEARS. 

Samuel privately anoints Saul as king, and 
gives him three signs, - 

Saul chosen and proclaimed king, 

Saul rescues Jabesh-Gilead ; is inaugurated as 
king ; Samuel's address to Israel, 

Saul gathers an army against the Philistines ; he 
disobeys Samuel, and is warned of his rejection 
from the kingdom, - 

The Philistines discomfited ; Saul's rash oath ] 
endangers Jonathan ; the people rescue him ; > 
Saul's victories; his family, - ) 

Saul smites the Amalekites ; spares Agag and 
the best of the spoil ; denounced by Sam- 
uel, — - 

Samuel secretly anoints David, at Bethlehem, as 
future king, - 



David's victory over Goliath ; Jonathan loves 
David, 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Judg. 14; 15:1- 

19; 16:1-3. 
1 Sam. 2:22-36, 

22-25. 
Judg. 15-20; 

16:4-31. 
1 Sam. 4 ; 19- 

22. 

1 Sam. 5 ; 6 ; 
7:1,2. 



1 Sam. 7:3-17. 



David's victories ; Saul's melancholy 
tempts to kill Davi ' 



he at- 



David marries Saul's daughter ; Saul makes 
various attempts to kill him ; David flees to 
Samuel ; Saul sends after him, 



1 Sam. 8. 



lSam.9; 10:1- 

16. 
1 Sam. 10:17-27. 

1 Sam. 11 ; 12. 



1 Sam. 13:1-15. 

I Sam. 13 : 16- 
23; 14. 



1 Sam. 15. 



ISam 
ISam 



-13. 



David's covenant with Jonathan, 

David flees to Ahimelech, (where his lie costs ) 
the lives of the priests of the house of Eli,) > 
then to Achish ; feigns madness, ) 



16:1- 
17:1-40, 
55, 56, 41-54, 
57, 58; 18:1- 
4 ; Psa. 9. 

1 Sam. 18:5-9; 
16:14-23; 
18:10-16. 

1 Sam. 18 : 17- 
30; 19:1-3; 

Psa. 11 ; 

ISam. 19:4-24; 

Psa. 59. 

1 Sam. 20. 

1 Sam. 21 ; 
Psa. 56 ; 34. 



509 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD IV.— CONTINUED. 



DATE ANT) PLACE. 



B. C. 

1062, AduUam. 



Nob. 



Keilah. 



1060, Ziph. 

1059, Engedi, 

HazezonTamar, 

1058, Ziph. 

1057. 



1056. 



Gilboa, Djehal 

Gilho. 
Ziklag, (16 m. 
s. w. of Gath?) 



1056, Hebron. 

Acts 13:21. 

1054. 



1049, Hebron, 
Jerusalem. 



E\'EXT OR NARRATIVE. 



David flees again, joined by several followers, 



David goes to Mizpeh, then to Hareth ; slaugh- 
ter of the priests by Saul, - 



Abiathar joins David ; David defeats the Phi- 
listines, 



Saul pursues David ; an invasion obliges him 
to return, 

Saul pursues David ; David spares Saul's life ; j 
Saul confesses his fault, ( 

Death of Samuel ; David and Nabal, 

David again spares Saul's life, -- 

David flees to Achish, 1 Sam. 27:1-7 ; Psa. 141 ; 
several resort to him, 

David makes an excursion on the Amalekites, 
and repairs to Gath with the booty, 

The Philistines prepare for war, and advance to 
Shunem ; David accompanies them ; Saul con- 
sults the witch of Endor, -- 

David dismissed from the army of the Philis- [ 
tines ; on his way back to Ziklag he is joined \ 
by several, - ( 

On his return to Ziklag, David finds that it had 
been sacked by Amalek, and his family taken ; 
he pursues Amalek, and smites them, 

Saul, defeated in battle and his sons slain, kills 
himself, 

An Amalekite pretends to have slain Saul, and is 
put to death by David, - 

David's lament over Saul and Jonathan, 



VI. THE REIGN OF DAVID, 40 YEARS. 

David acknowledged as king of Judah, ■ 

Ishbosheth proclaimed king of Israel, ■ 

Civil war ensues ; David waxes stronger ; Ab- j 
ner and Ishbosheth treacherously slain, ' 



David made king over all Israel ; his troops ; 
he dispossesses the Jebusites of the hill of 
Zion, and dwells there, 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



1 Sam. 22:1; 
Psa. 142 ; 

2 Sam. 22:1, 2; 
IChr. 12:8-18; 
2Sam.23: 13-17; 
IChr. 11: 15-19. 
1 Sam. 22:3-19; 
Psa. 52, 109, 17, 

140, 35, 64. 
1 Sam. 23:1; 

22:20-23; 

23:6,2-5,7-12; 
Psa. 31. 

ISam. 23:13-23; 
Psa. 54 ; 
1 Sam. 23:24-28. 
ISam. 23:29; 24; 
Psa. 57, 58, 63. 
1 Sam. 25. 
1 Sam. 26. 

IChr. 12:1-7. 

ISam. 27:8-12. 



1 Sam. 28. 
1 Sam. 29. 
1 Chr. 12 : 19- 
22. 



1 Sam. SO. 

1 Sam. 31 ; 
IChr. 10:1-14. 

2 Sam. 1:1-16. 
2 Sam. 1:17-27. 



2 Sam. 2:1-7. 
2 Sam. 2:8-11. 
2 Sam. 12:32; 

3; 4. 
2 Sam. 5:1-3; 

23 : 8-12, 18- 

39; 5:4, 5, 

6-10 ; 
IChr. 11:1-3; 

12:23-40; 

11:10-14, 20, 

26-47, 4-9. 



.510 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD IV. — CONTINUED. 



DATE AXD PLACE. 



B. C. 

1048. 



1046, from Kir- 
jath Jearim to 
house of Obed- 
edom, thence 
to Zion, Psa. 
132. 



1041. 



1038-1037, 
Medeba. 



1036 and 1034, 
Jerusalem. 



1033. 

1031. 
1028. 

1025. 
1024. 



1024, Bahurim. 
Jerusalem. 



Mahanahn, 65 

miles N. E. of 
Ephraim. 

Jerusalem. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



Hiram of T}T:e congratulates David ; Dav 
family ; he twice defeats the Philistines, 



.'id's j 



David removes the ark ; Uzzah, not being a j 
Levite, smitten for touching the ark, (see - 
Num. 4:15,) 



David forbidden to build the temple ; great 
blessings promised him ; his prayer and -j 
thanksgiving, 



Victories over Philistia, Moab, Syria, and Edom 

David's kindness to Mephibosheth, - • 

David defeats Ammon and Syria, 



•1 



Siege of Kabbah : 
der, - - 



David's adultery and mur- 



Birth of Solomon ; Amnon, David's eldest son, 
force th his sister Tamar, David's only daugh- 
ter ; David fails to punisli this injury, 

Absalom kills Amnon, and flees, 



Absalom brought back, and restored to his 
father's presence, 



Absalom raises a revolt against David, 

David and his followers flee ; Zadok and Abia- 
thar sent back with the ark ; Hushai desired 
by David to join himself to Absalom to cir- 
cumvent Ahithophel's counsels, 

Ziba's treachery to Mephibosheth ; Shimei 
curses David, - 

Hushai defeats Ahithophel's counsel ; Ahitho- 
phel hangs himself, 



David furnished with 
Barzillai, 



provisions, chiefly by 



Absalom defeated and slain by Joab, 

David returns ; Shimei pardoned ; Mephibosheth 
exposes Ziba's treachery ; David's gratitude to 

Barzillai,- - 

.51 



2 Sam. 5:11-25, 

13-17 ; 
IChr. 14:1-17. 
2 Sam. 6:1-11; 

6:12-23; 
Psa. 68, 132, 

105, 96, 106 ; 
IChr. 13:1-4, 

6-14; 15:1- 

16:43, 6-24. 
2 Sam. 7 ; 

1 Chr. 17 ; 
Psa. 2, 45, 22, 

16, 118, 110. 

2 Sam. 8 ; 

1 Chr. 18 ; 
Psa. 60. 108. 

2 Sam. 9. 

2 Sam. 10 ; 

1 Chr. 19 ; 
Psa. 20, 21. 

2 Sam. 11:1; 
11:2-12, 23; 
26-31 ; 

1 Chr. 20:1,8; 
Psa. 51, 32, 33, 

103. 

2 Sam. 12, 24, 
25; 13:1-22. 

2 Sam. 13:23-39. 
2 Sam. 14 : 1-7, 

15-17, 8-14, 

18-33. 
2 Sam. 15:1-12. 

2 Sam. 15:13-27; 
Psa. 3. 

2Sam. 16:1-14; 

Psa. 7. 

2 Sam. 16 : 15- 
23; 17:1-26. 

2 Sam. 17:27-29; 

Psa. 42, 43, 55, 
4, 5, 62, 143, 
144, 70, 71. 

2 Sam. 18. 



2 Sam. 19; 20:3. 

1 



CHROXOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD IV.— CONTINUED. 



DATE AXD PLACE. 



B. C. 

1023. 
1021. 

1019. 



1018. 



1016, 
Jerusalem. 



1016, Gibeon, 

Jih, 17 m. N. w. 

of Gilgal. 

1015, 

Jerusalem. 



Tyre, Tsur. 

1012, 

Jerusalem. 



EVEXT OR narrativt:. 



Revolt of Sheba, (at Abel,) 

The three years' famme, ---• 

jLast Avars with the Philistines ; David's praise 
for victories, his enemies subdued, 



David, in pride, numbers Israel ; the plague, — 



David prepares materials, and instructs Solomon 
as to the building of the temple, ■ 

Adonij all's rebellion ; Solomon anointed and 
proclaimed David's successor ; Adonijah sub 
mits, -■» -- ■ 

David arranges the courses of the priests, etc. , - - 

Arrangement of the state officers, 

David calls a solemn assembly, and exhorts 
both them and Solomon to the work of the 
temple ; the offerings of the princes and peo- 
ple ; David's thanksgiving ; Solomon ac- 
knowledged as king, 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



David's final charge to Solomon ; directs Joab 
and Shimei to be put to death ; David's last 
words; his death, 



Psalms of David, of which the date and occa- 
sion are not known, — • 



VII. THE REIGN OF SOLOMON, 40 YEARS. 

Solomon's burnt-offering ; God giving him a 
choice, he asks for wisdom ; wealth and honor \ 
added to him, 

Solomon's wise judgment, 

Adonijah and Joab put to death ; Abiathar de 
posed ; Shimei not to leave Jerusalem, 

Solomon obtains materials and men for the J 
building of the temple, | 

Shimei put to death for going to Gath, 

Solomon marries Pharaoh's daughter, - 



2 Sam. 20:1, 2, 

4-26. 
2 Sam. 21:1-14. 
2 Sam. 21:15-22; 

22:2-51 ; 
IChr. 20:4-8; 
Psa. 18. 
2 Sam. 24:1-9; 

10-25 ; 
IChr. 21:1-5; 

27:23,24; 

21-.6,7,8-30. 

1 Chr. 22. 



IKin. 1:1-4 
1 Chr. 23-26. 
1 Chr. 27:1-22, 
25-34. 

1 Chr. 28:11- 
21 ; 29:1-25; 

Psa. 72, 91, 145. 

IKin. 2:1-9; 

2 Sam. 23:1-7; 
IChr. 29:26-30; 
IKin. 2:10, 11. 
Psa. 6, 8, 12, 19, 

23, 24, 28, 29, 
38-41, 61, 65, 
69, 78, 86, 95, 
101,104,120-- 
122,124,131, 
133, 139. 



IKin. 2:12; 

3:4-15; 
2 Chr. 1:1-5, 6- 

12. 
IKin. 3:15-28; 
2 Chr. 1:13. 

IKin. 2:13-38. 
IKin. 5:1-18; 
2 Chr. 2:1-18, 
1 Kin. 2:39-46. 
1 Kin. 3:1-3. 



512 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD lY. — CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



1012-1005, 
1 Kin. 6:1-37. 



1005, 
Jerusalem. 



1002. 



1001, 
Jerusalem. 



993, Jerusalem. 

980-977. 
977. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



The building of the temple, 



The dedication of the temple, 



Other buildings of Solomon ; God makes a cov- 
enant with him, 



Acquisitions of Solomon ; he carries out Da- 
vid's arrangements for the temple services, - 

Pharaoh's daughter brought by Solomon to his 

new palace, - - 

Solomon's song, 



The greatness of Solomon, 



The wisdom of Solomon,- 



Solomon's fame ; visit of the queen of Sheba, 



I 
Hadad 



Solomon's Avives seduce him into idolatry 
and Rezon stirred up against him, 

Ahijah predicts to Jeroboam the division of the 
kingdom ; Solomon seeks to kill Jeroboam, 
who flees into Egypt, 

Solomon writes Ecclesiastes, or the Preacher, \ 

probably as an expression of repentance, } 

976, Jerusalem. Death of Solomon ; Rehoboam his son sue- \ 

ceeds. ] 

22* 51 



i Kin. 6 : 1-8, 
15-36; 7:13- 
50; 6:9-14, 
37,38; 7:51; 

2Chr. 3:1-9, 3, 
4, 22, 10-14; 
3:15 to 4:22; 
6:1. 

1 Kin. 8 : 1-11, 
62-64, 12-61, 
65, 66 ; 

2 Chr. 5 : 2-14 ; 
7:4-7; 6; 7:3, 
8, 10; 

Psa. 47. 97-100, 

135, 136. 
1 Kin. 7 : 1-12 ; 

9 : 1-9 • 
2Chr. 7:11-22. 

1 Kin. 9:10-14, 
15-25 ; 

2 Chr. 8 : 1-10, 
12-16. 

1 Kin. 9:24; 

2 Chr. 8:11. 
Song 1-8. 

1 Kin. 4 : 1-28, 
2-19; 10:26; 
9:26-28; 
10:14-25,27- 
29. 

2 Chr. 9:26, 25 
1 : 14 ; 8 : 17 
18; 9:13-21 
24; 1:15-17 
9:27, 28. 

IKin. 4:29-33 
2 Chr. 9:22; 
Prov. 1-31; 5 
6:24-35; 7. 

1 Kin. 4:34; 
10:1-13; 

2 Chr. 9:23, 1- 
12. 

IKm. 11:1-25. 



IKin. 11:26-40. 
Eccl. 1-12; 3- 

11:8. 
IKin. 11:41-43; 
2 Chr. 9:29-31. 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD IV. — CONTINUED. 



DATE AXD PLACE. 



976, Shechera. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



Vin. DIVISION OF THE KINGDOM. 

On the accession of Rehoboam, the people, ) 
headed by Jeroboam, demand a relaxation > 
of burdens, ) 

Acting upon tlie advice of the j'oung men in- ) 
stead of the old men, Ilehoboam refuses the >- 
request of the people, -- ) 

Ten tribes revolt ; Judah and Benjamin ad- 
here to Rehoboam, and form the kingdom 
of Judah, -- 

ITie ten tribes make Jeroboam their king, and 
form the kingdom of Israel, 



BIBLE EEFEREXCE. 



1 Kin. 12 : 1-5 
2Chr. 10:1-5. 

IKin. 12:6-15; 
2Chr. 10:6-15. 

IKin. 12:16-19 

2 Chr. 10:16-19 

1 Kin. 12-20. 



PERIOD Y. 

FROM THE DEATH OF SOLOMON TO THE CLOSE OF THE OLD 
TESTAMENT CANON.* 

I. HISTORY OF THE TWO KINGDOMS. 



JUDAII. 

REHOBOAM king 17 years, 1 Kings 
14:21,/. jo., (Judah;) 2 Chr. 12:13, 
/.p., (reigned.) 

Rehoboam, preparing to attack the ten 
tribes, is forbidden by Shemaiah, 
1 Kin. 12:21-24 ; 2 Chr. 11:1-4. 

Rehoboam fortifies his kingdom ; the 
priests and Levites of Israel resort 
to him ; Rehoboam's family, 2 Chr. 
11:5-23. 



Rehoboam and Judah' s idolatry, 1 Kin. 

14:22-24; 2 Chr. 12:1. 
Shishak plunders Jerusalem, 1 Kin. 

14:25-28; 2 Chr. 12:2-12. 

Character and death of Rehoboam, 

1 Kin. 14:21, I. p. 29-31 ; 2 Chron. 
12:13, Z.J3. 14-16. 

ABIJAH, or ABU AM, king 3 years, 

IKin. 15:1, 2, 6; 2 Chr. 13:1, 2. 
Abijah defeats Jeroboam in battle, 

2 Chr. 13:3-21. 
His heart not perfect. 



B. c. 
976 



)74 



973 
972 



958 



ISRAEL. 

JUROBOAMUng 22 years ; he estab- 
lishes himself at Shechem, 1 Kings 
12:25. 



Jeroboam, having set up golden calves 
at Dan and Bethel, is reproved by a 
man of God, 1 Kin. 12:26-33 ; 13:1- 
10. 

Seduced by an old prophet of Bethel, 
the man of God disobeys the word 
of the Lord, and is slain by a lion, 
IKin. 13:11-32. 

These calves borrowed from Egypt, 
where Jeroboam had resided. 

Twice warned by the man of God and 
by Ahijah, yet persisting in his idol- 
atry. 

The step seemed politic. It seemed a form 
of worship something like that establish- 
ed at Jerusalem, and attracted the tribes, 
but in the end it proved the ruin of the 
kingdom. 



* The names of new kings are here printed in capitals ; and if founders of new d^rnastief , 
in italic capitals. 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD Y 



CONTINUED. 



Character and death of Abijah. ASA 
king 41 years, 1 Kin. 15 : 3-10 ; 2 Chr 
13:22; 14:1. 



Asa puts away idolatry, and strength- 
ens his kingdom, 1 Kin. 15:11-15: 
2 Chr. 14:2-8; 15:16-18. 

Asa's victory over the Ethiopians, 
2 Chr. 14:9-15. 

Moved by Azariah, Asa makes a sol- 
emn covenant with God, 2 Chr 
15:1-15, 19. 

Asa bribes Ben-hadad king of Syria to 
attack Baasha, 1 Kin. 15:16-22. 

Asa, reproved by Hanani for applying 
to Ben-hadad, puts him in prison, 
2 Chr. 16:7-10. 

His idolatrous alliance with Syria, and his 
imprisonment of the prophet, after all 
his reformations, prove his ruin. 



Asa's death. JEHOSHAPHAT king 
25 years ; his piety and prosperity, 
1 Kin. 15:23, 24; 22:41-47 ; 2 Chr. 
16:11-14; 17:1; 20:31-33; 17.2- 
19 ; compare ver. 6 and 20:33. 

His great error is his alliance with Ahab, 
whose daughter Athaliah his son Jeho 
ram marries. Hence his expedition to 
Eamoth, which nearly cost him his life. 



jehoshaphat visits Ahab, and joins 
with him in battle against the Syr- 
ians, 2 Chr. 18. 

Jehoshaphat reproved by Jehu for 
joining with Ahab. He visits his 
kingdom, and exhorts the judges, 
etc., to be faithful, 2 Chr. 19 ; Psa. 
82, 



B. C. ISRAEL. 

957 lAhijah denounces Jeroboam, 1 Kin. 
956 13:33, 34; 14:1-18. 



955 
953 

951 

944 
942 

941 



931 
930 



926 



917 
914 



910 
to 
906 

902 
and 
901 
900 

898 



Jeroboam's death. NADAB king 2 
years, 1 Kin. 14:19, 20; 15:25, 26. 

Nadab slam at Gibbethon. BAASHA 
king 24 years, 1 Kin. 15:27-34. 



Baasha, attempting to build Ramah, 
is attacked by the king of Syria. 
2 Chr. 16:1-6. 



Baasha denounced by Jehu ; his death. 
ELAH king 2 years, 1 Kin. 16:1-8. 

Elah slain. ZIMRI king 7 days ; de- 
stroys Baasha' s house. Omri elect- 
ed king. Zimri destroys himself, 
IKin 16:9-20. 

OJ/jB/king 12 years, including 6 years' 
civil war with Tibni. Samaria built, 
1 Kin. 16:21-26. 

Omri dies. AHAB king 22 years. Jer- 
icho rebuilt by Hiel, who reaps Josh- 
ua's curse, 1 Kin. 16:27-34. 

1 Kin. 16 :'25. Compare Mic. 6 :26 : 1 Kin. 
16:34; Josh. 6:26. 

Elijah prophesies a famine ; raises the 
widow's son ; his trial with the 
prophets of Baal. Elisha a prophet, 
1 Kin 17-19. 

Ben-hadad besieges Samaria. The S)rr- 
ians twice defeated. Ahab denounc- 
ed, 1 Kin. 20. 

Ahab seizes Naboth's vineyard. Eli- 
jah denounces him, 1 Kin. 21. 

Ahab makes war on Syria, and is slain, 
as Micaiah predicted. AHAZIAH 
kmg, 1 Kin. 22:1-35, 36-40, 51-53. 

Ver. 39. See Amos 3: 15. 



Psa. 82 placed here from internal evidence, 
I (Towns.) 

.'.1.5 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD v.— CONTINUED 



JUDAH. 

Overthrow of Moab, etc. Jehoram 
regent, 2 Chr. 20 : 1-30 ; Psa. 115 
46. 

Jehoshaphat joins Ahaziah. Being 
reproved, and his ships wrecked, he 
refuses to join in a subsequent ex- 
pedition, 1 Kin. 22 : 48, 49 ; 2 Chr. 
20:35, 37. 

Afterwards joins Joram against Moab, 
and is saved only by a miracle, 
2 Kin. 3. 
On 2 Chr. 20 :13 ; see Joel 2 :16. 



2 Kin. 9:2, 13. Read, therefore, in 1 Kin. 
19 : 16, grandson ; and by Elijah anoint- 
ing Jehu , understand ordering Elisha to 
do it. Jehu was anointed to exterminate 
the house of Ahab. 

Jehoram begins to reign in concert 
with Jehoshaphat, 2 Kin. 8:16. 

2 Chr. 21 : 5. Three dates are given for the 
beginning of Jehoram's reign : b. c. 897, 
when he was regent during his father's 
absence, 2 Kin. 1 :17 ; 3:1; 891, 2 Kin. 
8 : 16 •, and 883. 

Death of Jehoshaphat. JEHORAM, 
or JORAM, king 8 years ; his wick- 
ed and troubled reign. Elijah's let- 
ter, written before his translation, 
brought to him, 1 Kin. 22 : 45, 50 ; 
2 Kin. 8:17-22 ; 2 Chr. 20:34; 21:1- 
18. 

Ahaziah begins to reigii as viceroy to 
his father, 2 Kin. 9:29. 

Death of Jehoram. AHAZIAH king 
one year ; his evil reign, 2 Kin. 8 : 23- 
27; 2 Chr. 21:19, 20; 22:1-4. 

Ahaziah joins Joram against Hazael, 
and afterwards visits him at Jezreel, 
2 Kin. 8:28, 29. 

Ahaziah slain by Jehu, 2 Chr. 22:7-9. 
ATIIALIAH usurps the throne 6 years. 

Joash the son of Ahaziah rescued. 

2 Kin. 11:1-3; 2 Chr. 22 : 10-12. 

516 



B. C. 

897 



894 



893 
892 



891 



890 



to 
887 



886 
885 

884 

883 



Psa. 115 and 46. The schools of the proph- 
ets, (Naioth,) ISam. 10:10 ; 19 :20 ; 2Kin. 
2:2, seem to have trained at this time a 
large number of religious teachers. 



Ahaziah falling sick and sending to in- 
quire of Baalzebub, is denounced by 
Elijah. JEHORAM, or JORAM, his 
brother, king 12 years, 2 Kin. 1 ; 
3:1-3. 

Elijah translated. Elisha acknow- 
ledged as his successor ; his mira- 
cles, 2 Kin. 2. 

Joram, joined by Jehoshaphat and the 
king of Edom, defeats Moab, 2 Kin. 
3:4-27. 

Elisha multiplies the widow's oil ; 
promises a son to the Shunammite, 
2 Kin. 4:1-17. 

Naaman healed, 2 Kin. 5. 

Elisha causes iron to swim ; discloses 
the Syrian king's purpose, and smites 
his anny with blindness, 2 Kin. 6:1- 
23. 

Ben-hadad besieges Samaria ; severe 
famme ensues ; plenty restored by 
the sudden flight of the Syrians, 
2 Kin. 6:24-33; 7. 

Elisha raises to life the widow's son ; 
other miracles, 2 Kings 4 : 18-44 ; 
8:1,2. 

2 Kin. 4 :44. This is Elisha's twelfth mir- 
acle, Elijah having wrought six. Town-, 
send places 4 : 18 after 4 : 17 ; but there is 
clearly an interval of two years or so be- 
tween them. 



Return of the Shunammite. Hazael 
kills Ben-hadad, and becomes, as 
Elisha predicted, king of Syria, 
2 Kin. 8:3-15. 

Joram being wounded in battle by the 
Syrians, retires to Jezreel, 2 Chron. 
22:5, 6. 

Jehu anointed, 2 Kin. 9:1-13. 

Joram slain by Jehu, 2 Kin. 9:14-28. 

JEHU king 28 years ; slays Jezebel, 
Ahab's sons, Ahaziah' s brethren, 
and Baal's worshippers, 2 Kings 
9:30-37; 10:1-31. 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD v. — CONTINUED. 



JUDAH. 

JEHOASH, or JOASH, king 40 years. 
Athaliah slain, 2 Kings 11 : 4-12 : 
2Chr. 23-24:3. 



Joash repairs the temple, 2 Kin. 12:4- 

16; 2Chr. 24:4-14. 
Death of Jehoiada, 2 Chr. 24:15, IG. 



Joash and the people fall into idola- 
try ; Zechariah, reproving them, is 
slain in the temple-court, {cf. Matt. 
23:35.) The Syrians invade Judah, 
2 Chr. 24:17-24 ; 2 Kin. 12:17, 18. 

Joash slain by his servants. AMA- 
ZIAH king 29 years, 2 Kin. 12:19- 
21 ; 14 : 1-6 ; 2 Chron. 24 : 25-27 ; 
25:1-4. 



Amaziah hires an army of Israelites to 
assist him against Edom, but at a 
prophet's command he sends them 
back, 2 Chr. 25:5-10. 

Amaziah smites the Edomites and wor- 
ships their gods, 2 Chron. 25 : 11 ; 
2 Kin. 14:7 ; 2 Chr. 25:12, 14-16. 

Amaziali provokes the king of Israel 
to battle, and is taken prisoner by 
Mm, 2 Kin. 14:8-14. 



Amaziah slain. UZZIAH, or AZA- 
RIAH, king 52 years. During the 
days of Zechariah he reigns well. 



2 Kin. 14 : 17- 
25:25; 26:15. 



15 : 1-4 ; 2 Chr. 



Amos 7 : 10-19, Lightfoot and others place 
after 2 Kin. 14 : 28. 



B. C. 

877 



860 

855 

850 
849 
842 

841 

840 



838 



886 
827 



826 

823 
822 



to 
800 



801 
793 



Hazael oppresses Israel, 2 Kin. 10:32, 

33. 
Death of Jehu. JEHOAHAZ king 17 

years, 2 Kin. 10:34-36 ; 13:1, 2. 
History of Jonah. Jon. 1-4. 
Israel given over by God to Hazael 

and Ben-hadad, and delivered, 2 Kin. 

13:1-7. 
Jehoash begins to reign in concert with 

Jehoahaz, 2 Kin. 13 : 10. 



Death of Jehoahaz. JEHOASH, or 
JOASH, king 16 years. He visits 
Elisha, who promises three victo- 
ries. Hazael dies, 2 Kin. 13 : 8, 9, 
II, 14-19, 22-24. 

Elisha dies. A corpse thrown into 
Elisha' s sepulchre revives, 2 Kin. 
13:20, 21. 

Jehoash thrice beats the Syrians, 2 Kin. 
13:25. 



Tlie Israelites, who had been dismissed 
by Amaziah, plunder the cities of 
Judah as they return, 2 Chr. 25:13. 



Jehoash defeats the king of Judah, 
and plunders the temple, 2 Chron. 
25:17-24. 

Death of Jehoash. JEROBOAM II. 
king 41 years ; he reigns wickedly, 
2 Kin. 13:12, 13 ; 14:15, 16, 23, 24. 

Jeroboam restores the coast of Israel,' 
according to the word of Jonah, 
2 Kin. 14:25-27. 



Hosea makes his first appeal to the ten 
tribes, Hos. 1-3. 

Amos denounces judgment against the 
surrounding nations, and against 
Isi-ael and Judah, Amos 1-9, 
517. 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD Y. CONTINUED. 



JUDAII. 

On the increase of Uzziah's army, Joel 
foretells the overthrow of Judah, 
Joel 1-3. 



The three children have names given to 
them, indicating the place of the wiclied- 
ness of the house of Ahab, (ver. 4 ; see 
1 Kin. 21 : 1 ;) their punishment, not find- 
ing mercy in calamity ; and their rejec- 
tion, no longer the people of God. They 
are, however, to be gathered again un- 
der the Messiah, their one Head, ver. 11 ; 
ver. 7, see 2 Kin. 19:35. 



TFzziali struck with leprosy for invad- 
ing the priest's office. Jotham re- 
gent, 2 Kin. 15 : 5 ; 2 Chr. 26 : 16- 
20, 21. 

2 Kin. 15 : 5, several, that is, lone or sepa- 
rate. 

Isaiah designated in a vision to the 
prophetic office. He prophesies of 
Christ's kingdom, and of judgment 
on the people for their sins, Isa. 
1:1; 6:2-5. 

Death of Uzziah. JOTHAM king 16 
years ; his prosperity, 2 Kin. 15 : 6, 
7, 32-35; 2 Chr. 26:22, 23 ; 27:1-6. 

Micah reproves the wickedness of Ju- 
dah, Mic. 1, 2. 



Judah begins to be afflicted by Syria 
and Israel. Death of Jotham, 
2 Kin. 15:36-38 ; 2 Chr. 27:7-9. 

AHAZ king 16 years, 2 Kin. 16:1-4; 
2 Chr. 28:1-4. 

Invasion of Pekah and Rezin. Isaiah 
prophesies on the occasion, denounc- 
ing Ahaz's intended alliance with 
Assyria, 2 Kings 16 : 5 ; Isa. 7-9 ; 
10:1-4. 

Isaiah prophesies the ruin of Damas- 
cus and of the ten tribes, Isa. 17. 

Judah devastated by Syria and Israel ; 
the latter restore their captives, by 
advice of Oded, 2 Chr. 28:5-15. 

Ahaz, being assailed by enemies, hires 

Tiglath-pileser the king of Assyria 

518 



3. C. 

787 



783 

771 
770 

769 

765 
761 
759 
757 

756 
753 

742 



740 
740 



ISRAEL. 
: 3, see 2 Kin. 16 : 9 ; ver. 6, see 2 Kin.18 : 8 ; 
1 : 8, see 2 Chron. 26 : 6 •, ver. 11, see Num. 
20:14 5 5:27, see 2 Kin. 10:32; 17:6. 

Death of Jeroboam, 2 Kin. 14:28, 29. 

An interregnum for eleven years. 
State of Israel during the interreg- 
num. Hosea denounces judgment, 

Hos. 4. 
ZECHAEIAH, fourth from Jehu, king 

six months. Shallum slays him, 

2 Kin. 15:8-12. 
SHALL UM king one month. Mena- 

hem slays him, 2 Kin. 15:13-15. 
3IENAHEM king 10 years, 2 Kings 

15:16-18. 
Pul of Assyria, coming against Israel, 

is bribed to return, 2 Kin. 15 : 19, 

20. 



Death of Menahem. PEKAHIAH king 
2 years, 2 Kin. 15:21-24. 

Pekahiah slain by Pekah. PEKAH 
king 20 years, 15:25-28. 

Isa. 1:1. 

Isa. 7-10:4. On the order, compare 7:1 
with 2 Kin. 16 : 5. 

Isa. 1 :2-31. On order, see ver. 7, 8, com- 
pared with 2 Chr. 28 :6-9. 

Isa. 6 : 1 , see John 12 : 41. 

Isa. 6 : 13, see 2 Kin. 25 :12. 

Isa. 2:19, see Rev. 6:15. 

2 Chr. 27 :2, see chap 26 :19. 

Isa. 7 :8, see 2 Kin. 17 :24. 

Keign of Ahaz, 15 years. 

" Hezekiah, 29 " 

" Manasseh II., ---21 " 

65 " 
Isa. 7: 16, see 2 Kin. 15:29. 
Isa. 8 :1, a man's pen, that is, common writ- 
ing ; see Kev. 13 :18 ; 21 : 17. 
Mic. 1:5, seel Kin. 16:32. 
Mic. 1: 13, see Jer. 34:7. 



Isa. 17 see 2 Kin. 16 : 9 ; 18 : 11. 



Tiglath-pileser ravages Gilead, Gali- 
lee, and Naphtali, and carries cap- 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD V. CONTINUED. 



JUDAH. j 

against them. Obadiah and Isaiah, 
2 Kin. 16:6-9 ; 2 Chr. 28:16, 21, 17- 
20; Chad. ; Isa. 1:2-31; 28. 
Sacrilege and idolatry of Ahaz, 2 Chr. 
28:22-25; 2 Kin. 16 : 10-18 ; Rosea 
5,6. 



Death of Ahaz, 2 Kings 16 : 19, 20 ; 
2 Chr. 28:26, 27 ; Isa. 14:28-32. 

HEZEKIAH king 29 years, 2 Kings 
18:1, 2; 2 Chr. 29:1. 

Reformation by Hezekiah, 2 Kings 
18:3-6; 2 Chr. 29:2-36; 30, 31. 

Moab denounced, Isa. 15, 16. 

Micah supports Hezekiah' s reforma- 
tion, Mic. 3-7. 

See Jer. 26:18 5 ^ic. 3:9. 



Hezekiah' s prosperity, 2 Kin. 18:7, 8. 



Prophecy of the restoration of the ten 
tribes, of the punishment of Egypt, 
and conversion of Egypt and As- 
syria, Isa. 18, 19. 



'38 



730 



•26 



723 



ISRAEL. 

tive their inhabitants to Assyria, 
2 Kin. 15:29. 
Isa. 5:21, see 2 Sam. 5 :20. 

Pekah slain by Hoshea, 2 Kin. 15 : 30, 
31. 

Anarchy for nine years. 

HOSHEA king 9 years. Shalmaneser 
king of Assyria invades his territory 
and makes him a tributary, 2 Kin. 
17:1-3. 

Isa. 14:28-32, against Philistia, see 2 Chr. 
26:6. Ahab, who subdued them, was 
dead ; but a cockatrice out of that nest, 
Hezekiah, was still to bite them, 2 Kin. 
18:8. 

Isa. 15. The destruction of Moab by Shal- 
maneser foretold. They are exhorted to 
renew their tribute, 16 :1. See 2 Kings 
3:4. 

Hoshea attacked and imprisoned by 
Shalmaneser for not giving the trib- 
ute. Hosea predicts the captivity 
of the ten tribes, and exhorts to re- 
pentance, 2 Kin. 17:4; Hos. 7-14. 

Shalmaneser besieges Samaria, 2 Kin, 

17:5; 18:9. 
The ten tribes carried into captivity 

unto Assyria, 2 Kings 17 : 6-23 ; 

18:10-12. 



II. HISTORY OF JUDAH TO THE CAPTIVITY, 114 YEARS. 



DATE AND PtACE. 



B. C. 

715. 
714. 

713, Judea. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



Tyre denounced, Isa. 23. Prophecy concerning 
the invasion by Assyria, 

Tlae desolation and recovery of Judea predicted, 
etc., ^ 

Isaiah predicts the invasion by Assyria and the 
destruction of Babylon. Sennacherib comes 
up against Judah, but being pacified by a trib- \ 
ute, retires. Isaiah denounces Egypt, and | 



warns Jerusalem, 



BIBLE REFERENCM. 



Isa. 10:5; 

14:27. 
Isa. 24; 26:17, 

18; 27. 
Isa. 22 : 1-14 ; 

21; 
2 Kin. 18:13-16; 
2 Chr. 32:1-8; 
Isa. 36 : 1 ; 20 ; 

29-31. 
q 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE 

PERIOD y. CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



Jerusalem. 



712. 
'12, Jerusalem. 



'11, Judea. 



710-699. 
697, Jerusalem. 

678, Samaria. 

677, Babylon. 

642, Jerusalem. 

640. 



634. 
628. 

623, Jerusalem. 



623. 
622, Jerusalem. 

612. 

612. 
611. 



EVENT OR NARRATJA'E. 



Sickness of Hezekiali ; his song of thanksgiv- 
ing. Isaiali predicts the blessings of Christ's 
kingdom, and judgments of the enemies of 
Ziou, 



Nineveh denounced by Nahum, ■ 

Hezekiah showing in pride to the ambassadors 
from Babylon his treasures, Isaiah predicts 
the Babylonian captivity, 



Second invasion of Sennacherib ; destruction of 
his army, 



Various prophecies of Isaiah, 

Hezekiah' s wealth ; his death. Manasseii king 
fifty-five years ; his awful impiety ; judgment - 
denounced by God' s prophets, ------ 



Isaiah predicts the captivity of Shebna, - — 

The heathen nations, who had been transplanted 
to Samaria in place of the Israelites, being 
plagued by lions, make a mixture of religions, - 

Manasseh taken captive by the king of Assyria ; 
his conversion and restoration ; he puts down 
idolatry, -- 

Death of Manasseh. Amon king two years ; his J 
impiety, ( 



Amon slain by his servants, 
ty-one years, - 



JosiAii king thir- 



Josiah vigorously puts down idolatry, 

Jeremiah called ; he expostulates with the Jews, 

on account of their sins, - 

Josiah provides for the repair of the temple, f 

The Book of the Law having been found, J 

Josiah consults Huldah ; he causes it to be 1 

read publicly, and renews the covenant, [ 

Zephaniah exhorts to repentance, 

A most solemn celebration of the Passover by j 

Josiah, - I 

Jeremiah reproves the backsliding of the peo- j 

pie, and bewails the coming captivity, "j 

Habakkuk predicts judgment, 

Jeremiah exhorts the people to repentance, and 

laments their approaching calamities. - - - 

20 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 

iTKiti. 20 : 1-6, 

8, 9-11, 7 ; 
Isa. 38:1-6, 22, 

7,8,21,9-20; 
2Chr. 32:24; 
Isa. 32-35. 
Nah. 1-3. 
2 Kin. 20: 12- 19; 
Isa. 39; 

2 Chr. 32:25,26. 
2 Kin. 18: 17-37, 

26-28; 19:1- 

37. 
Psa. 44, 73, 75, 

76; 
Isa. 36:2, 11-22; 

37:1-38; 
2 Chr. 32:9-21^ 

23. 
Isa. 40-66 ; 

57:3-9. 
2 Kin. 20: 20, 21; 

21:1-16; 
2 Chr. 32:27-33; 

33:1-10. 
Isa. 22:15-25. 



2 Kin. 17:24-41. 



2 Chr. 33: 11-17. 
2 Kin. 21: 17-22; 
2Chr. 33:18-23. 
2 Kin. 21: 23-26; 

22:1 2; 
2 Chr. 33: 24,25; 

34:1, 2. 
2 Chr. 34:3-7. 

Jer. 1:2; 3:1-5. 

2 Kin. 22:8-20; 
23:1-3,4-20; 

2Chr. 34:8,2&- 
33. 

Zeph. 1, 2, 3. 

2 Kin. 23:21-27; 

2 Chr. 35:1-19. 

Jer. 3:6-11, 12- 
25; 4-6. 

Hab. 1-3. 



ler. 7-10. 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD Y. — CONTIxVUED. 



DATE AXD PLACE. 



:b. C. 
610. 



009, Megiddo 
and Jerusalem. 



Eiblah. 



606. 



Jerusalem. 
606. 



E\"EXT OR NARUATIATE. 



BIBLE REFEREXCE. 



Jeremiah reminds tlie j)eople of tlie covenant of 
Josiah,- 



Josiah slain in battle with the king of Egypt. 
Jeremiah and tlie people lament him. Jeho- 
AHAZ king three months, 



Jehoahaz deposed and imprisoned by Pharaoh 
Necho, and subsequently taken to Egypt 
Jehoiakim king eleven years, 

Jeremiah delivers various predictions, and appeals 
to the Jews respecting the captivity and destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem, - 

Jeremiah predicts the fate of Pashur, Jer. 20 : of 
Shallum, that is, Jehoahaz, and Jehoiakim, — 

Apprehension and arraignment of Jeremiah, 

Jeremiah predicts the overthroAV of the army of 
Pharaoh-Necho king of Egypt, by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, - - 

The obedience of the Rechabites to their father 
contrasted with the disobedience of the Jews, - - 

Jeremiah predicts the captivity of the Jews for 
seventy years, and the subsequent judgment 
on Babylon, - - 

Jeremiah desires Baruch to write his prophecies 
on a roll, and then to read it publicly in the 
temple, - - 

Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, and puts Je- "] 
hoiakim in fetters, intending to take him to ! 
Babylon, but afterwards releasing him, makes [ 
him a tributary, and spoils the temple, J 

Nebuchadnezzar orders the master of his eunuchs 
to select and send to Babylon some of the royal 
family and nobility, to stand in the king's pal- 
ace. Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, 
(otherwise called Belteshazzar, Shadrach, Me- 
shach, and Abednego,) are taken there, 



Jer. 11 ; 15, 12. 
2 Kin. 23: 29, 80, 

28, 30 L p., 

31, 32 ; 
2 Chr. 35:20-27; 

36:1, 2. 
2 Kin. 23 : 33- 

37; 
2 Chr. 36:3-5. 



Jer. 13-19. 

Jer. 22:1-23. 
Jer. 26. 



Jer. 46:1-12. 
Jer. 35. 



Jer. 25. 



Jer. 36: 1-8; 45. 

2 Kin. 24:1; 
2 Chr. 36:6,7; 
Dan. 1:1, 2. 



Dan. 1,3, 4, 6, 7. 



ni. FROil THE FIRST CxVPTURE OF JERUSALEM, B. C. 606, TO THE DECREE 
OF CYRUS, FOR THE RESTORATION OF THE JEWS, B. C. 536—70 YEARS. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 

Babylon. 
605. 



603. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



EVENTS AT JERUSALEM, WITH CONTEM- 
PORANEOUS EVENTS AT BABYLON. 

Daniel meets with kindly treatment, 

Baruch again reads the prophetic roll ; Jehoiakim 
burns it, - - 

Jehoiakim rebels against Nebuchadnezzar, •] 



BIBLE REFEREXCE. 



Dan. 1:5, 8-17. 

Jer. 36:9-32. 
2Kin.24:n.ji>., 
24. 
2t 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD v. — CONTINUED. 



DATE A>T) PLACE. 



B. C. 

Babylon. 



599. 
699. 

597. 

595. 

Babylon. 

694. 

Babylon. 

593. 

Jerusalem. 
590. 



Babylon. 
Jerusalem. 

589. 
Babylon. 

Jerusalem. 



E\'ENT OR NARRATIVE. 



Daniel before Nebuchadnezzar, 

Interprets Nebuchadnezzar's dream, Dan. 2 ; de- 
scribing the Babylonian, 32, Medo-Persian, 32- 
39, Macedo-Grecian, 32-39, and Roman em- 
pires, 33, 40-43, with Messiah's kingdom, 34, 
35, 44, 45. 

Death of Jehoiakim. Jehoiachin or Jechoniah J 
king three months, | 

Second capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnez- "] 
zar. Jehoiachin is carried to Babylon, with I 
many of his subjects. Zedekiah or Matta- [ 
NiAH king eleven years, J 

Predictions of the duration of the captivity, - • 



Of the restoration of the Jews, -- 

Predictions against the surrounding nations. 
Hananiah the false prophet denounced, 

Prophecies against Babylon, - 

Ezekiel's vision in Babylon ; his commission, 
Ezek. 1-3:1-21. He prophesies of the mis- 
eries of Jerusalem, 

Visions of the idolatries which occasioned the 
captivity. - 

Various predictions against the false prophets, 
Jerusalem, and the Jewish nation, 

Prophecies addressed to the elders of the Jews, 



Zedekiah's rebellion and wickedness. 



The wickedness of priests and people, (the cause 
of the captivity, ver. 15, 16,) with a summary 
account of the judgments that followed, 



Nebuchadnezzar lays siege to Jerusalem for the 
third time, - 

Ezekiel foretells the destruction of Jerusalem, -- 
Capture of the city foretold. The people, at Jere- 
miah's word, release their Hebrew bond-servants, 
Jeremiah shut up in prison ; his predictions there, 
Ezekiel in Babylon, prophesies against Egypt, [ 

Ezek. 29: 1-16, and against Tyre, J 

The Chaldeans raise the siege to march against 
the approaching Egyptian army. Jeremiah 
predicts the destruction of the Philistines, ■ 
On the departure of the Chaldean army, the' 
people recall their bond-servants, for which 
Jeremiah denounces them, and predicts the 
speedy return of the Chakleans, 

522 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Dan. 1:18-21. 



2 Kin. 24:5-9; 
2Chr. 36:8, 9; 
Jer. 22 : 24-30 ; 
23. 

2Kin. 24: 10-19; 
2Chr. 36:10-12; 
Jer. 52:1, 2; 24. 

Jer. 29 : 1-14, 
16-20,15,21- 
32 

Jer. 30, 31. 

Jer. 27, 28, 48, 
49. 

Jer. 50, 51. 

Ezek. 3:22-27; 
4-7. 

Ezek. 8, 10, 11. 
Ezek. 12-19 ; 

16; 18:5-18. 
Ezek. 21-23. 
Jer. 37:1, 2; 
2 Kin. 24:20; 
2Chr. 36:13; 
Jer. 52:3. 



2Chr. 36: 14-21. 
2 Kin. 25:1; 
Jer. 39:1; 52:4; 

37:3,4. 
Ezek. 24. 

Jer. 34:1-10. 
Jer. 32, 33. 
Ezek. 26. 
See Isa. 23. 



Jer. 37:5; 47. 

Jer. 34:11-22; 
87:6-10 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD v.— CONTINUED. 



DATE ANT> PLACE. 



B. C. 

688. 



Babylon 
587. 



573. 
672. 

570. 

569. 
568-563. 

661. 

558. 
656. 

538. 

537. 



KVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



Jeremiah reimprisoned ; continues to denounce 
Zedekiah ; he is put into the dungeon of 
Malchiah, - - / 

Ezekiel, in Babylon, again prophesies against 
Egypt and Nineveh, '< 

Jerusalem finally taken. Zedekiah carried to 
Babylon. Jeremiah delivered, " 

Nebuzaradan burns the temple, and carries 
away the people, leaving a few poor persons - 
to till the land, 

Jeremiah bewails the desolation of his country, 

Gedaliah appointed governor. Jeremiah and j 
many others attach themselves to him, | 

Ishmael slays Gedaliah, and attempts to carry 
away the people to the Ammonites ; Johanan 
intercepts him ; the people, fearing the Chal- 
deans, flee into Egypt, contrary to the com- 
mand of God, 

Jeremiah prophesies against Egypt and the j 
idolatrous Jews,- - "j 

Brief summary of the captivities by Nebuchad 
nezzar, - 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



REMAINDER OF THE HISTORY OF THE 
JEWS IN CAPTIVITY— BABYLON. 

Ezekiel predicts the utter desolation of Judea, - - ■ 
Predictions against Aramon, Moab, Edom, Phi- 

listia. Tyre, and Egypt, — 

Ezekiel appeals to the captives, 

Evil rulers denounced ; restoration of the Jews 

promised ; predictions of Messiah's kingdom, 
Prophesies of the church and its enemies, and of 

the conversion of the Jews, 

Ezekiel' s vision of the future temple, - 

( 



Jer. 37 : 11-21 ; 
21; 38; 39:15- 
18. 
Ezek. 30:20-26; 

31. 
2Kin. 25:2,4-7; 
Jer. 52:5-7 ; 

39:2-7, 11-14. 
2 Kin. 25:8-21; 
Jer. 52:12-30; 

39:8-10. 
Psa. 74, 79, 83, 

94. 
Lam. 1-5. 
2 Kin. 25: 22-24; 
Jer. 40:1-16. 

2 Kin. 25 : 25, 

26; 
Jer. 41^3:1-7. 

Jer. 43:8-13; 
46:13-28; 44. 

Jer. 52:28-30. 



Last prediction against Egypt, 

Nebuchadnezzar sets up an image, 

Daniel interprets Nebuchadnezzar's second dream, 
The fulfilment of Nebuchadnezzar's dream, in his 

madness, and subsequent recovery, 

Evil-Merodach king of Babylon releases Jehoia 

chin, - 

Daniel's first vision of the living creatures, 

Belshazzar's feast. Babylon taken, 

Daniel's vision of the rain and he-goat, 

Daniel's prayer for the restoration of Jerusalem. 

Prophecy of the seventy Aveeks, 

Daniel cast into the den of lions, 



Ezek. 33:21-83. 
Ezek. 25, 27, 28, 

32. 

Ezek. 33:1-20. 
Ezek. 34-37, 17, 

last clause. 

Ezek. 38, 39. 
lEzek. 40-48. 
Ezek. 29:17-21; 

30:1-19. 
Dan. 3. 
Dan. 4:1-27. 

Dan. 4:28-37. 
2 Kin. 25: 27-30; 
Jer. 52:31-34. 
Dan. 7. 
Dan. 5. 
Dan. 8. 
Dan. 9 ; 
Psa. 102. 
Dan. 6. 



523 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD v. — CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



B. C. 

536. 



Jernsaleip and 
Babylon. 



EVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



Decree of Cyrus for the rebuilding of the tem- 
ple, and restoration of the Jews to their own 
country, 



:::.::::.:::. 1 



Psalms conjectured to have been written during 
the distresses and afflictions of the church, 
chiefly in the Babylonish captivity, 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



2Chr. 36:22, 23; 

Ezra 1:1-4; 

Psa. 126, 85. 

Psa. 10, 13-15, 
25-27, 36, 37, 
49, 50, 53, 67, 
77, 80, 89, 92, 
93, 123, 130, 
137. 



IV. FROM THE DECREE OF CYRUS, B. C. 536, TO THE FINAL PROPHECY OF 
THE OLD TESTAMENT, B. C. 397, ABOUT 139 YEARS. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



536, Jerusalem. 

535, Jerusalem. 

534. 

Babylon. 

520, Jerusalem. 



519 



516. 



EATIXT OR NAREATI^TE 



FROM THE RETURN OF THE JEWS TO THE 
DEDICATION OF THE SECOND TEMPLE. 



Return of the Jews. Cyrus restores the 
of the temple. An altar set up, 



Foundation of the second temple, under the 
direction of Zerubbabel, 

Tlie building of the temple interrupted by the 
Samaritans, - - — 

The last vision of Daniel, - - 



Building of the temple resumed. Haggai and 
Zechariah incite the people to the work, and ] 
exhort them to repentance, 



The building of the temple again interrupted, 
and resumed, - - 



Dedication of the second temple,- 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Ezra 1:5-11; 2; 

3:1-7; 
Psa. 87, 107, 

111-114, 116, 

117, 125, 127, 

128, 134. 
Ezra 3: 8-13; 
Psa. 84, 66. 
Ezra 4: 1-5, 24; 
Psa. 129. 
Dan. 10-12. 
Ezra 4: 24; 5:1; 
Hag. 1:1-11; 
Ezra 5:2; 
Hag. 1 : 12-15 ; 

2:1-9; 
Zech. 1:1-6; 
Hag. 2:10-23; 
Zech. 1:7-21; 

2; 6; 2:5. 
Ezra 5:3-17; 

6:1-13; 
Psa. 138 ; 
Zech. 7, 8. 
Ezra 6:14-22; 
Psa. 48, 81, 146- 

150. 



524 



CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 

PERIOD Y. — CONTINUED. 



DATE AND PLACE. 



486. 
464. 

462, Susa. 

458. 

457. 

Jerusalem. 



Susa. 
453, 452. 



445, Susa. 
Jerusalem. 



Susa. 
Jerusalem. 

433. 

428. 
397. 



EVENT OR NARRATITE. 



PROM THE OPPOSITION TO THE JEWS IN 
THE REIGN OF XERXES TO THE DEATH 
OF HAMAN. 



BIBLE REFERENCE. 



Ezra 4:7-23. 

Esth. 1. 
Ezra 7:2-14. 
Esth. 2:1-20. 



Opposition in the reign of Xerxes, 

Opposition in the reign of Artaxerxes Longima- 
nus, - 

Artaxerxes, or Ahasuerus, divorces Vashti his 
queen,- - - 

Ezra commissioned to visit Jerusalem, 

Artaxerxes makes Esther queen, 

Ezra comes to Jerusalem ; causes the people to 

put away their heathen wives, Ez. 8 10, 18-44. 

Concluding prophecies of Zechariah, [ Zech. 9-14. 

Mordecai discovers the conspiracy against Ahasu- \ 

erus, - Esth. 2:21-28. 

Plot of Haman to destroy the Jews, and its de- 
feat. The feast of Purim, 



Ezra 4:6. 



FROM THE FIRST COMMISSION OF NEHE- 
MIAH TO THE CLOSING OF THE OLD TES- 
TAMENT CANON. 

Nehemiah receives a commission from Artaxerxes 
to visit Jerusalem, and rebuild the wall, 

Nehemiah arrives at Jerusalem. Sanballat| 
strives to hinder the w^ork ; the builders r 
work under arms, - ) 

Nehemiah relieves the Jews oppressed by usury ; 
his own generosity, 

The wall completed by the Jews, and dedi- j 
Gated, - I 

Nehemiah returns to Persia, 

r 

Second commission of Nehemiah, and reforma- 
tion, - - 

I 
Malachi prophesies against the corruptions intro- 
duced during the second absence of Nehemiah, 

Further reformation by Nehemiah, 

Final prophecy of the Old Testament, — 

Detached genealogies, etc. , inserted probably at 
the completion of the canon, - 



Esth. 3-10. 



Neh. 1; 2:1-8. 

Neh. 2:9-20; 
3; 4. 



Neh. 
Neh. 
43. 
Neh. 
Neh. 



12:27- 



7:1-4. 
7 : 6-73 ; 

8 ; 9 ; 10 ; 11 ; 

12:1-9, 44- 

47; 13:1-3; 
Psa. 1, 119. 
Mai. 1, 2, 3 : 1- 

15. 
Neh. 13:4-31. 
Mai. 3: 16-18; 4. 
1 Chr. 1-9 ; 
Neh. 12:10-26. 



525 



UHRONOLOUIUAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



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527 



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CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE. 



PERIOD YII, 

FROM THE BIRTH OF JESUS CHRIST TO THE END OF THE FIRST 

CENTURY. 



DATE AXD PL.\CE. 



FVENT OR NARRATIVE. 



A. D. 
1. 

12. 

18. 
26. 
29. 
30. 
83. 
34. 
35. 
36. 
37. 
38. 
41. 
42. 
44. 

64. 
63. 
65. 
67. 



68. 

69. 
70. 



71. 

79. 

81. 
95. 

96. 
96. 
97. 

98. 
100. 



BIBLE REFERENCE. • 



Nativity of Jesus Christ, (four years before the 

common era,) - 

Jesus visits Jerusalem, • 

Augustus CiBsar followed by Tiberius. 

Pilate sent from Rome as governor of Judea, 

John the Baptist begins his ministry, 

Jesus baptized bj^ John, - ■ 

Jesus Christ was crucified, and rose from the dead 

Ananias and Sapphira struck dead, 

Stephen stoned, and the church persecuted, 

Saul converted, 

Tiberius dies, and is follow^ed by Caligula. 

Conversion of the Gentiles, 

Caius Caligula succeeded by Claudius. 

Herod Agrippa made king of Judea. 

James beheaded by Herod ; Peter liberated by an 
angel, - - 

Claudius Caesar followed by Nero, 

Paul sent a prisoner to Rome, 

The Jewish war begins. 

The Roman general raises the siege of Jerusalem, 
by which an opportunity is afforded for the 
Christians to retire to Pella beyond Jordan, as 
admonished by Christ, 

Paul suffers martyrdom at Rome by order of 
Nero, - — 

Vespasian made emperor by his army. 

Jerusalem besieged and taken by Titus Vespa- 
sian, according to the predictions of Christ ; 
when 1,100,000 Jews perished, by famine, 
sword, fire, and crucifixion ; besides 97,000 
who were sold as slaves, and vast multitudes 
who perished in other parts of Judea, 

Jerusalem and its temple razed to their founda- 
tions, 

Vespasian dies, and is succeeded by Titus. Her- 
culaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an erup- 
tion of Vesuvius. 

Titus dies, and is succeeded by Domitian. 

John banished to the isle of Patmos, by Domi- 
tian, - 

John writes the Revelation. 

Domitian succeeded by Nerva. 

John liberated from exile. New Testament 
canon closed. 

Nerva dies, and is succeeded by Trajan. 

John, the last surviving apostle, dies, about one 
hundred years old. 



Luke 2:1-16. 
Luke 2:41-52. 

Luke 3:1. 
Matt. 3:1. 
Matt. 3:1. 
Matt. 27 ; 28. 
Acts 5. 
Acts 6 ; 7. 
Acts 9; 13:9. 

Acts 10. 

Acts 12:1-19. 

Acts 26; 28. 

Matt. 24:16-20. 
2 Tim. 4:6, 7. 



Luke 19:41-44. 
Matt. 24:2. 



Rev. 1:9. 



23 



r.-:y 



TABULAR VIEW OF THE PROPHETS. 

TABULAR VIEW OF THE PROPHETS, 

SHOWING THE PERIODS DURING WHICH IT IS SUPPOSED THEIR 
PROPHECIES WERE DELIVERED. 



I KINGS OF 

JUDAH 
j CROWXED. 
1 

B.C. 

' Sin 


5 


i 


11 


J 

1 


6 
<1 


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w 
tsi 


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KIXGS OF 

ISRAEL 
CROW.XED. 


Amaziah, 83C 


1 1 










1 














.Jeroboam II., '25 


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I 1 










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1 














Uzziah, 81C 








1 






















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IMenahem, 772 1 


760 

Jotham, 75; 


- — 


























Pekahiah, 761 


— - 


-- 


— 


-- 


















Pekah, 759 


Ahaz, 742 










i 










730 

i Hezekiah, 7J(i 




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Jehoahaz, Gil. 
610 


1 




Jehoiakim, 610 - 


















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Jeconiah, 599 




1 


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370 




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540 

Zerubbabel, 536 





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397 



530 



CHRONOLOaiUAL TABLE. 





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TABLES 



WEIGHTS, MEASURES, ANJ) MONEY, MENTIONED 
IN THE BIBLE. 



1. JEWISH WEIGHTS, REDUCED TO ENGLISH TROY WEIGHTS. 

lbs. oz. pen. gr. 

The gerah, one twentieth of a shekel, 12 

Bekah, half a shekel, - 5 

The shekel, - 10 

The maneh, 60 shekels, 2 6 

The talent, 50 manehs, or 3,000 shekels, 125 



2. SCRIPTURE MEASURES OF LENGTH, REDUCED TO ENGLISH 

MEASURE. 

Eng. ft. Inches. 

A digit, - 0.912 

4 = Apalm, 3.648 

12= 3 = Aspan, - - 10.944 

24= 6= 2=Acnibit, --- 1 9.888 

96= 24= 8= 4 = Afathom, 7 3.552 

144= 36= 12= 6 = 1.5 = Ezekiersreed, 10 11.328 

192= 48= 16= 8= 2= 1.3 = An Arabian pole, 14 7.104 

1920 = 480 = 160 = 80 = 20 = 13.3 = 10 = A measurmg line, ---145 11.04 



S. THE LONG SCRIPTURE MEASURES. 

Eng. miles. Paces. Feet. 

Acubit, --- 1.824 

400 = A stadium, or furlong, - - - 145 4.6 

2000 = 5 =- A sabbath-day's journey, 729 3 

4000= 10= 2 = An eastern mile, - 1 403 1 

12000= 30= 6= 8 = Aparasang, - 4 153 3 

96000 = 240 = 48 = 24 = 8 = A day's journey, 33 172 4 

NoflG. — 5 feet = 1 pace ; 1 ,056 pace.s = 1 mile. 
532 



WEIUHTB AND MEASURES. 

4. SCRIPTURE MEASURES OF CAPACITY FOR LIQUIDS, REDUCED 
TO ENGLISH WINE MEASURE. 

Gal. pints. 

A caph, 0.625 

1.3=Alog, - - 0.833 

5.3= 4 = A cab, 3.333 

16 = 12= 3=Ahm, - -- 1 2 

32 = 24= 6= 2 = Aseali, - 2 4 

96 = 72= 18= 6= 3 = A bath, ephah, or firkin, 7 4.50 

960 = 720 = 180 = 60 = 30 = 10 = A kor, chores, or homer, -75 5.25 



5. SCRIPTURE MEASURES OF CAPACITY FOR THINGS DRY, 
REDUCED TO ENGLISH CORN MEASURE. 

Bu. Pks. Gal. Pints. 

Agachal, - -- - --- 0.141 

20 = Acab, - --- 2.833 

36= 1.8 =^ An omer, or gomer, - 5.1 

120= 6 = 3.3 = Aseah, 10 1 

360= 18 = 10 = 3 = Anephah, --- 3 3 

1800= 90 = 50 =15= 6=Aletech, -4 1 

3600 = 180 =100 = 30 = 10 = 2 = A homer, or kor, 8 1 



6. JEWISH MONEY, REDUCED TO THE ENGLISH AND AMERICAN 

STANDARDS. 

£, s. d. $ cts. 

Agcrah, ----- 1.3687 02.5 

10 = Abekah,-''- 1 1.6875 25.09 

20= 2 = Ashekel, 2 3.375 50.187 

1200= 120= 50 = Amaneh, ormmaHebr., 5 14 0.75 25 09.35 

60000 = 6000 = 3000 = 60 = A talent, - 342 3 9 1505 62. 5 

A solidus aureus, or sextiila, was worth 12 0.5 2 64.09 

A siclus aureus, or gold shekel, was worth 116 6 8 03 

A talent of gold was worth 5475 24309 00 

In the preceding table, silver is valued at 5s. and gold at £4 per ounce. 



7. ROMAN MONEY, MENTIONED IN THE NEW TESTAMENT, RE- 
DUCED TO THE ENGLISH AND AMERICAN STANDARDS. 

£ s. d. far. $ cts. 

Amite, - - 0.75 00.343 

A farthing, about 1.50 00.687 

A penny,* or denarius, - 7 2 13.75 

A pound, or mina, 3 2 6 13 75 

533 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



ALPHABETICAL ODEX 



TOPICS TO BE NOTICED IN READING THE BIBLE. 



The inspired writings are infinitely ricli in truth, and each verse is so con- 
nected with the rest that an intelligent inquirer may easily extend his investiga- 
tions from one passage over the whole of Scripture. Without attempting to 
exhaust topics of inquiry, we mention the following. The letters may be prefixed 
to each verse, or not, according to the taste of the reader. 



A. What analogies between sensible and 
spiritual things may be here traced ? 

a. What prophecy is here accomplished? 
where found ? when written ? what 
rule of interpretation is illustrat- 
ed? 

i?. What blessing is here sought or ac- 
knowledged, or promised, and 
why ? 

C. What custom is here referred to ? 

c. What trait of character is here given ? 
good or bad ? belonging to our nat- 
ural or our renewed state ? what 
advantages are connected Avith it ? 

D. What doctrine is here taught? how 

illustrated? what its practical in- 
fluence ? 

d. What difficulty is here found in his- 

tory or in doctrine ? how explain- 
ed? 
^. What evangelical or other experience is 
here recorded ? 

e. What example is here placed before 

us? of sin or of holiness? les- 
sons? 

F. What facts are here related? what 

doctrine or duty do they illustrate ? 
do you commend or blame them, 
and why? 
/. What is here forbidden ? in thought, 
word, or deed ? 

G. What is the geographical position of 

this country, or place? and what 
its history? 
n. What facts of natural history or of 
general history are here referred to 
or illustrated ? 

/. What institution or ordinance is here 
mentioned ? on whom binding ? 
what its design? what its connec- 
tion with other institutions? 

i. What instructions may be gathered 



from this fact, or parable, or mir- 
acle? 

K. What I'noiclcdge of human nature, or 
want of knowledge, is here dis- 
played ? 

L. What Levitical institute is here men- 
tioned? why appointed? 

31. What miracle is here recorded? by 
whom wrought ? in whose name ? 
what were its residts ? what is 
hereby taught ? 

N. W^hat is worthy of notice in" this 
name ? 

0. What obligation or duty is here en- 
forced ? how ? and from what mo- 
tives ? 

P. What promise is here given? to 
whom ? 

p. What is the meaning of the parable 
here given? what truth as to God, 
Christ, man, "the kingdom," is 
taught ? 

Q. What important question is here pro- 
. posed? what is the true answer? 

R. What prophecy is here recorded ? is it 
fulfilled? how? when? 

S. What sin is here exposed ? 

s. What sect is here introduced? men- 
tion its tenets. 

T. What type is here traced ? 

t. What threatening ? when inflicted ? 

U. What wijustifiable action of a good 
man? what unusual excellence in 
one not pious? 

W. What u-oe is here denounced ; what 
learning given ? against whom, and 
why ? 

X. What is here taught of the work, 
character, person of Christ ? 

X. What sublimity of thought or of lan- 
guage is here ? what inference fol- 
lows? 



.534 



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